下载文档原格式
revision翻译术语Revision翻译术语，指的是对文本、文件、作品等进行修改和修订的过程。
下面是一些与revision相关的术语及其用法和中英文对照例句：1. Proofreading（校对）：检查文本中的拼写、语法、标点符号等错误，并进行修正。
- The proofreading stage is essential to ensure the accuracy of the final document.（校对阶段对于确保最终文档的准确性至关重要。
）2. Editing（编辑）：对文本进行修改，以提高其准确性、流畅性和可读性。
- The editor suggested several revisions to improve the clarity of the article.（编辑提出了几处修改意见，以提高文章的清晰度。
）3. Rewriting（重写）：对文本进行全面修改，以改变其结构、语言和风格。
- The author decided to rewrite the entire chapter to make it more engaging for the readers.（作者决定重写整个章节，使其更具吸引力，以吸引读者。
）4. Peer review（同行评审）：由专家或同行对文本进行审查和评估，以确保其质量和准确性。
- The research paper went through a rigorous peer review process before being published.（这篇研究论文在发表之前经过了严格的同行评审过程。
）5. Track changes（显示修改）：在文档中显示修改和修订，以便作者和编辑进行查看和审阅。
- The track changes feature in Microsoft Word allows multiple users to collaborate on a document and see all the revisions made.（Microsoft Word的“显示修订”功能允许多个用户共同编辑一个文档，并查看所有的修改。
互文的种类及典型诗句
互文（Intertextuality）是文学理论中的一个概念，指的是文本之间的相互关联和引用。
互文性表现为多种形式，常见的包括引用、模仿、回应、改写等。
以下是一些互文的种类及相应的典型诗句举例：
1.直接引用（Quotation）
文本直接引用另一文本的词句。
例如，在威廉·巴特勒·叶芝的诗句“那些美得不寻常的人们/他们进入了死亡的梦境”中，直接引用了威廉·莎士比亚《奥赛罗》中的一句话。
2.暗示（Allusion）
通过暗示引用其他作品或文化元素。
如杜甫的“会当凌绝顶，一览众山小”中暗示了道家的登高望远思想。
3.模仿（Imitation）
模仿某个作者的风格或特定文本的结构。
例如，约翰·济慈的《夜莺颂》在形式上模仿了莎士比亚的奏鸣诗。
4.改写（Rewriting）
对原有文本的重新编排和解读。
比如，艾略特在《荒原》中对但丁的《神曲》进行了现代化的改写。
5.借用（Borrowing）
从其他文本借用角色、情节或主题。
如博尔赫斯在其短篇小说中经常借用其他作品的角色或情节。
6.对话（Dialogue）
与另一文本进行对话或回应。
例如，惠特曼在《草叶集》中对拉尔夫·沃尔多·爱默生的文学观点进行了诗意的回应。
这些互文性的表现形式丰富了文学作品的内涵，使得作品之间形成了一种复杂的对话关系，丰富了读者的解读和理解。
通过互文性，作品不仅与自身的文化和历史背景对话，还与广阔的文学传统和其他作品产生了深入的交流。
rewrite用法什么是rewrite？在计算机编程领域，rewrite（重写）是指对已有的代码、规则或者配置进行修改或替换的过程。
通过重写，可以改变代码的行为、优化性能、修复错误或者添加新功能。
重写可以发生在不同层次，例如在应用程序层、服务器层、网络层等。
rewrite的应用领域1. URL重写URL重写是指将原始URL转换成另一种形式的过程。
这种转换通常发生在Web服务器或者应用程序中，通过修改URL的结构来实现更友好的URL形式或者实现重定向功能。
URL重写可以提高网站的可读性和搜索引擎优化（SEO），同时也能够改善用户体验。
例如，将这样的URL转换成，使得URL更加清晰明了。
2. 软件代码重构软件代码重构是指对现有代码进行修改和优化，以提高其可读性、可维护性和性能。
通过代码重构，可以使得软件更易于理解和扩展，并且减少潜在的错误。
常见的代码重构技术包括函数提取、变量内联、条件语句简化等。
通过使用rewrite技术，可以改善代码的结构和逻辑，使得代码更加清晰和高效。
3. 配置文件重写在服务器和网络环境中，配置文件用于定义系统的设置和行为。
通过重写配置文件，可以修改系统的默认行为，以满足特定需求。
配置文件重写通常涉及到修改键值对、添加或删除配置项等操作。
例如，在Nginx服务器中，可以使用rewrite指令来重写URL或者修改请求头。
4. 规则引擎重写规则引擎是指一种用于处理复杂业务逻辑的技术。
通过使用规则引擎，可以将业务规则从应用程序中分离出来，并以可配置的方式进行管理。
当业务规则发生变化时，不需要修改应用程序的代码，只需要修改规则引擎中的规则即可。
通过rewrite规则引擎，可以实现灵活的业务流程控制、动态调整系统行为等功能。
rewrite的工具和技术1. 正则表达式正则表达式是一种强大而灵活的文本匹配工具。
通过使用正则表达式，可以对字符串进行模式匹配、替换等操作。
在rewrite过程中，正则表达式常常被用于匹配特定URL、提取参数或者修改字符串。
翻译的文化之维: “翻译的政治”问题研究费小平(贵州大学外语系, 贵州贵阳610064)摘要: 本文认为“翻译的政治”的讨论能将翻译研究从传统的就事论事的语言桎梏中走出, 而步入不同文化碰撞、对话、交融的思考中, 对于促进“翻译研究”与文化研究的联姻, 实现全球化语境下的民族文化身份认同具有重要意义。
关键词: “改写”; 强权者的政治; 性别政治; “翻译研究”; 文化研究【中图分类号】H059 【文献标识码】A 【文章编号】1001 - 8913 (2004) 02 - 0133 - 04“翻译的政治” (the politics of translation) 是20世纪60 年代以来西方后现代语境下出现的一种问题意识(a sense of questioning) 。
孙歌认为, 它“首先来自本土知识精英权力乃至利益的分配关系, 来自知识精英与政治之间错综复杂的纠葛”[1 ] (前言) ,即福柯所关注的那种“微妙的、独特的隐藏于个别之下各种各样的痕迹”[1 ] (前言) 。
毋庸讳言, 这里的“政治”超越“管理活动”、“会议”、“主席”、“政客”之类的传统概念① , 进入了现代政治哲学的范畴, 是指权力关系(power relations) 及其相关的摆布谋略(strategies of manipulation) ②。
而“翻译的政治”当然就涉及跨语书写(translingual practice) 中的权力问题。
如果我们作一番追踪,“翻译的政治”这一命题至少可溯源至文艺复兴时期德国宗教领袖马丁·路德的《圣经》翻译, 因为据刘禾女士称,当时围绕着《圣经》翻译存在着多种复杂的政治利害关系———路德革命性地将《圣经》翻译成现代德语, 成为德国新教改革运动的基石, 但伴随着一种冲撞与交融之“痕迹”[ 2 ] (P61) 。
这一踪迹“播撒”至当代西方大量的文艺批评、文化批评的著作中。
而“翻译的政治”作为一个命题的正式提出应首先归功至欧洲学者沃纳·温特(Werner Winter) 之名下, 她于1961 年发表的《作为政治行为的翻译》(Translation as Political Action) 可视为最早论及“翻译的政治”的文章。
Unit 7Rewriting American HistoryFrances FitzGeraldTeaching Tips“Rewriting American History” is an exposition. Fitzgerald is making an argument, so it is important for the students to find out 1) what the author’s arguments are; 2) on what evidence the author bases her arguments; 3) how the author makes these arguments. After understanding the author’s arguments, the students can then evaluate these arguments: 1) are they convincing? and 2) how can I connect these arguments to what I already know about the subject matter? The essay is taken from FitzGerald’s journal articles/book America Revised: History Schoolbooks in the Twentieth Century, so draw your students’ attention to techniques of comparison and contrast and the ways in which FitzGerald assesses current (i.e. 1970s)history textbooks. As FitzGerald is writing about the rewriting of American history, the text contains quite a number of references to U.S. history. Give the students just enough information to enable them to understand the text, but ask them to focus more on how FitzGerald makes her argument.Here are a few suggestions for handling the essay. Ask your students to keep these in mind while scanning the essay: 1) state what the essay is about in one or two sentences; 2) enumerate its major parts in their order and relation and outline these parts; and 3) define the problem or problems the author is trying to solve. In class, you can ask your students to 1) identify and interpret the author’s key words, for example, “rewriting”, “change”, “problems”, “patchwork”, “diversity”, etc.; 2) grasp the author’s leading