人因工程学Effect of wrenches on the operator's hand fatigue

人因工程学期末考试简答题复习题目及答案1.造成人为失误的原因可分成哪大类？而降低人为失误的方法有那三大项？答：造成人为失误的原因可分成﹕任务复杂度、环境因素、个人因素三大类。

降低人为失误的方法有﹕选用适当人选、教育训练、设计。

Human error can be divided into:three major categories of task complexity,environmental factors,personal factors.Reduce human error:the selection of appropriate candidates,education and training,design.2.如何从管理控制上减少工作时骨骼肌肉之伤害？答：工作轮调、工作扩大、人员筛选、教育训练、工程/休息安排Job rotation,work to expand personnel screening,training, engineering/rest arrangements3.什么是反应时间？如何控制刺激信号以缩短反应时间？答：反应时间又称为反应潜伏期，它是指刺激和反应的时间间距，由反应知觉时间和动作时间两部分组成。

随着刺激性质和反应内容的复杂化，反应时间也将随之增加。

其反应时间有显著的差异，选择反应时间长于简单反应时间。

人对各种不同性质刺激的反应时间是不同的，对于同一种性质的刺激，其刺激强度和刺激方式的不同，中等强度刺激信号的反应时间小于阈限强度的刺激信号。

刺激信号与背景的对比程度也是影响反应时间的一种因素，信号愈清晰愈易辨认，则反应时间愈短；反之，反应时间延长。

当刺激信号持续时间不同时，反应时间随刺激信号的增加而减少。

刺激信号的数目对反应时间的影响最为明显，即反应时间随刺激信号数的增加而明显延长。

The response time is the time spacing of the stimulus and response,is composed of two parts of the reaction perception time and the operation time.With complicated by stimulating properties and reactions of the content,the reaction time will also increase.There are significant differences in the reaction time is longer than the simple reaction time, choice reaction time.On various properties of the reaction time stimulus is different,for the stimulation of the same nature,the reaction time of the stimulus intensity and stimulation different,moderate intensity stimulation signal is less than the threshold intensity of the stimulation signal.The stimulus signal and the background level of contrast is also affect the reaction time is a factor,the signal is more clear to the more easily recognizable, the reaction time is shorter;Conversely,the reaction time is prolonged.When the duration of the stimulus signal is not the same,the reaction time may vary depending on the stimulus signal to increase and decrease.To stimulate the number of signals is the most obvious effects of the reaction time, i.e.reaction time varies significantly prolonged stimulation the increase of the number of signals.4. 生活中常见的水表显示装置的形式如下图所示。

