会话含义——精选推荐
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会话含义
会话含义彭飞
语⽤学定义:Pragmatics is the systematic study of meaning by virtue of, or dependent on, the use of language. The central topics ofinquiry of pragmatics include implicature, presupposition, speech acts, and deixis.
1 格赖斯的会话含义理论
格赖斯⾮⾃然意义理论(a theory of meaning nn)(nn-non natural)S meaning nn p by “uttering” U to A if and only S intends:当且仅当
(ⅰ)说话⼈S意图听话⼈A想到p,
(ⅱ)说话⼈S意图听话⼈A识别其意图(ⅰ),
(ⅲ)说话⼈S意图听话⼈A对其意图(ⅰ)的识别是听话⼈A想到p的⾸要原因,
此时就认为“说话⼈S通过对听话⼈A发出话语U来表达⼀种⾮⾃然意义p”。“⾮⾃然意义”也可叫做“说话⼈意义”(speaker meaning),实际上就是表达和意识意图(交际效果),也就是我们说的语⽤意义。1.1 合作原则和会话准则
(1)合作原则(cooperative principle):在参与交谈时,要根据场合和需求,使你说的话符合你所参与的交谈的公认⽬的或⽅向。(2)会话准则(the maxins of conversation):
①质的准则:话语真实。(ⅰ)不说错误的话(ⅱ)不说缺乏证据的话
②量的准则:(ⅰ)不要⽐交谈需要说的少(ⅱ)不要⽐交谈需要说的多
③相关准则:所说的话要具有相关性。
④⽅式准则:清晰明⽩地表达。(ⅰ)避免晦涩(ⅱ)避免歧义(ⅲ)简洁(ⅳ)有条理
1.2 说话者和会话准则的关系
(1)说话者遵守会话准则
(2)说话者违背会话准则:如说谎
(3)说话者选择不遵守某⼀准则(opt out of a maxim):“冲突”状况,遵循⼀条违背另⼀条
(4)说话者故意违反或利⽤⼀条准则(flout or exploit a maxim)
1.3 Conversational implicature O和Conversational implicature F
(1)Conversational implicature O :直接遵守会话准则产⽣的会话含义。
①质:Tim在1989年发明了万维⽹。 +>
说话者相信Tim在1989年发明了万维⽹,并有⾜够的证据证明他说的
②量:John有六张信⽤卡。+> John最多有六张信⽤卡。
③相关:John:现在⼏点?Mary:博物馆还没开门。+> 现在的时间⾄少⽐博物馆开门要早。
④⽅式:John去麦当劳买了两个汉堡。+> John先去了麦当劳,然后买了两个汉堡。
(2)Conversational implicature F :说话者故意违背会话准则产⽣的会话含义。
①质:乔姆斯基是⼀位伟⼤的社会语⾔学家。+> 乔姆斯基根本不是社会语⾔学家。②量:(ⅰ)War is war. +> (ⅱ)Terrible things always happen in war.that’s nature,and it’s no use lamenting
that particular tragedy.
③相关:John:Susan can be such a cow sometimes! Mary:Oh,waht a lovely day! +>
One shouldn’t speak ill of people behind their back.
④⽅式:a.John smiled. b.The corners of John’s lips turned slightly upward. +>
John did not exactly smile.
·两者产⽣会话含义的前提是都遵循合作原则。
1.4 ⼀般性会话含义和特殊性会话含义
⼆者的区别主要在于是否需要特殊的语境和条件获得会话含义(1)⼀般性会话含义:Mos t of John’s friends believe in marriage. +>
Not all of John’s friends believe in marriage.
(2)特殊性会话含义:John: Where’s Peter? Mary: The light in his office is on. +> Peter is in his office.1.5 会话含义的特征
(1)可取消性(defeasibility/cancellability):在某种语⾔或⾮语⾔情境下会话含义会消失。
出现以下不⼀致的情况会话含义会消失:
(ⅰ)语义内涵(semantic entailments)His wife is often complaining. +> His wife is not always complaining.
His wife is often , in fact always complaining.
(ⅱ)背景假设(background assumptions)John and Mary bought an apartment near the Louvre in Paris. +>
John and Mary bought an apartment near the Louvre in Paris together, not one each.
The Americans and the Russians tested an atom bomb in 1962. +>
The Americans and the Russians tested an atom bomb in 1962 together, not one each.
(ⅲ)语境(contexts)John:This CD is eight euros, and I haven’t got any money on me.Mary:Don’t worry,I’ve got eight euros. ~+>Mary has gotonly eight euros.
(ⅳ)优先会话含义(priority conversational implicatures)(2)不可分离性(non-detachability):会话含义依附于语义内容⽽⾮语⾔形式,因此,不可能通过
同义词的替换把会话含义从话语中分离出去。(⽅式准则例外)The film almost/nearly won/came close to winning an Oscar. +> The film did not win an Oscar. (3)可推导性(calculability):可根据合作原则和会话准则推导出会话含义。
(4)⾮规约性(non-conventionality):会话含义不属于字⾯意义,它建⽴在话语编码基础上,但它与句⼦或命题没有关系,与说话⼈和⾔语有关,话语命题的真假不影响会话含义。
(5)可明述性(reinforceability):会话含义可以清晰表达,没有太多冗余。The soup is warm +> The soup is not hot ⽐较:Tthe soup is warm, but not hot.
(6)普遍性(universality):会话含义具有普遍性,它并⾮任意的(arbitrary)。不同的语⾔,同样的
表达会产⽣同样的会话含义。2 规约含义
2.1 规约含义的内涵
规约含义与真值条件⽆关,不能演绎推导;其特征只与特殊的词汇项⽬或语⾔结构有关。
词汇项⽬举例如下:
(1)p therefore q +>> q follows pHe is Chinese;he therefore knows how to use chopsticks.
(2)p but q +>> p contrasts with qJohn is poor but he is honest.
(3)Even p +>> contrary to expectationEven his wife didn’t think that Joh n would win the by-election.
(4)p moreover q +>> q is in addition to pXiaoming can read German. Moreover, he can write poems in the language.
(5)p so q +>> p provides an explanation for qMary is taking Chinese cookery lessons. So her husband has bought her a wok..
这些词汇引发了规约含义,英语中还有:actually, also, anyway, barely, besides, however, manage to, on the other hand,only, still, though, too, yet
2.2 规约含义的特征(与会话含义⽐较)
(1)规约含义与会话含义的相同之处
①两者都与真值条件⽆关;
②两者都与“说话⼈”和“话语”有关,与“命题”和“句⼦”⽆关。
(2)规约含义与会话含义的不同之处
①规约含义不遵循合作原则和会话准则,只与特定词汇有关,是意义的任意部分,需特别习得;
会话含义遵循合作原则和会话准则,它们不是任意的。
②规约含义不能通过任何⾃然程序推导,它们是规定的(they must be stipulated);
会话含义是通过语⽤原则、上下⽂、背景假设推导出来的。
③规约含义不可取消;
会话含义可以取消。
④规约含义可分离,因为它们建⽴在具体的语⾔形式上;
会话含义不可分离(除了⽅式准则外),因为它们只与语义内容相关,与语⾔形式没有关系。
⑤规约含义不具有普遍性;
会话含义具有普遍性。3 总结