propositions by dealing with her most important sentences; 3) know the author’s arguments, by constructing them out of sequences of sentences; and 4) determine which of the problems she presents the author has solved, and which she has not. At the end of the week, you can ask your students to assess FitzGerald’s writing and present good reasons for any critical judgments they make.Structure of the TextPart I Introduction(1) It is hard to imagine history textbooks as being subject to change.Part II American History Schoolbooks RewrittenSection I: changing history textbooks(2-4 )Examples of changes that have taken place(5) It is not surprising that textbooks reflect changing scholarly research, but the changes remain shocking.Section II: three types of changes that have taken place(6-9) political change: patchwork replacing unity, problems replacing progress(10-11) pedagogical change(12-13) physical changePart III Conclusion(14-15) There is no perfect objectivity, but the problem with constantly changing school history textbooks is that each generation of children reads only its own generation’s textbooks and therefore learns only one particular and transient version of America, which remains their version of American history forever.Outline and Topic Sentences:Part IPara. 1Topic sentence: Those of us who grew up in the fifties believed in the permanence of our American-history textbooks.Transitional sentence: But now the textbook histories have changed, some of them to such an extent that an adult would find them unrecognizable.Part IIPara. 2Topic sentence: One current junior-high-school American history begins with a story about a Negro cowboy called George McJunkin.Example: George McJunkin, Negro cowboy, discovery of remains of an Indian civilization in 1925 →civilizations before European explorersPara. 3Topic sentence: Another history text—this one for the fifth grade—begins with the story of how Henry B. Gonzalez, who is a member of Congress from Texas, learned about his own nationality. Example: Henry B. Gonzalez, question of nationality: birthright or cultural heritage, melting pot vs. salad bowlPara. 4Topic sentence: Poor Columbus! He is a minor character now, a walk-on in the middle of American history.Example: Columbus, prominence in U.S. history fading with time and revision, along with other self-promoting figures in U.S. history.Para. 5Topic sentence: Of course, when one thinks about it, it is hardly surprising that modern scholarship and modern perspectives have found their way into children’s books. Yet the changes remain shocking.Para. 6Topic sentence: The history texts now hint at a certain level of unpleasantness in American history. Examples: the last “wild” Indian captured and displayed, child coal miners of Pennsylvania, cruelty in the American-Filipino War, cruelty of patriots against royalists in the American Revolution, and Japanese internment.Para. 7Topic sentence: Ideologically speaking, the histories of the fifties were implacable, seamless.Para. 8Topic sentence: But now the texts have changed, and with them the country that American children are growing up into.A radical way of reconceptualizing past and future:Society: uniform → a patchwork of wealth, ages, gender, and racesSmooth-running system → a rattletrap affairPast future relationship: progress → changeThe present: a haven of scientific advances → a tangle of problemso Examples: problems of consumer society; problems of the poor and aged who depend on social security.o Science and technology still deemed to be the magic bullet for social problems Para. 9Transitional sentence: Even more surprising than the emergence of problems is the discovery that the great unity of the texts has broken.Topic sentence: Whereas in the fifties all texts represented the same political view, current texts follow no pattern of orthodoxy.Examples:Portrayal of civil rights: as a series of actions taken by a wise, paternal government vs. the involvement of social upheavalPortrayal of the Cold War: having ended vs. continuingPara. 10Topic sentence: The political diversity in the books is matched by a diversity of pedagogical approach. Types:Traditional narrative historiesFocusing on particular topics with “discovery” or “inquiry” texts and chapters like case studies (with background information, explanatory notes and questions) (questions are at the heart of the matter; they force students to think much as historians think, to define the point of view of the speaker, analyze the ideas presented, question the relationship between events, and so on.)o Example: Washington, Jefferson, and John Adams on the question of foreign alliancesPara. 