Applications and Reaction Conditions ForRestriction EnzymesStandard Restriction Enzyme ReactionsA. REACTION CONDITIONSB. SINGLE RESTRICTION ENZYME DIGESTSEach restriction enzyme has optimal reaction (assay) conditions and different conditions for long term storage. The recommended assay and storage conditions are both determined by the manufacturer to provide the user with the highest activity, best fidelity and greatest stability for each enzyme. Factors that must be considered include temperature, pH, enzyme cofactors, salt composition, ionic strength and stabilizers. Promega restriction enzyme Reaction Buffers are designed to provide the best balance of optimal activity and convenience. Promega storage buffers have been designed after accelerated and real time/real temperature stability experiments. All enzyme storage conditions are validated through our Quality Assurance re-assay program to maximize long term stability.Setting up digests with a single restriction enzyme is relatively straightforward. However, digests using multiple enzymes that have different buffer requirements may demand the use of alternative buffers and may require adjustments in the number of units of enzyme used. Table 3.1 lists the relative activities of restriction enzymes in Promega 10X Reaction Buffers. Alternatively, use the interactive search function of this guide to identifycompatible buffers. If no compatible buffer can be found a sequential reaction may be performed in which additional buffer or salt is added to the reaction before the second enzyme, or each digest may be performed sequentially using the optimal buffers. The latter option will require either a DNA precipitation or purification step after the first digest. Regardless of the type of digest performed, the addition of BSA is recommended to stabilize the enzyme and enhance activity (1) (2) .pH: Most restriction enzymes are used between pH 7.2 and pH 8.5 as measured at the temperature ofincubation. pH values outside of the optimal range may lead to star activity .Mg 2+: Commercially available restriction enzymes require Mg 2+ as the only cofactor. Restriction enzymeactivities are relatively insensitive to the Mg 2+ concentration; similar rates are observed from 5-30mM. The presence of other divalent metal ions, especially Mn 2+, may lead to star activity .Salt Concentration: Restriction enzymes are diverse in their response to ionic strength. Most are stimulated by 50-150mM NaCl or KCl while others are inhibited by salt concentrations higher than 20mM. A few enzymes prefer acetate to chloride anions. Suboptimal ionic strength or type of ion may lead to star activity .BSA: Bovine Serum Albumin is used in restriction enzyme storage buffers and is added to digestion reactions to stabilize the enzyme. BSA can protect restriction enzymes from proteases, non- specific adsorption and harmful environmental factors such as heat, surface tension and interfering substances. Typically, the addition of0.1mg/ml BSA will result in a 1.5 to 6-fold enhancement of enzyme activity. The Acetylated BSA provided with Promega's restriction enzymes has been modified and extensively tested to ensure that no degrading activities are present.Glycerol: Glycerol is added to restriction enzyme storage buffers to prevent freezing at -20°C. Repeatedfreeze/thawing of restriction enzymes can reduce their activity. Some restriction enzymes show reducedspecificity, or increased star activity , when the glycerol concentration in the final reaction is higher than 5% although many have normal specificity at glycerol concentrations as high as 10%.Incubation Temperature: Most restriction enzymes show maximum activity at 37°C. A few enzymes require higher or lower temperatures for optimal activity (e.g., Taq I, 65°C; Sma I, 25°C). For incubations greater than 1 hour with high temperature enzymes, cover the reactions with a drop of mineral oil to prevent evaporation. Generally, the incubation temperature for the enzyme reflects the growth temperature of the bacterial strain from which it is derived. For enzymes that have temperature optima other than 37°C, Promega provides information on percent activity at 37°C on the Product Information sheet that is packaged with each enzyme. This type of information is particularly useful when performing double digests.Volume: Viscous DNA solutions inhibit enzyme diffusion and can reduce enzyme activity. DNA concentrations that are too dilute can fall below the K m of the restriction enzyme and also affect enzyme activity. Volumeconsiderations must take into account final ionic strength and must result in glycerol concentrations no higher than 5-10% in order to avoid star activity. Reaction volumes of 10-50µl per microgram of DNA are recommended.An analytical restriction enzyme reaction is usually performed in a volume of approximately 20µl on 0.2-1.5µg of substrate DNA using a 2- to 10-fold excess of enzyme over DNA, based on unit definition. Use of an unusually large volume of DNA or enzyme may give aberrant results. Caution should be exercised to prevent higher than1.Under sterile conditions add the following components, in the order stated, to a sterile microcentrifugetube.2.Mix gently by pipetting. Centrifuge briefly at 12,000 x g in a micro centrifuge to collect the contents at thebottom of the tube.3.Incubate at the optimum temperature for 1-4 hours. 4.Add 4µl of Blue/Orange 6X Loading Dye (or another appropriate DNA loading buffer), and proceed to gelanalysis.C. MULTIPLE RESTRICTION ENZYME DIGESTSe the optimal buffer supplied with one enzyme if the activity of the second enzyme is acceptable in thatsame buffer. Alternatively, acceptable activity for both enzymes may be achieved by using another ofPromega’s 4-CORE ® 10X Buffers(Cat.# R9921). If one of the enzymes has less than 75% activity in thechosen buffer, the reaction time or the number of units of enzyme used may need to be increased. Beaware of possible star activity under non-optimal reaction conditions (see Table 3.1 or use the interactivesearch function of this guide to identify compatible buffers).2.Choose an isoschizomer or neoschizomer with more compatible buffer requirements. 3.Perform a single digest with the first enzyme then inactivate that enzyme. Add the ingredients necessaryfor the second digest then add the second enzyme. For example, use a lower salt buffer and enzyme first,then inactivate the first enzyme, add enough salt to achieve the concentration required for the seconddigest, and add the second restriction enzyme.D. EXPERIMENTAL CONTROLSnormal concentrations of EDTA and glycerol. The following is an example of a typical analytical single restrictionenzyme digestion:Sterile, nuclease-free water14µl Restriction enzyme 10X buffer2µl BSA, Acetylated (1mg/ml)2µl DNA sample 0.2-1µg, in water or TE buffer1µl Restriction enzyme, 2-10U1µl Final volume 20µlLarger scale restriction enzyme digestions can be accomplished by scaling this basic reaction proportionately.If all of the restriction enzymes in a multiple digest have the same optimal buffer, setting up the digest isstraightforward. However, when this is not the case, several options are available.Note: Perform each digest sequentially using the optimal buffers. This will require either a DNA precipitation orpurification step after the first digest. Although this procedure involves more steps than those listed above, insituations where options 1-3 are not satisfactory, it may be the best alternative.Some common controls used for restriction enzyme digestion and gel analysis are given in Table 2.1.Table 2.1. Restriction Enzyme Reaction ControlsRestriction Enzyme Digest ControlsControl: Untreated DNA controlStrategyPurpose DNA is loaded on gel with no treatment otherthan the addition of loading buffer. Shows the integrity of the DNA starting material. Nicked, linear and supercoiled forms of plasmid DNA are normally seen in untreatedsamples.Control: No enzyme ControlStrategyPurpose A mock digest is run parallel with theexperimental digest, except that no enzyme isadded. The missing volume is made up withpares DNA digests with and without enzyme. Detects changes that may occur independent of enzyme such as exonuclease contamination in the DNA or in one of the reaction components.Control: Enzyme activity checkStrategy PurposePerform a control digest using the unitdefinition DNA (usually lambda) andconditions as described in the PromegaProduct Information sheet.Confirms enzyme activity.Control: DNA substrate control and general enzyme digest control Strategy PurposeSet up the following parallel digests:1.Perform a digestion as described inthe unit definition for the enzyme butusing the experimentally derived DNAinstead of control DNA. Adjust thenumber of enzyme units based onrecognition site density.2.Perform the experimental digest,replacing the experimental DNA withthe same quantity of commercialquality DNA (usually lambda DNA).Adjust the number of enzyme unitsbased on recognition site density. Compares activity of the enzyme under experimental conditions using standard DNA and experimental DNA under standard conditions. Tests for possible problems with substrate DNA such as impurity, missing recognition sites, methylation, etc. Can be used to assay for the function of other reagents used in the enzyme digest. If an inhibitor is suspected in the DNA solution, a set of digests comparing experimental DNA, control DNA and a combination of the two may also be performed. In most cases, the presence of an inhibitor will "poison" the control reaction when both are combined.Gel Analysis ControlsControl: One molecular weight (MW) markerStrategy PurposeOne or two lanes of an electrophoresis gel should always be devoted to size standards and used for comparison with unknowns. This assures that a standard exists for:1.Determining the distance samples have run in the gel.2.Measuring the sizes of unknown fragments.3.Repeatedly seeing a familiar pattern of known andstandardized MW.Control: Two different MW markersStrategy PurposeTwo different size markers provide much more information than one. Two sets of data points give greater accuracy during graphing of data points for MW measurements (by comparison with the mobility of the standards). Lane-to-lane variation may also be detected if two standards are used but they migrate differently. A greater range of size standards permits more accurate size estimation, and allows identification of conformational effects on mobility as well as electrophoretic variability.Anomalous mobility due to differences in the quantity of sample loaded may also be detected.Control: Load two different quantities of the same MW marker on the gel Strategy PurposeMass per band control: Loading two different quantities of the same size marker will yield important information about mobility shifts due to mass per band differences.Allows detection of mass effects on mobility. Also may show lane-to-lane variation during gel electrophoresis.Control: Salt effects controlStrategy PurposeRun markers beside unknown with and without the salt contained in the experimental digest.Detects any gel retardation that may occur due to the presence of high salt concentrations in sample.Control: Markers of known mass are run in a dilution series1.Williams, R., Kline, M. and Smith, R. (1996) BSA and restriction enzyme digestions. Promega Notes 59,46.2.Lepinske, M. (1996) BSA and restriction enzyme digestions. Promega Notes 60, 28.Restriction Enzyme ActivityStrategyPurpose Bands of similar MW are chosen in markerand experimental lanes. The mass of theband in question is compared to a controlbased on its staining intensity. It is crucial thatmany dilutions are run side-by-side in order toachieve the most accurate visual comparison. The quantity of an unknown DNA sample may be assessed in this manner or used to confirm a result obtained by spectrophotometry.References Back to topRestriction enzymes differ in their reaction kinetics. As a result, variations from the recommended incubationtime, number of units used, substrate amount, and/or total reaction volume should be considered carefully toensure complete digestion. The following table gives an indication of the activity of Promega blue/white cloning-qualified and genome-qualified restriction enzymes under varying reaction conditions. Variations in the number ofenzyme units used and the reaction incubation times were tested. In each case the reaction volume (50µl) andthe amount/type of DNA substrate (1µg) were the same as that used in the unit definition assay. Incubation timefor the unit definition assay is one hour.Table 2.2. Restriction Enzyme Activity under Nonstandard Units and Incubation Time Conditions.EnzymeReaction Time and Number of Units Used 15 min.4 units 15 min. 2 units 15 min. 1 unit 30 min. 2 units 1 hr 1 unit 2 hr 0.5 units 4 hr 0.25 unitsAatII C I I C C C CAccI C C C C C C IAcc65I C I I C C II ApaI C I I C C C CAvaI C C I C C C CBamHI C C I C C I IBbuI C I I I C C CBcl I C I I C C C CBgl I C I I C C C CBstXI C I I C C C CBstZI I I I C C C CClaI C I I C C C CCspI C I I C C I ICsp45I C I I C C CC Eco52I C I I C C I IEcoRI C I I C C C CEcoRV C I I C C CC Hi II C I I C C C CRestriction Enzyme Substrate ConsiderationsA. SUBSTRATE SOURCE AND STRUCTUREHincII C I I C C C CHindIII C I I I C C CKpnI C I I C C C CMluI C I I C C C CNcoI C I I C C C CNheI C I I C C C CNotI C I I C C C INsiI C I I C C C CPstI C I I C C C CSacI C I I C C C CSacII C I I C C C CSal I C C C C C C ISfiI C I I C C C CSmaI C C I C C C CSpeI C I I C C I ISphI C C C C C I ISspI C I I C C C CStyI C I I C C I IXbaI C I I C C C CXhoI C I I C C C CXmaI C I I C C C C"C" indicates complete cleavage; "I" indicates incomplete cleavage for the units and incubation times shown. Back to topSubstrates commonly used for restriction enzyme digestion include phage DNA, plasmid DNA, genomic DNA,PCR products and double-stranded oligonucleotides. The concentration of the DNA sample can influence thesuccess of a restriction digestion. Viscous DNA solutions, resulting from large amounts of DNA in too small of avolume, can inhibit diffusion and can significantly reduce enzyme activity (1) . DNA concentrations that are toolow also may inhibit enzyme activity (see Substrate Quality ). Typical K m values for restriction enzymes arebetween 1nM and 10nM, and are template-dependent (2) . Recommended final DNA concentrations for digestionrange from 0.02-0.2µg/µl. Substrate structural variations, concentration and special considerations are discussedbelow according to DNA type.Lambda DNA: Lambda DNA is a linear DNA that is an industry standard for the measurement and expression ofunit activity for most restriction enzymes. In general, one unit is sufficient to cut 1µg of lambda DNA in 1 hourunder optimal reaction conditions in a reaction volume of 50µl. In lambda DNA, the cos ends, (12-base,complimentary, single-stranded overhangs at the end of each molecule) may re-anneal during digestion. Thiscan give the appearance that digestion is incomplete. To avoid this problem, heat the DNA at 65°C for 5 minutesprior to electrophoresis to melt ends that have annealed.Plasmid DNA: Circular, supercoiled plasmid DNA typically ranges from 3-10kb in size. Compared to linear DNA,plasmids often require more units of restriction enzyme for complete cleavage due to the supercoiling (1) or thetotal number of sites to be digested (see Recognition Site Density ). See Digestion of Supercoiled Plasmid DNAfor information on the relative units needed for complete cleavage of a typical plasmid vector with commoncloning enzymes. If a supercoiled plasmid is first linearized with another restriction enzyme or relaxed with topoisomerase, less enzyme may be needed for digestion.Genomic DNA: Digestion of genomic DNA can be difficult due to methylation and viscosity. If methylation is a concern, consider using isochizomers with different methylation sensitivities (see Methylation Sensitivity of Isoshizomer/Neoschizomer Pairs). Viscosity can be adjusted by increasing the reaction volume. Genomic DNA often digests more efficiently when it is diluted to a minimum concentration of 10µg per 50-200µl. If this is not possible, heating the DNA at 65ºC for ten minutes prior to the addition of the restriction enzyme can enhance activity (3) . Addition of spermidine to final concentration of 1-5mM also has been reported to increase enzyme activity in the digestion of genomic DNA (4) . Addition of BSA to restriction digests at a final concentration of0.1mg/ml may also improve enzyme activity.PCR Products: PCR-amplified DNA may be digested with restriction enzymes that have recognition sequences within the amplified sequence or in the primer regions. The number of enzyme units needed must be balanced with the total number of sites to assure complete cleavage. Longer incubation times may be required to ensure complete digestion. Enzymes with low overdigestion values (<12 units/16 hours) should be avoided in overnight digestions, as star activity or trace contaminants present in these enzymes may lead to problems. Consult the Promega Product Information sheet for the overdigestion value of the enzyme. For many common restriction enzymes, acceptable activity is seen in PCR buffer, although digestion after amplification may not result in the expected compatible ends due to residual polymerase activity (5) . Digestion near the end of a PCR product may also present problems. Restriction enzymes require varying amounts of flanking DNA around the recognition site, usually 1-3 bases but occasionally more (See Digestion of Sites Close to the End of Linear DNA). If an oligonucleotide primer is designed with a cut site that is too close to the end of the DNA, the site may cut poorly or not at all. Since it is very difficult to assay for cutting near the end of DNA, the effectiveness of compensation with extra enzyme units or increased incubation time is difficult to determine. Use of proofreading enzymes in PCR may also complicate the situation as these enzymes are capable of degrading the 3´ ends of amplimers, interfering with complete digestion by restriction enzymes. The use of high dNTP concentrations and immediate cooling to 4°C after PCR will reduce such degradation. Another reason for incomplete digestion of PCR fragments may be primer dimers. If the restriction site is built into the primer, primer dimers will contain a double-stranded version of the site, usually in vast molar excess over that of the desired target PCR fragment. This problem can be easily avoided by purifying the PCR fragment prior to restriction enzyme digestion using the Wizard® PCR Preps DNA Purification System (Cat.# A7170).Double-Stranded Oligonucleotides: Many of the same considerations for PCR products apply to the digestion of double-stranded oligonucleotides. In this case high densities of recognition sites per unit of mass can be present and the site may also be near the end of the DNA molecule. Again, longer digestion times and/or more enzyme may be needed. Enzymes with a low overdigestion specification (12 units/16 hours) should be avoided in overnight digestions.Single-Stranded DNA: Cleavage of single-stranded DNA, although at a greatly reduced rate compared with double-stranded DNA, has been reported for a few restriction enzymes (6) . Studies have shown, however, that several restriction enzymes that appear to cleave single-stranded DNA actually recognize folded-back duplex regions within the single-stranded genomes (e.g., M13, f1, single-stranded phiX174) (7)(8) . Therefore, these enzymes are not digesting single-stranded DNA, rather individual sites that are in the duplex form.DNA-RNA Hybrids: Digestion of DNA-RNA hybrid molecules has been described for several restriction enzymes (AluI, EcoRI, HaeIII, HhaI, HindIII, MspI, SalI, ThaI) (9) . In these cases, the DNA strand of the hybrid was digested in the identical place as duplex DNA. Digestion required 20 to 50-fold higher enzyme levels than those needed for duplex DNA. It is possible but not proven that the RNA was also cleaved with large excesses of enzyme.Influence of Flanking Sequence: The sequences flanking the restriction enzyme recognition sequence can influence the cleavage rate of many restriction enzymes although the differences are usually less than 10-fold. A small number of enzymes (e.g., NaeI, HpaII, SacII, NarI, EcoRII) exhibit more pronounced site preferences and are designated Type IIe. See Site Preferences and Turbo™ Restriction Enzymes for further information.Methylation: Methylation of nucleotides within restriction enzyme recognition sequences can affect digestion. Methylation may occur as 4-methylcytosine, 5-methylcytosine, 5-hydroxymethylcytosine or 6-methyladenine in DNA from bacteria (including plasmids), eukaryotes and their viruses. The sensitivity, or lack thereof, to site-specific methylation, is known for many restriction enzymes (10) . Often, isoschizomers differ in their methylation sensitivity. Refer to Table 3.6 for further information.B. SUBSTRATE QUALITYGeneral Quality of the DNA Substrate and Effect on Digestion: Highly purified DNA is required for efficient restriction enzyme digestions. Contaminants commonly used during the purification of DNA such as protein, phenol, chloroform, ethanol, EDTA, SDS, CsCl and NaCl may interfere with restriction enzyme performance if not eliminated prior to digestion (1) . Organic solvents may denature the enzyme and additional salt contamination may decrease enzyme activity. Because contaminants are usually dose dependent, inhibitory effects will increase with the volume of DNA added to the digestion reaction. Protein contaminants in DNA can include nucleases that are activated by the addition of Mg2+ or salt in the restriction enzyme buffer. The presence of such nuclease activity will result in degradation of the substrate DNA, evidenced upon electrophoresis as a smear or a loss of DNA compared with a control sample of untreated DNA. Other potentiali i l d DNA bi di i hi h i ll i f i h h bili f hC. RECOGNITION SITE DENSITYcontaminants include DNA binding proteins, which may sterically interfere with the ability of the enzyme toefficiently find its recognition site and/or retard electrophoretic mobility of the restriction fragments.DNA samples are often stored in Tris-EDTA (TE) buffer since EDTA inactivates most nucleases that co-purifywith DNA by chelating the divalent cations required for their activity. However, restriction enzymes requiredivalent cations for activity and may be inhibited if too much EDTA is present in the final reaction. Lowconcentrations of EDTA (less than 0.05mM) introduced into the restriction enzyme reaction as in the DNAstorage buffer do not substantially affect restriction enzyme activity.Some of the most commonly encountered problems for specific DNA preparations are discussed below andsuggestions for optimizing the performance of restriction enzymes on these substrates are provided.Miniprep DNA: DNA purified from minipreps can be of poor quality due to contaminants such as phenol,chloroform, protein or RNA. In addition, some bacterial strains used to amplify plasmid DNA (e.g., HB101)contain a greater amount of nuclease than others (e.g., JM109). Such enzymatic contaminants may only becomeapparent when activated by the Mg 2+ and salt present in restriction digest buffers. Phenol/chloroform extractionmay be required to remove these contaminants even after CsCl purification. Dialysis and/or multiple ethanolprecipitations with 2.5M ammonium acetate and drying can remove many of the interfering substancesintroduced during purification. Ammonium acetate, which is a volatile substance, has unique and beneficialproperties compared with other salts used for nucleic acid precipitation, but must be used in substantially higherconcentrations (1) .Alternatively, the Wizard ® Plus SV Minipreps DNA Purification Systems (Cat.# A1330) provide an easy andeffective way to isolate and purify DNA, free of salt or macromolecular contaminants. The addition of spermidineto a final concentration of 1mM and/or BSA to a final concentration of 0.1mg/ml can also improve digestion ofpoor quality miniprep DNA.Genomic DNA: Genomic DNA frequently contains more contaminants than plasmid DNA. Best results areobtained when the absorbance ratios at A 260/A 280 are at least 1.8. Spermidine can be added to a finalconcentration of 1mM and/or BSA to a final concentration of 0.1mg/ml to improve digestion of poor qualitygenomic DNA. For further information see Digestion of High Molecular Weight DNA .Genomic DNA Embedded in Agarose plugs: Pulsed field gel electrophoresis permits the resolution ofextremely large DNA fragments. Genomic DNA purified by traditional techniques can contain double-strandedbreaks due to mechanical shear forces. Such breaks can be a source of background in megabase mapping offragments of 50-1000kb. To avoid this, mammalian, bacterial and yeast cells can be embedded in agarose stripsand the cells lysed and treated with proteinase K in situ (11) . Most restriction enzymes can cut DNA embeddedin agarose provided that more enzyme and longer incubation times are used. A good rule of thumb is to use 5-10units of enzyme per microgram of DNA and to avoid using restriction enzymes with low overdigestion values(<20 units/16 hours), which can cause problems during longer incubations with excess enzyme. For furtherinformation, refer to Digestion of High Molecular Weight DNA .Genomic DNA Purified From Blood. The anti-coagulant used during blood collection can affect the ability ofrestriction enzymes to completely digest DNA. Use EDTA as an anti-coagulant rather than Heparin, which canbind tightly to the enzyme and interfere with digestion. The absorbance ratios at A 260/A 280 should be at least 1.8,indicating that protein has been removed efficiently. A number of rapid DNA purification protocols have beenwritten that do not require separation of white cells from red cells (12) (13) . These techniques can yield goodquality DNA from small volumes of blood, but the DNA obtained after scale-up may be of poorer quality. Forlarger blood samples, a technique that separates white blood cells from red blood cells, such as pelleting redblood cells through a Ficoll ® gradient, is recommended prior to DNA purification.Promega offers the Wizard ® Genomic DNA Purification Kit (Cat.# A1120) for the isolation of genomic DNA fromwhite blood cells (with reagents/protocol for removal of red cells), tissue cultured cells, animal tissue, plant tissueand Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. DNA purified with this system is suitable for digestion withrestriction enzymes.PCR Products: Contaminants in PCR such as salts, glycerol, and primer dimers can inhibit restriction enzymeactivity. The Wizard ® PCR Preps DNA Purification System (Cat.# A7170) provides a reliable method forpurification of double-stranded PCR-amplified DNA from any salts or macromolecular contaminants.Restriction enzyme activity units are usually defined based on a one-hour digest of 1µg of lambda DNA. Whendigesting other substrates, adjustments may be needed based on the amount of substrate, the number ofrecognition sites per molecule and the incubation time. The following table illustrates the effect of differences insubstrate recognition sites per molecule for Eco R I while keeping the substrate mass and incubation timeconstant.Table 2.3. Differences in Substrate Recognition Sites for EcoR I.DNA Substrate BasePairs Picomoles in 1µg*Cut Sites (EcoRI)Picomoles Cut Sites Units Needed。