11Topic sentence: What is common to the current texts—and makes all of them different from those of the fifties—is their engagement with the social sciences.Transitional sentence: In matters of pedagogy, as in matters of politics, there are not two sharply differentiated categories of books; rather, there is a spectrum.Political and pedagogical spectrum:o politically, from moderate left to moderate right;o pedagogically, from the traditional history sermon, through a middle ground of narrative texts with inquiry-style questions and of inquiry texts with long stretches ofnarrative, to the most rigorous of case-study booksEngagement with the social scienceso“Concepts” as foundation stones for various elementary-school social-studies series ▪Example: the 1970 Harcourt Brace Jovanovich series, “a horizontal base or ordering of conceptual schemes” to match its “vertical arm of behavioralthemes,” from easy questions to hardo History textbooks almost always include discussions of “role,” “status,” and “culture;” some include debates between eminent social scientists, essays oneconomics or sociology, or pictures and short biographies of social scientists of bothsexes and of diverse racesPara. 12Topic sentence: Quite as striking as these political and pedagogical alterations is the change in the physical appearance of the texts.Comparison and ContrastThe 1950s Current (1970s)Overall Showing some effort in thematter of design: they hadmaps, charts, cartoons,photography, and an occasionalfour-color picture to break upthe columns of print;Looking as naïve as Sovietfashion magazines beside thecurrent texts Paragons of sophisticated modern designPrint Heavy and far too black, thecolors muddyPhotographs and illustrations Photographs: conventional newsshots;Illustrations: Socialist-realist-Far greater space given to illustrations;The pictures far outweighingstyle drawings or incredibly vulgar made-for-children paintings of patriotic events the text in importance in certain “slow-learner” books;The illustrations having a much greater historical value: cartoons, photographs, and paintings drawn from the periods being treatedPara. 13Topic sentence: The use of all this art and high-quality design contains some irony.Example of how art transcends the subject matter: child laborers, urban slum apartments, the Triangle shirtwaist-factory fire, junk yards, nuclear testingParagraph summary: Whereas in the nineteenth-fifties the texts were childish in the sense that they were naïve and clumsy, they are now childish in the sense that they are polymorphous-perverse. American history is not dull any longer; it is a sensuous experience.Part IIIPara. 14Topic sentence: The surprise that adults feel in seeing the changes in history texts must come from the lingering hope that there is somewhere out there, an objective truth.Question: why is it disturbing to see the changes in history textbooks?Paragraph summary: The texts, with their impersonal voices, encourage this hope that there is an objective truth, and therefore it is particularly disturbing to see how they change, and how fast. Para. 15Topic sentence: In history, the system is reasonable—except that each generation of children reads only one generation of schoolbooks. The transient history is those children’s history forever—their particular version of America.Detailed Analysis of the Text1.Those of us who grew up in the fifties believed in the permanence of our American-history textbooks. (Para. 1)This is the topic sentence of Para. 1. FitzGerald starts her article by talking about how people generally believed that history textbooks would never change. She presents a few reasons why American history textbooks of that era gave the impression that they would never change: they were heavy, solemn, authoritative, imperturbable, and distant. The last sentence of the paragraph is a transitional sentence leading to a discussion of how history textbooks in the 1970s differ from those a generation earlier.2.To us as children, those texts were the truth of things: they were American history.(Para. 1)Translation: 对于儿时的我们来说，历史书就代表了事实真相，因为它们是美国历史。
高英rewriting american history课后题答案1、______ visitors came to take photos of Hongyandong during the holiday. [单选题] *A. ThousandB. Thousand ofC. ThousandsD. Thousands of(正确答案)2、44．—Hi, Lucy. You ________ very beautiful in the new dress today.—Thank you very much. [单选题] *A．look(正确答案)B．watchC．look atD．see3、—Where are you going, Tom? —To Bill's workshop. The engine of my car needs _____. [单选题] *A. repairing(正确答案)B. repairedC. repairD. to repair4、I knocked on the door but _______ answered. [单选题] *A. somebodyB. anybodyC. nobody(正确答案)D. everybody5、For more information, please _______ us as soon as possible. [单选题] *A. confidentB. confidenceC. contact(正确答案)D. concert6、I like this house with a beautiful garden in front, but I don't have enough money to buy _____. [单选题] *A. it(正确答案)B. oneC. thisD. that7、A lot of students in our school were born _______ March, 1 [单选题] *A. in(正确答案)B. atC. onD. since8、( ) No matter _____ hard it may be, I will carry it out. [单选题] *A whatB whateverC how(正确答案)D however9、His new appointment takes（）from the beginning of next month. [单选题] *A. placeB. effect(正确答案)C. postD. office10、We will _______ Mary this