HUMAN INGENUITY0Since the dawn of human ingenuity, people have devised ever more cunning tools to cope with work that is dangerous, boring, burdensome, or just plain nasty . That compulsion has resulted in robotics--the science of conferring various human capabilities on machines . And if scientists have yet to create the mechanical version of science fiction,they have begun to come close.0从人类最初有了智慧至今 人们一直在设计日益巧妙的工具来处理那些危险的、枯燥的、繁重的或者只是一般肮脏的工作。

这种不得已的行为导致了机器人科学的产生——一门将人类的能力赋予机器的科学。

如果科学家们还没有在机械上实现科幻小说的幻想 那么他们也已经很接近这个目标了。

0As a result , the modern world is increasingly populated by intelligent gizmos whose presence we barely notice but whose universal existence has removed much human labor. Our factories hum to the rhythm of robot assembly arms.Our banking is done at automated teller terminals that thank us with mechanical politeness for the transaction. Our subway trains are controlled by tireless robot-drivers . And thanks to the continual miniaturization of electronics and micro-mechanics, there are already robot system that can perform some kinds of brain and bone surgery with submillimeter accuracy- far greater precision than highly skilled physicians can achieve with their hands alone.0由此引起的结果是 现代世界已经日益充斥着智能的装置 虽然我们几乎都注意不到他们但他们的普遍存在却节省了许多人类劳力。

庄子TOEFL阅读理解历年考题分类作者：zhuangxieTOEFL历年考题:1. 树叶为何变颜色2. 瑞典诺贝尔文学评委会3. 民众抗命Civil Disobedience4. 陨石坑Craters5. 英法战争6. 车票打孔与计算机雏形7. 地衣LICHEN8. 路易斯安娜洲购买后的皮毛买卖9. 同步通讯卫星10. 聊天对于南方女作家的社会影响11. 睡眠12. 人物（女）Amelia 和Muriel的男性化成长13. 塑料14. 芝加哥15. 人物（男）雕塑家Frederic Remington16. 动物身上为何不生出轮子17. 树的生存方式18. 摩天大楼—美国的特征19. 加洲北水南调工程20. 蜜蜂意识测试21. Navajo人的起源22. 为美国护士教育的抗争23. 人物（女）建筑师Julia Morgan24. 沼泽中的动物25. 供求与市场价格26. 增重的可能因素27. 单间教室的好处28. 小麦与人类文明29. 铁路电报的发展30. 美国殖民期间的建筑风格与材料31. 卫星的内外结构和动力32. 玩耍的起源和意义33. 1800’s 毯子的风格34. Anasazi印第安人35. 大气中的水36. 一战对美国的影响37. 蜂的社会结构38. 第五大街291号画廊和画家（女）Georgia O’Keeffe的抽象风格39. 美洲鳄鱼交配后40. 人物（女）摄影家Barbara Kasten 的技法41. 国家冰河公园周围的土地保护42. 乳化过程EMUSIFY43. 美国独立史44. 人物（女）作家Carson Mccullers45. 作物水喷洒计46. 价格体系的解释47. 干酪阻碍牙齿损坏48. 偏见49. 星的亮度50. 回声51. 华盛顿DC的建立52. 莺科鸣禽对树上食物的划分53. 婴儿的大脑成熟和感情发育54. 人物（女）作家Ellen Glasgow笔下的南方复兴55. 牛仔的服装和用具56. 食物网57. 社会功能良性运转中的一个时间量度58. 地球板块59. 神迹剧Oratorio60. 购买Louisiana61. 听力测试法62. 动物: 濑鱼Wrasse63. 纽约作为商业中心的兴起64. 民谣的形式65. 铝66. 植树节Arbor Day67. 牛胃68. 作家Sinclair Lewis的作品main Street69. 植物的根70. 科学家对自然现象解释的不同方法（病理学Pathological，生理学Physiology）71. Joh Astor和旅馆72. Arizona 洲的城市灯光干扰天文观测73. 第一夫人（Eleanor Roosevelt）74. 综合剧团的发展75. 蜜蜂适应社会化76. 气候决定动物植物分布77. 北美木雕工具78. 动物：旋木雀Treecreeper79. 洛克菲勒中心80. 人物Marx 兄弟的职业81. 镁的制取和用途82. 人物（男）画家Max Weber83. 美国法院体系84. 人物（女）作家Constance Fenimore85. 大脑与神经系统的起源86. 蜜蜂87. 人物：马丁.路德.金88. 对流89. 密西西比部落文化90. 语言对数学的影响91. 单字排铸92. 蒸汽船对美国贸易的贡献93. 动物：Koala94. 弗罗伊得的“否”理论95. 有脊椎和无脊椎动物的Allelomimetic 行为96. 西进过程中女性发明医疗物质97. 美国现代艺术88/598. 动物：北极熊88/599. 树皮结构受形成层的影响88/5100. 喇叭88/5101. 美国硬币上的总统像87/8102. 都市化经济发展依赖于现代化的农业87/8103. 美洲野牛87/8104. 大峡谷的形成87/8105. 人物（女）雕塑家Marisol Escobar的独特艺术风格87/8 106. 杰弗逊总统入住华盛顿Dc107. 土壤的类型108. 人物（女）诗人Gwendolyn Brooks的艺术成就109. 灵长类动物的社会行为110. Miami海滩装饰建筑111. 木匠对新英格兰建筑风格的影响112. 动物：猿113. 现金交易历史114. 人物（女）艾米丽.狄金森115. 波动消除噪音116. 黑人Harlem117. 人物（女）诗人Mariana Moore （样题1）118. 美国空间协会的报道119. 首例心脏手术120. 全球环境问题有待高层关注121. 候鸟迁徙之迷（样题2）122. 通讯卫星前景123. 地衣124. 人物（女）新闻摄影Margaret Bourke125. 冰河期126. 人物：马丁.路德.金的童年127. 竞走128. 美国Mba生员变化129. 雷达130. 人物：小说家Langston Huges 生平作品131. 电视88/10132. Sioux语言命名88/10133. 动物；鲸88/10134. 未知的将来88/10135. 1784法案88/10136. 两类睡眠86/10137. 美国监狱体系138. 不同类型的Speech89/1：1. 人物：小说家Robert Herrick 的童年2. 树懒的习性3. 教育：Montessori 儿童教学法4. 心理；多数观点对于个体判断的影响5. 物理：田野石头因冰冻的竖直向上运动6. 大草原印第安人的乐器89/57. 美国革命的缓进性8. 太阳发光热9. 美国蝗虫灾害10. 人工花11. 人物（女）歌唱家Ella Fitzgerald 89/812. 透镜的早期应用13. 卫星城的概念14. 废煤矿的开发15. 西部铁路建设16. 博物馆的扩建89/1017. 石油精炼18. 动物：河狸Beaver19. 热量单位：卡20. 人物（女）芭蕾舞演员Agnes De Mille21. 炼铁成钢90/122. 动物：马的进化23. 宇宙是简单的现象24. 娱乐车辆对土壤的问题25. 人物（女）闹剧作家Merry Otis Warren26. 养牡蛎90/527. 引起争论的公用土地政策28. 荷尔蒙29. 人物（女）Gertrude Stein对现代文学的贡献30. 林肯再选受益于Nast的漫画31. 空间垃圾问题90/832. 浮游生物33. 70年代旧建筑复用34. 尼安德塔人的特征（考古）35. 电视发明的第一步36. 加拿大小麦委员会的起源９０／１０37. 美国革命中印第安人丧失土地38. 摩天大楼与环境39. 彗星40. 人物：农业化学家G。