Sunday. [单选题] *A. call on(正确答案)B. go onC. keep onD. carry on11、The language school started a new（）to help young learners with reading and writing. [单选题] *A. course(正确答案)B. designC. eventD. progress12、I like booking tickets online，because it is _______. [单选题] *A. boringB. confidentC. convenient(正确答案)D. expensive13、Tom will _______ me a gift from Japan. [单选题] *A. takeB. getC. carryD. bring(正确答案)14、How lovely a day,（）? [单选题] *A. doesn't itB. isn't it(正确答案)C.shouldn't itD.hasn't it15、( ) _____ New York _____ London have traffic problems. [单选题] *A. All…andB. Neither….norC. Both…and(正确答案)D. Either…or16、_______ win the competition, he practiced a lot. [单选题] *A. BecauseB. In order to(正确答案)C. Thanks toD. In addition to17、Mr. Brown ______ the football match next week.（）[单选题] *A. is seeingB. seesC. sawD. is going to see(正确答案)18、_________ along the old Silk Road is an interesting and rewarding experience. [单选题]*A. TravelB. Traveling(正确答案)C. Having traveledD. Traveled19、53．On your way home, you can buy some fruit, meat, vegetables and ________. [单选题] * A．something else(正确答案)B．else somethingC．everything elseD．else everything20、My sister gave me a _______ at my birthday party. [单选题] *A. parentB. peaceC. patientD. present(正确答案)21、---Excuse me sir, where is Room 301?---Just a minute. I’ll have Bob ____you to your room. [单选题] *A. show(正确答案)B. showsC. to showD. showing22、Sam is going to have the party ______ Saturday evening. （）[单选题] *A. inB. on(正确答案)C. atD. to23、The man called his professor for help because he couldn’t solve the problem by _______. [单选题] *A. herselfB. himself(正确答案)C. yourselfD. themselves24、The travelers arrived _______ Xi’an _______ a rainy day. [单选题] *A. at; inB. at; onC. in; inD. in; on(正确答案)25、She passed me in the street, but took no（）of me. [单选题] *Attention (正确答案)B. watchC. careD. notice26、—It’s too noisy outside. I can’t fall asleep.—I can’t, either. We have to ______ new ways to solve the problem.（）[单选题] *A. come up with(正确答案)B. get on withC. make up withD. catch up with27、David ______ at home when I called at seven o’clock yesterday evening. （）[单选题] *A. didn’tB. doesn’tC. wasn’t(正确答案)D. isn’t28、He held his（）when the results were read out. [单选题] *A. breath(正确答案)B. voiceC. soundD. thought29、95．-Dad, can we walk? ? ? ? ? ? ?the road now?-No,we? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? . We have to wait until the light turns green. [单选题] *A．across, needn’tB．across, mustn’t(正确答案)C．though, can’tD．through, mustn't30、( ) The Great Wall was listed by the UNESCO as ___ World Heritage Site. [单选题]*A. a(正确答案)B. theC.\D.an。
Unit3 How do you get to school?SectionB (2a—2c)Learning objectives1. Students can remember some new words and structures in this passage and understand the passage.2. Students can use the target language to communicate in our daily life and have a clear mind-map about this passage.3. Through learning, lead students to love school, cherish their life and study hard. Key points and difficult points1) Key points: New vocabularies and some sentence patterns: village、bridge、boat 、ropeway、afraid、cross、leave、come true、between… and… It’s easy to… He is like a father to me. There is no bridge…2) Difficult points: Understand the passage and be able to form a clear mind-map of the whole passage.Teaching procedures:Step1 Warm up and lead-in1. Let’s chant2. Have a free talk: How do you go to school? How do they go to school?Step2. Pre-reading:Look at the picture and the title. Predict what the passage is about.Step3 While-reading1.Fast reading:Task 1：Read the passage quickly and answer the question:How do the students in the village go to school?_____________________________________________________________________ 2. Careful reading仔细阅读Read Para.1, finish the following tasks:Task 2：Translate the sentenceFor many students, it’s easy to get to school._____________________________________________________________________ Task 3：Answer the questionWhy do they go to school like this?_____________________________________________________________________ Read Para.2 and 3, finish the following tasksTask 4：True or false.1. Liangliang is 11 years old.2. Many of the students and villagers leave the village.Task 5：Answer the questions1. Does the boy like his school? Why?_____________________________________________________________________ 2. What’s the villagers’ dream? Do you think their dream can come true?_____________________________________________________________________3.Discussion(讨论)How can their dream come true?What can we do?What can they do?Their dream can come true if(如果) people around the world(世界各地的人们)help them.By discussing the answers of the questions, it can improve their ability of cooperation.4. Read the passage again. Complete the sentences with the words from the passage.1) For the students in the village, it is ________ to get to the school.2) They have to cross a very _____ river between their school and the village.3) They cannot go by boat because the river runs too _________.4) It is not easy to cross the river on a ropeway, but the boy is not _______.5) The students and villagers want to have a bridge. Can their dream come _____? 5. ListeningListen and repeat, try to imitate the pronunciation and intonation.Step4.Post-reading:Retell the whole passage according to the mind-map.For many students-----It’s easy to get to schoola big river between…difficult no bridge so……For the students inone small village the river runs quicklyone 11-year-old boyLiangliangis is not afraidloves schoolDream------have a bridge-----come trueRewritingComplete the passage without looking at your own books.Life is precious(宝贵的). We should cherish our good life now.（珍惜现有的生活）Step7.Homework1. For all: Finish the exercise and preview 3a and 3b.2. Optional: Write a letter to the village students and tell them the way you get to school and what you want to do for them.Unit 3 How do you get to school?学情分析Section B (2a-2c)七年级下册教材内容，较七年级上册内容比，英语知识点深入，而且我们这里的学生地处比较偏远的农村地区，各种条件相对比较落后。
revision翻译术语Revision（修订/复习）是指对一篇文章、文档或其他形式的作品进行修改和改进的过程。
它可以包括对内容、结构、语法、拼写等方面的检查和修正。
以下是一些与revision相关的术语及其用法和中英文对照例句。
1. Proofreading（校对）：检查文档中的拼写、语法和标点错误，并进行修正。
- Could you please proofread my essay before I submit it?（在我提交之前，你能帮我校对一下我的文章吗？）2. Editing（编辑）：对文档的结构、内容和语言进行修改和改进，以提高其可读性和准确性。
- The editor suggested some changes to improve the flow of the article.（编辑建议对文章进行一些修改，以改善其连贯性。
）3. Rewriting（重写）：对文档进行彻底的修改和改写，以改善其结构、风格和内容。
- The writer had to rewrite the entire chapter to make it more engaging for the readers.（作者不得不重写整章内容，以使其更吸引读者。
）4. Peer review（同行评审）：通过同行的审查和意见反馈，对文章或研究进行评估和改进。
- The research paper went through a rigorous peer review process before it was accepted for publication.（这篇研究论文在被接受发表之前经过了严格的同行评审过程。
）5. Track changes（修订痕迹）：在文档中显示出进行的修改和改动，以便作者或编辑能够清楚地看到每一处变动。
- The editor used the "track changes" feature in Microsoft Word to provide feedback on the document.（编辑使用了Microsoft Word中的"修订痕迹"功能，对文档进行反馈。
P241RewritingThe theory of rewriting proposed by AndréLefevere (1945-96) draws on systemic/ descriptive approaches and treats translation as a discursive activity embedded within a system of literary conventions and a network of institutions and social agents that condition textual production (see POLYSYSTEM; DESCRIPTIVE VS. COMMITTED APPROACHES). Translating, according to Lefevere, is one of several types of practice that result in partial representations of reality. These forms of rewriting including editing, reviewing and anthologizing- with translation being a particularly effective form of rewriting that has been instrumental throughout the ages in the circulation of nobel ideas and new literary trends. Rewriting and refraction (the latter a term used in Lefevere‟s earlier work) refer to the projection of a perspectival image of a literary work (novel, play, poem) (Lefevere 1982/2000: 234-5, 1992a: 10). Lefevere nevertheless questions the concept of originality (see DECONSTRUCTION), arguing that the notion of authorial genius and the idea that there can ben access to an author‟s intention stem from the poetics of Romanticism and are untenable given that no …original‟ is sacred and that all …originals‟ draw on prior sources (1982/2000: 234). As Hermans (1999: 124) puts it, the picture Lefevere draws …does not quite amount to a postmodern hall of mirrors and simulacra without a trace of any “originals”, but it certainly highlights both the quantitative and the qualitative significance of these “refractions” for the perception and transmission of cultural goods‟.Rewriting is subject to certain …intra-systemic‟constraints:language, the universe of discourse and poetics; it is also subject to the influence of regulatory forces, namely, the professionals within the literary system, and patronage operating from outside system. Both types of constraint operate as …control factors‟in Lefevere‟s model. Under language, Lefevere discusses differences between the source and target language and linguistic SHIFTS of various kinds that are dictated, for example, by the dominant aesthetic criteria and IDEOLOGY of the time (Lefevere 1992a: 103-9). Universe of discourse refers to …the knowledge, the learning, but also the objects and the customs of a certain time, to which writers are free to allude in their work‟ (Lefevere 1985: 233), in other words, to …cultural scripts‟ (1992a: 87; see CULTURE). Poetics refers to aesthetic precepts that dominate the literary system at a certain point in time. Poetics consists of two components, an inventory component (a repertoire of genres, literary devices, motifs, certain symbols, prototypical characters or situations) and a functional component, which concerns the issues of how literature has to or can function within society (Lefevere 1982/2000: 236, 1992a: 26).P 242Both components of poetics are subject to processes of deferred fossilization; in other words, there is an ongoing process of literary trends coming into and going out of fashion, with certain genres and authors