1.What are the origin and features of literary theory in classical times? P1-21）It originates in all societies from the very earliest times. And it is related to the Greek forms.They were tied in very tightly to specific social occasion, for instance, plays recitation of Homeric epics, epinician or victory odes were conducted in different rituals.2) a.It focused on concept genre , which sprang up almost automatically in Greek …literary‟ theory.b. The element of ritual was modified by the element of agon or contest.c. Greek plays, epics and odes were all performed to an audience. The role of audience was inescapable.d. The textual object of Greek …literary‟ theory is the term poiesis. It is in its relations with neighbouring areas of verbal composition.e. It makes no clear separation between the language of poiesis and the language of legal debate, or political debate, or public speaking.2. By the first century B. C., the rhetorical critics had established two important systems of classification. What are they? Expound them in details. P41)The first system of classification was a division of stylistic registers into the high (or grand), the middle (or moderate), and the low(or plain).The grand style calls for strong emotion and elevated language, the plain style calls for quiet simplicity, and relatively unadorned language, the middle style is a quiet but not simple style, it calls for sweetness, smoothness, flowingness. Each style is considered appropriate for specific audiences and specific forms of persuasion. The grand style serves to sway an audience to resolution and decision, the middle style serves to win an audience by charming conciliation, and the plain style serves to convince by argument.2)The second system was the system of tropes and figures. A trope is a deviation from the normal use of an individual word, while a figure is a deviation from the normal arrangement of words or the normal sequence of thought. The tropes include metaphor, synecdoche, and metonymy. Figures and tropes are viewed as ornaments or clothing for an already existing material and the same may be said of all other stylistic devices discussed by rhetorical critics3. What are the features of Rhetoric tradition? P51) The first feature of Rhetoric tradition is that the traditional separation of form and content is about all a tradition of rhetorical criticism.2) Another feature of the rhetorical tradition is the emphasis upon details at the expanse of larger wholes. Large-scale unity is not a major concern for the rhetorical critics.3) The last feature is that rhetorical criticism was a very conservative discipline. Its history contains no drastic challenges or revolutions of the kind associated with later literary criticism, which has typically been affected by the changeability of the object, literature.4. What are the three most plausibe criteria for defining literature? P61)The quality of dramatization.2) The quality of fictionality.3)A special figurative quality of language.5. Discuss Plato’s theory of imitation or mimesis. P6-101)Mimesis is a critical and philosophical term that carries a wide range of meanings, which include imitation, representation, mimicry, imitatio, receptivity, nonsensuous similarity, the act of resembling, the act of expression, and the presentation of the self.In ancient Greece, mimesis was an idea that governed the creation of works of art, in particular, with correspondence to the physical world understood as a model for beauty, truth, and the good. Plato contrasted mimesis, or imitation, with diegesis, or narrative.Plato saw in mimesis the representation of nature. Plato wrote about mimesis in both Ion and The Republic (Books II, III, and X). In Ion, he states that poetry is the art of divine madness, or inspiration. Because the poet is subject to this divine madness, it is not his/her function to convey the truth.[citation needed] As Plato has it, truth is the concern of the philosopher only. As culture in those days did not consist in the solitary reading of books, but in the listening to performances, the recitals of orators (and poets), or the acting out by classical actors of tragedy, Plato maintained in his critique that theatre was not sufficient in conveying the truth.[citation needed] He was concerned that actors or orators were thus able to persuade an audience by rhetoric rather than by telling the truth.[citation needed]In Book II of The Republic, Plato describes Socrates' dialogue with his pupils. Socrates warns we should not seriously regard poetry as being capable of attaining the truth and that we who listen to poetry should be on our guard against its seductions, since the poet has no place in our idea of God.In developing this in Book X, Plato told of Socrates' metaphor of the three beds: one bed exists as an idea made by God (the Platonic ideal); one is made by the carpenter, in imitation of God's idea; one is made by the artist in imitation of the carpenter's.2) Imitation imitates men performing actions either forced or voluntary, and believing that they are either successful or not in these actions, and feeling pain or pleasure as a result of it all.Plato also uses the term mimesis in a more restricted, though still related, sense. That is, he distinguishes between mimesis as the speech of a character directly reproduced, and diegesis as narration of doings and sayings. Plato disapproves of both imitation in general and dramatised dialogue in particular.Plato disapproval is at bottom a disapproval of any form of copying. Because, in his view, imitation cannot see through to the most real reality, the true. In drama, impersonations rub off very readily onto the impersonator, becoming lasting disposition of personality.Plato's case against mimesis in the unrestricted sense focuses upon the fact that drama and epic imitate the world of perceptual appearances.6. There are three worlds in Plato’s opinion. What are they? What are their relationship? P8-91)There is, first, the world that consists of physical bodies: of stones and of stars; of plants and of animals; but also of radiation, and of other forms of physical energy. I will call this physical world …world 1‟.If we so wish, we can subdivide the physical world 1 into the world of non-living physical objects and into the world of living things, of biological objects; though the distinction is not sharp.There is, secondly,the mental or psychological world, the world of our feelings of pain and of pleasure, of our thoughts, of our decisions, of our perceptions and our observations; in other words, the world of mental or psychological states or processes, or of subjective experiences. I will call it …world 2‟. World 2 is immensely important, especially from a human point of view or from a moral point of view. Human suffering belongs to world 2; and human suffering, especially avoidable suffering, is the central moral problem for all those who can help.By world 3 I mean the world of the products of the human mind, such as languages; tales and stories and religious myths; scientific conjectures or theories, and mathematical constructions; songs and symphonies; paintings and sculptures. The reality of the mental world 2 - and with it, the reality of human suffering -has been sometimes denied; more recently by certain monistic materialists or physicalists, or by certain radical behaviourists. On the other hand, the reality of the world 2 of subjective experiences is admitted by common sense.Many of the objects belonging to world 3 belong at the same time also to the physical world 1. Michelangelo‟s sculpture The Dying Slave is both a block of marble, belonging to the world 1 of physical objects, and a creation of Michelangelo‟s mind, and as such belonging to world 3. The same holds of course for paintings.2) In Plato's opinion, the three worlds are the world of perceptual appearances, the world of the reality of abstractions, and the world of drama,epic, ode and lyric.Plato sees the world of perceptual appearances as secondary and derivative.According to Plato, the world of perceptual appearances is nothing more than an imitation of the reality of abstractions. (艺术世界的关系没找到）7. What are the differences between Plato and Aristotle in their literary theory? P10-14(可能是论述题）1）Compared with Plato, Aristotle appears as a less absolute theorist, more interested in describing and classifying things as they are, with less regard to ultimate principles. In the Poetics, he follows Plato in defining poetry as mimesis, specifically the imitation of an action. But whereas Plato condemns mere copying, Aristotle views the impulse to mimicry as a natural healthy human impulse: （引文见课本P10）2）The difference between Aristotle and Plato arises not merely from a difference of temperament but from a difference of general conceptual framework. Aristotle's way of thinking about the world is dominated by the model of the biological organism. Clearly, the Aristotelian version of mimesis is no mere matter of passive copying.3）Aristotle claims for poetry a higher kind of truth: not the reporting of factual details but the understanding of underlying generalities. Again, this is a rebuttal of Plato and his view that poetry is cut off from the universal because it is cut off fromthe reality of pure abstractions. Aristotle envisages another kind of generality: generality of the species.4）In focusing upon emotional effect, Aristotle is promoting that very aspect of poetry to which Plato most objected. But then Aristotle does not regard the emotions as intrinsically harmful but as a natural part of human life. Aristotle challenges Plato's assumption that people who 'indulge' in fictionally-created emotions will become prone to excessive emotionality in their lives generally.8. Discuss Aristotle’s theory of tragedy. P12-15Aristotle asserts that 'the characters [ in tragedy] should be lifelike', he also asserts that 'comedy aims at representing men as worse than they are nowadays, tragedy as better'. He considers the genre of tragedy superior to the genre of epic.The main goal that Aristotle proposes for both tragedy and epic is the goal of unity-- a natural enough goal when works of art are conceived on the biological model.Other goals proposed by Aristotle have to do with audience-- effect. For tragedy, Aristotle defines a specific tragic effect, a distinctive emotional response which the genre seeks to arouse in the audience. Tragedy, he says, should represent actions capable of awakening pity and fear.Aristotle claims that the emotional experience of a tragedy brings about a catharsis (katharsis) od pity and fear in the audience.Having defined the appropriate effect of tragedy, Aristotle goes on consider the type of hero required to produce this effect. The fall of a wholly good man does not generate pity and fear. The appropriate type of hero is a man remarkable for neither virtue nor vice, for neither justice nor depravity, but a man whose fall is due to some error or weakness, some hamartia.9. What is Aristotle’s organic principle? P10-11Aristotle appears as a less absolute theorist,,more interested in describing and classifying things as they are,with less regard to ultimate principles.His way of thinking about the world is dominated by the model of the biological organism.Art imitates Nature is Aristotle‟s general principle,in the sense that the arts,like Nature,work to unfold the potentials hidden within things.In deed ,since a great many accidental factors intervene to prevent things from growing as they “want”in the real world ,Aristotle even suggests that the arts may “on the basis of Nature ,carry things further than Nature can.10. What are Horace’s literary theories? P15-181)Horace’s literary theory appears especially in Epistles 2.1 and 2.2,and above all in the espitle that has come to be known as the Ars poetica.His stance is that of the experienced practioner,passing on valuable advice.Whereas Aristotle expounds principles,Horace lays down rules.2)Like