dominating certain stages in the evolution of a literary system (e.g. tanka, renga, and haiku in Japanese literature, in that order) (1992a: 35). The professionals are the individuals (critics, translators, and so on) who elaborate aesthetic criteria, control the literary system and filter material in or out of it. Strictly regulated literary systems even appoint individuals or create institutions withthe express purpose of bringing about aesthetic stability in the system; Académie Française and similar language institutions are good examples (Lefevere 1985: 232). Patronage can be understood as the powers, be they persons or institutions, which can further or hinder the reading, writing or rewriting of literature and is usually more concerned with the ideology of literature than its poetics (Lefevere 1992a: 15). Patronage can be exercised by individuals (Louis XIV, for instance), by groups of people, religious bodies (see Lai 2007), political parties, social classes, royal courts, publishers, and the media (printed or otherwise) (Lefevere 1992a: 15).Patronage consists of three components, the ideological, economic and status components, which all three interacting in complex ways. IDEOLOGY, an inherently slippery term, is briefly defined by Lefevere as a general world view that guides people‟s actions, as well as a diffuse, taken-for-granted frame of mind. The influence of ideology on the translation process may be traced in omissions, shifts and additions of various kinds. The economic component of patronage concerns the translator‟s economic survival. The patron sees to it that writers and rewriters are able to make a living by giving them a pension, appointing them to some office, paying royalties on the sales of books or employing (re)writers as teachers and reviewers (1985: 227). The economic component also acts as a control factor on a more global level, for example by regulating royalties and production costs nationally and internationally (1982/2000: 245-6). Acceptance of patronage signals integration into and acceptance of the style of life of a group or subculture of some kind, or an elite in the sense of the most talented and powerful group of individuals (1985: 228). This is precisely what the status component refers to. It is status conferred upon a writer in a given society that allows him or her to be integrated into a certain …support group‟ or its lifestyle (Lefevere 1982/2000:236, 1992a: 16).Patronage can be undifferentiated or differentiated. In undifferentiated patronage, the three components (ideological, economic and status) are all dispensed by one source, i.e. one patron (Lefevere 1992a: 17). Totalitarian regimes and the monarchies of the past are good examples. Differentiated patronage is typical of (contemporary) democratic or liberal societies, where an array of different patrons are active at the same time and assume disparate ideological positions, and where, for instance, financial success does not necessarily confer status (Lefevere 1982/2000: 228,236). LimitationsLefevere‟s theory of rewriting attempts to incorporate a wide range of complex factors in an essentially flat model; the strain is evident in the terminology employed as well as the structure of the model. Hermans (1999: 124) acknowledges the strength and appeal of Lefevere‟s work but stresses that it is …also frequently superficial, inconsistent, and sloppy‟.As explained above, the theory posits that there are two factors that control the literary system, the group of professionals within and patronage outside the system (with apparently no overlap, or none discussed by Lefevere). Thus, individuals or institutions within and outside the system assume a gatekeeping role, serving as guardians of poetics and ideology and rewriting works accordingly. In addition, the theory builds in the dominant poetics, language and universe of discourse as controlfactors. But it is difficult to see how institutions and gatekeepers of any kind can function as constraints in the same way as language or universe of discourse might. The lack of a clear distinction between the mainly literary/systemic product of rewriting and gatekeepers with a potential influence on rewriting results in a certain level of vagueness. Lefevere seems to adopt a Foucaultian approach to patronage and translation as determining andP 243determined, but fails to clarify this dynamic in his case studies. Patronage may mean exercising strategic behaviour in society and imposing constraints on others, but it may also be circumscribed by the patron‟s position in the sociopolitical environment. Similarly, translation is conditioned by constraints within or outside the system, but it is also a shaping force in the system. Moreover, Lefevere‟s list of constraints varies from one publication to another, and sometimes within the sam publication: for example, in Lefevere (1992a), there is a simple scheme of two factors that …determine the image of a work projected by a translation‟; in order of importance, these two factors are the translator‟s ideology and poetics, which jointly determine solutions to problems posed by the universe of discourse and language (ibid.: 41). Although language is not presented as a constraint from the beginning of the book (or in any of his essays in general), Lefevere nonetheless goes on to present it as such in a dedicated chapter, where he compares translations of poem by Catullus which were produced in the last 200 years, offering a list of what he calls …illocutionary strategies‟: morphosyntactic patterns, lexical choice and connotation and metric patterning (ibid.: 101-10).The fluidity of terminology allows for the free …re-writing‟ of the main concepts of Lefevere‟s model in secondary sources: Gentzler refers to two constraints, ideology and poetics (1993/2001: 136-8); Chesterman mentions five constraints: patronage, poetics, the universe of discourse, the source-target languages (treated as one category), and the translator‟s ideology (1997: 78); Hatim talks about a double control factor, poetics and ideology, and then lists eight different factors that influence translation (2001: 63,64); Munday refers to three factors that control the literary system in which translation functions: professionals within the literary system, patronage outside the literary system, and the dominant poetics (2001: 128-9). This indicates that sociocultural, ideological and literary constraints are not sufficiently delineated in Lefevere‟s model. At any rate, and irrespective of issues of overlap and vagueness of terminology, it is perhaps unrealistic to assume that such dissimilar sets of constraints can be neatly grouped together in a flat model, or that a complete list can be identified for something as complex as rewriting. More constraints, for instance, can easily be added to the model, the audience (potential reception and presupposed knowledge) being an obvious candidate.The notion of patronage is unduly rigid in Lefevere‟s model. First, the tripartite internal structure of patronage is much more diffuse in real life. Lefevere argues that the three components of patronage (economic, status and ideological) can …enter various combinations‟(1992a: 16), but this does not explain how they can be distinguished from each other or from other types of constraints for the purposes ofdescriptive analysis, nor why this separation is deemed productive. The economic factor, which can determine whether or not a given work or works will be translated (in their entirety), is inextricably linked to the status of the text and the ideology of the patrons. Thus, the English translation of Henriette Walter‟s Le Français dans tous les sens (1985) could only be undertaken after the French government agreed to pay a subsidy to the UK publisher, in order to promote what they say as a token of Frenchness in the English system (Fawcett 1995: 181). Even in cases where economic considerations mean little more than making profit, ideology does not simply become inoperative: some institutions of patronage subscribe to corporate values, competition and the achievement of a high turnover more than others. These values influence the selection of works that are deemed …good‟or worth translating. Nor can ideology, perhaps the least satisfactorily defined factor in Lefevere‟s model, be divorced from components outside the system of patronage. Language, which occasionally features as a separate constraint in Lefevere‟s model, is clearly not ideologically neutral (Fairclough 1989; Fowler et al. 1995; see DISCOURSE ANALYSIS; LINGUISTIC APPROACHES).Another shortcoming of the model concerns the binary distinction between differentiated and undifferentiated patronage. Studies on totalitarian regimes have repeatedly demonstrated that power is exerted in a less monolithic way than Lefevere‟s model would seem to suggest. Dor instance, both in Italy under Mussolini and in Nazi Germany, the state (in the case of Germany it was the educational and library system collaborating with Party institutions) controlled cultural production and translationP 244intermittently, at times allowing for loopholes and some margin for negotiation, especially during the first few years before the war (Rundle 2000; Kohlmayer 1992; Sturge 1999). As these countries edged closer towards war, they began to close such loopholes and regulate the functional and inventory components of poetics more strictly (see case studies in Billiani 2007a; CENSORSHIP).ApplicationsDespite its limitations, Lefevere‟s model has been instrumental in situating translation within a broader set of activities to which it is inextricably linked, and in drawing researchers‟attention to social and INSTITUTIONAL factors that influence all processes of rewriting. Lefevere reiterated the importance of the interdependence of poetics, social agency and ideology throughout his work and provided an impressive battery of examples