the schooolroom grammarian,Horace speaks the language of right and wrong,the language of social duty.3)Horace recognises a larger number of genres than Aristotle ,including his own favourite genre of satire,But his approach is actually more limiting:less an examination of genres which happen to exist,more a designation of genres which may be allowed to exist.4)Horace’s key concept of decorum.In Horace’s way of thinking ,the ultimate goal is more easily lost gight of .5)Horace consistently views poesis as a craft,in Horace’s thinking ,”native genius “is indeed akin to aptitude .6)He continues to speak of imitating from reality.7)Horace’s new emphasis upon moral value in poetry,he institutes a bifurcation of virtue.In general,Horace‟s importance to the history of literary theory lies not in any profoundly original ideas, but in the new twist that he gave to the ideas of Aristotle.11. Discuss Longinus’theory of the sublime. P19-211)For Longginus,the sublime is not just one option out of a range of options .It is the essence of all great poetry and oratory,Pinning supreme value to a special use of language,he has no time for concepts of genre.Nor is he interested in the usual rhetorical goal of persuasion.2)The element of preaching in Longinus is reminiscent of more recent manifestos in which poets or novelists have proclaimed their own new way of writing as the only true way ,But Longinus stands in outright opposition to the literary tendencies of his time.3)For Longinus ,the sublime is a matter of reader response,It is true that he also invokes the author and the need for grand ideas impregnated with a noble inspiration,”Sublimity is the echo of a noble mind”,he writes,But his theory is essentially affective,not self-expressive.4)Longinus is interested in an extremity of effect that is always in danger of topling over into absurdity.5)The sublime as defined by Longinus is virtually beyond language,or at least ordinary literal language,He is concerned with what a text commun icates rather than the writer‟s uncommunicated soul.6)Longinus nonetheless gestures towards a poetic “rightness”which somehow transcends the literal meanings involved.7)He regards concision as generally inimical to the goals of transport,wonder and awe ,instead he favours the appropriate use of amplification and periphrasis ,two standard devices in the rhetorician‟s armoury.12. Dante Alighieri argues that the full four levels of meaning in Biblical exegesis can also be found in secular, vernacular poetry. What are they? Give some examples to expound them.P31-3213.There is one early battle in the Renaissance between Latin and the national vernacular. What is it? Expound it in detail. P31-321)One early battle in the renaissance was fought between those who believed that the new literature should be written in latin and those who believed that it should be written in the national vernacular. On the one hand, the humanist enterprise led to the recovery of a “pure” roman latin, as distinct from the delegat ed church latin of the middle ages. However, the growing power of the centralised ruler, and the growing power of the centralised ruler corresponded to a growth of national consciousness. This curious contradiction between cultural forces and socio-political forces was resolved in favor of the socio-political forces.2)The battle was fought our first in italy the earliest reasoned argument for a vernacular literature appeared in the 14th century. The argument also became a debate between different forms of the vernacular. Finally, the continuation of the debate into the early renaissance resulted in a victory for the school.3)A side ............................quantitative verse.(32页第二段开始）4)In hindsight........................assumptions.14. Discuss the idealising strain in the early Renaissance. P33-351)The renaissance period was still creative in its relation to antiquity. But its accurate and less overwhelming.2)For literary theory, the most........publishing history（33页第二段）. Ariosto filled his romance with fantastic beings and events, and audience reaction clearly showed that such novel inventions had a special appeal of their own. The justification of marvels and the marvelous became one significant strand of renaissance theory.3)Moreover, the renaissance was still a christian age. For all the fascination of the pagan classics, there were certain christian attitudes that could not be left behind. Above all, literature had to be justified as morally useful.4)Drawing upon renaissance notions of “divine”inspiration and marvelous invention, sidney effectively outmanoeuvres the whole issue of truth.5)Theoretically, this..........................important.(35页最后一段）15. Discuss the Aristotelians’principle of verisimilitude. P39-39Verisimilitude means, literally, likeness to reality. With the principle of verisimilitude, the Italian Aristotelians gave more weight to believability, less to emotional effect;In the first place verisimilitude has nothing to do with everyday realism or the limitation of how a majority of people spend the majority of their lives; then, verisimilitude is still the way we tend to judge credibility in relation to public events; last, according to the principle of verisimilitude, credibility depends upon probability, probability depends upon truth-to-type;Of all the Italian Aristoteans, Castelvetro is the most interesting, and particularly extreme is his insistance upon verisimilitude;Considerations of verisimilitude also apply to presentation and performance.16. In the first half of the seventeenth century, there was the purification of language. Explain it in detail. P40-41From the very start of the seventeenth century, the wholesale naturalisation of foreign terms advocated by du Bellay was reversed by Francois de Malherbe, who sought to restrict and stabilise language in the interests of clear communication.During the Neoclassical period, the accolades go to perspicuity, that is, the quality of …see-through-able-ness‟ in language.Indeed, Neoclassical writers have a general predilection for analogies to sight and light and seeing: sight being the most objectifying sense, where the subject observes at a distance and the object appears as if untouched and unmediated.17. Discuss the scientific attitude and its influence in the Neoclassical theory. P42-45Scientific attitude:the rational attitude is objective and looks out beyond what merely happens to be in the immediate vicinity of the subject.This is also the scientific attitude, in the 17tn century,scientists had had to pull down human pride in a very drastic way,displacing the Earth from the centre of the universe..Ideally,scientific attitude involves a kind of modesty in the face of the world,a willingness to accept self-reducing,self-controlling laws.1)Neoclassical literary theorists embrace this kind of modesty almost for its own sake.Critic must recognise their own limits,but it is not by looking out to the observable factual evidence that Neoclassical critics transcend the subjective point of view.2)As regards the authority of the past,Neoclassical critics believe that the writer can be just as True Nature by imitating the Greek and Roman classics as by imitating actual reality.There is a sense of self-centred pride reduced to a proper humility.3)The authority of the past was also accepted on the subject of genres. Neoclassical theory allowed only a small number of genres,and no mixing between genres.4)This attitude helps to explain the Neoclassical concept of Nature.This is not a Nature of scenes and phenomena uncontaminated by human hand,but a Nature which includes and centres upon human nature.5)Another recurring Neoclassical concept is decorum which means fittingness,Neoclassical critics give the term a bewildering multiplicity of application.18. Discuss John Dryden‟s literary theory in the Neoclassical period. P46-471) In many of Dryden‟s critical statements, Dryden shows himself wholly in agreement with the new trend.But he is also aware of a distinctively English literary tradition,with specific reference points in Shakespeare,Beaumont and Fletcher,Joson and Chaucer.2) He insists that different national audience have their own temperaments and requirement.The Neoclassical assumption of an essential human nature that is constant across cultures and history is here under challenge.3) Dryden‟s most important piece of literary criticism,An Essay of Dramatic Poesy,is in large part a defence of English practice as against French theory,in which,drama is defined as a just and lively imageof human nature.4) Variety is a recurring concept in Dryden‟s criticism.The weighting of character above action had already been advanced by the Italian Aristotelians,but Dryden gives it a distinctively English twist.5) Dryden is more important as a practical than as a theoretical critic.His appreciations and evaluation and contrast ,would loom much larger in a history of practical literary criticism.19. Discuss Samuel Johnson‟s literary theory in the Neoclassical period. P47-481) Samuel‟s criticism is remarkable for judgements and insights into particular authors rather than for any development of a consistent theoretical position.Johnson is essentially Neoclassical in his attitudes,but with certain very significant reservations.2) Johnson values variety:the great source of pleasure is variety.Uniformity must tire at last,though it be uniformity of excellence.3) He also places temphasis on imitating real life,and dismisses abruptly the imitation of past works of literature:No man was ever great by imitation.Nor will he allow an a priori absolute status to Neoclassical rules:there is always an appeal open from criticism to nature.4) He suspects the artificial conventionality of the well-established classical genre of the pastoral.,he also insists the moral role of literature,and requires the writer to select from nature with a moral end in view.5) He believes in starting from actual observation,like the British cist philosophers.Moving away from the apparatus of Neoclassical verisimilitude,he takes a step in the direction of modern notions of realism and the realistic.20. Discuss the concept of the sublime in the Age of Sensibility in Britain. P53-54The term has already appeared in quotes from Joseph and Thomas Warton. The general reverence for everything Classical thinking; for a long time, however, the sublime was restricted to a superficial quality of style. John Dennis regarded passion as the essential feature of poetry, and gave highest praise to religious poetry because of its power to generate sublime feelings of admiration and awe. The most important theorist of the sublime was Edmund Burke. He distinguishes between two quite different forms of aesthetic response: our sense of the beautiful versus our sense of the sublime. Although both are valuable in their own ways, it is clear that a higher level of value is associated with the greaterintensity of the sublime. Our sense of the sublime is inspired by ruggedness, irregularity, vastness, power and obscurity. Terror and fear are mind-numbing, reason-numbing emotions.21. Discuss Giambattista Vico‟s literary theory. P57Vico founded the scientific study of culture.He thought that mythological thinking was determined by the early state of human language which lacked abstract terms.The early state of language is metaphorical ,and myth is a metaphorical way of thinking.He evidently entail a complete rejection of the Neoclassical perspective.Viewed in relation to myth,poetry is n longer something merely added on top of ordinary rational thinking.He argues that metaphor is thinking.(56页第三行，第十一行，第十九行，倒数第二段第三行和第十一行）22. Discuss Denis Diderot‟s literary theory. P57-58Denis Diderot's paradox-loving manner foreshadows Postmodernism.He was a proponent of sensibility and the virtues of natural emotion.He thought that language already operates at a very great distance from the natural.加上57页十六行到十九行的involved.57第二段倒数第九行到faked.57页第二段最后三句话。