from various traditions, from Europe to Africa and America. This has inspired a range of case studies that drew heavily on his model or some elements of it, especially patronage (Zhao 2005, 2006; Lai 2007,among others). Drawing on Lefevere‟s model particularly the notions of patronage, poetics and ideology, Zhao (2006) demonstrates how Hu Shi, a prominent Chinese intellectual, became a major proponent of the New Culture Movement in China (1919-1923), a movement fuelled by a massive important of foreign ideologies and poetics. Hu Shi‟s complex treatment of Ibsen illustrates the full range of rewritings discussed by Lefevere and demonstrates the extent to which the conceptualization of the activities that constitutetranslation can be stretched. Hu Shi managed to introduce sinicized foreign ideas into China by means of subtle domesticating and contextualizing translation techniques in strategically selected plays by Ibsen (see STRATEGIES). His own …original‟play, Life’s Greatest Event, was an imitation of Ibsen‟s A Doll’s House; it promoted an ideology of individualism and focused on political issues rather than dramatic technique. Hu Shi‟s influential essay entitled Ibsenism ventriloquized and (re)interpreted Ibsen‟s view, projecting Hu Shi‟s own agenda of internationalism and social crique (Zhao 2005: 162,168,241).In a similar study that draws on Lefevere‟s model of rewriting to explain a series of theatrical performances and demonstrate the influence of socio political conditions and personal agendas, McNeil (2005) examines the various rewritings of Brecht‟s Leben des Galilei in English. The 1947 premiere of Galileo in America was the fruit of a close and …respectful‟ collaboration between Charles Laughton (who was working from literal translations into English) and Brecht (who was still revising his …history play‟ version of 1938). The result was a play that was much sharper, faster, with fewer scenes, a play that brought out the contradiction between individual and social morality, between science‟s potential and its historical applications (McNeil 2005: 67). This was a play that engaged with immediate dilemmas in the aftermath of Hiroshima. The 1980 production for the National Theatre in the UK, on the other hand, was the result of a different division of labour and authority. The National Theatre commissioned Howard Brenton, who worked from literal as well as existing translations of the play and who sought to imitate, appropriate and (aggressively) supersede Brecht in order to produce a modernized version that can serve as a riposte to Thatcherism (ibid.: 74). The director, John Dexter, on the other hand, saw Brecht‟s Life of Galileo as a concealed autobiography of someone who …sold out‟; he sought to …get rid of the Marxist rubbish‟ in order to portray Brecht as a survivor and modified the text accordingly to produce faster piece that would be more appropriate as a National Theatre production (ibid.: 84,89). The end-product was a barometer of the tensions pervading socialist theatre in England, given the limitations imposed by a conservative government on left theatre: this tension took the form of a dialectic relation between a rejection of the mainstream, bourgeois values and institutional outlets and a compromise that allowed Brenton and Dexter to send out a message even to a bourgeois audience that is not necessarily responsive (ibid.: 94) (see DRAMA).The appeal of Lefevere‟s model lies in the fact that it identifies important contextual factors that impinge on translation, irrespective of how well it weaves these factors into a coherent model. The way in which these factors operate, and the promotion of political and other interests through translation, are not restricted to the area of literature (Lefevere‟s main preoccupation).P 245The same can be said to apply to other types of translation and to polymedial products such as ADVERTISING material, AUDIOVISUAL material, and COMICS. Examples include the rewriting of Treaty of Waitangi into Maori, with political repercussions that continue to reverberate in contemporary New Zealand (Fenton and Moon 2003),and Croatian nationalistic …rewritings‟of the Asterix series after the dissolution of Yugoslavia (Kadric and Kaindl 1997). These and other non-literary instances of rewriting can be productively analysed using some version of Lefevere‟s model. In order to investigate cases such as these, it is necessary to take into account the interplay between textual variables and power/patronage in the broader socio political context in which translation takes place, and Lefevere‟s theory of rewriting provides at least a stimulating first step in this direction.See also:ADAPTATION; CENSORSHIP; CLASSICAL TEXTS; DESCRIPTIVE VS. COMMITTED APPROACHES; LITERARY TRANSLATION; POLYSYSTEM; PUBLISHING STRATEGIES; SHAKESPEARE; SOCIOLOGICAL APPROACHES. Further readingLefevere 1982/2000, 1985,1992a; Hermans 1999; Zhao 2006; Lai 2007DIMITRIS ASIMAKOULAS。