高考英语人类学研究单选题30题1.Anthropology is the study of human beings and their _____.A.culturesB.naturesC.charactersD.habits答案：A。

本题考查人类学的定义。

Anthropology（ 人类学）是研究人类及其文化的学科，选项A“cultures” 文化）符合题意。

选项B“natures”（ 本性）、选项C“characters”（ 性格）和选项D“habits”（ 习惯）都不是人类学主要研究的内容。

2.Who is considered the father of modern anthropology?A.Charles DarwinB.Sigmund FreudC.Bronislaw MalinowskiD.Karl Marx答案：C。

Bronislaw Malinowski 布罗尼斯拉夫·马林诺夫斯基）被认为是现代人类学之父。

选项A“Charles Darwin”（ 查尔斯·达尔文）是生物学家。

选项B“Sigmund Freud” 西格蒙德·弗洛伊德）是心理学家。

选项D“Karl Marx”（ 卡尔·马克思）是哲学家、政治经济学家。

3.In anthropology, fieldwork is essential for understanding different _____.A.societiesnguagesC.religionsD.climates答案：A。

在人类学中，田野调查对于理解不同的社会至关重要。

选项A“societies”（社会）符合题意。

选项B“languages”（语言）、选项C“religions”（宗教）和选项D“climates”（气候）虽然也可能在人类学研究中涉及，但不是田野调查的主要目的。

4.The main method used in anthropological research is _____.A.experimentationB.observationC.theory buildingD.literature review答案：B。

大学高级英语第一册第11课译文及课后答案1）谐趣园是仿照无锡的一座花园建造的。

The Garden of Harmonious Interest was modeled on a garden in Wuxi.2）他号召孩子们以 ___英雄为榜样。

He called on the children to model themselves on the PLA heroes.3）这本书应归入哲学类。

This work may be related to philosophy.4）本杰明·富兰克林不仅是政治家，而且还是科学家、发明家。

Benjamin Franklin was as much a scientist and an inventor as a statesman.5）他把每次试验的结果都记在本子上。

He set down all the findings of every experiment in his notebook.6）你能用简明的语言概括这首古诗的中心思想吗？Can you sum up the central idea of this ancient poem in plain terms?7）我们应不断地使自己的思想适应变化的情况。

We should constantly adapt our thinking to the changing conditions.8）年轻的士兵冻死在雪地里，手里还紧握着枪。

The young soldier was frozen to death in the snow, his hands still hanging on to a gun.9）该公司将为他们提供住宿和交通工具。

The said pany will furnishthem with lodging and transportation.10）车速限制在每小时55公里之内。

上海市高级口译第一阶段笔试分类模拟高级阅读(一)(总分：100.00，做题时间：90分钟)一、SECTION 1 READING TEST(总题数：4，分数：50.00)"They treat us like mules," the guy installing my washer tells me, his eyes narrowing as he wipes his hands, I had just complimented him and his partner on the speed and assurance of their work. He explains that it"s rare that customers speak to him this way. I know what he"s talking about. My mother was a waitress all her life, in coffee shops and fast-paced chain restaurants. It was hard work, but she liked it, liked "being among the public", as she would say. But that work had its sting, too—the customer who would treat her like a servant or, her biggest complaint, like she was not that bright.There"s a lesson here for this political season: the subtle and not-so-subtle insults that blue-collar and service workers endure as part of their working lives. And those insults often have to do with intelligence.We like to think of the United States as a classless society. The belief in economic mobility is central to the American Dream, and we pride ourselves on our spirit of egalitarianism. But we also have a troubling streak of aristocratic bias in our national temperament, and one way it manifests itself is in the assumptions we make about people who work with their hands. Working people sense this bias and react to it when they vote. The common political wisdom is that hot-button social issues have driven blue-collar voters rightward. But there are other cultural dynamics at play as well. And Democrats can be as oblivious to these dynamics as Republicans—though the Grand Old Party did appeal to them in St. Paul.Let"s go back to those two men installing my washer and dryer. They do a lot of heavy lifting quickly—mine was the first of 15 deliveries—and efficiently, to avoid injury. Between them there is ongoing communication, verbal and nonverbal, to coordinate the lift, negotiate the tight fit, move in rhythm with each other. And all the while, they are weighing options, making decisions and solving problems—as when my new dryer didn"t match up with the gas outlet.Think about what a good waitress has to do in the busy restaurant: remember orders and monitor them, attend to a dynamic, quickly changing environment, prioritize tasks and manage the flow of work, make decisions on the fly. There"s the carpenter using a number of mathematical concepts—symmetry, proportion, congruence, the properties of angles—and visualizing these concepts while building a cabinet, a flight of stairs, or a pitched roof.The hairstylist"s practice is a mix of technique, knowledge about the biology of hair, aesthetic judgment, and communication skill. The mechanic, electrician, and plumber are troubleshooters and problem solvers. Even the routinized factory floor calls for working smarts. When has any of this made its way into our political speeches? From either party. Even on Labor Day. Last week, the GOP masterfully invoked some old cultural suspicions: country folk versus city and east-coast versus heartland education. But these are symbolic populist gestures, not the stuff of true engagement. Judgments about intelligence carry great weight in our society, and we have a tendency to make sweeping assessments of people"s intelligence based on the kind of work they do.Political tributes to labor over the next two months will render the muscled arm, sleeve rolled tight against biceps. But few will also celebrate the thought bright behind the eye, or offer an image that links hand and brain. It would be fitting in a country with an egalitarian vision of itself to have a truer, richer sense of all that is involved in the wide range of work that surrounds and sustains us.Those politicians who can communicate that sense will tap a deep reserve of neglected feeling.And those who can honor and use work in explaining and personalizing their policies will finda welcome reception.（分数：12.50）(1).To illustrate the intelligence of the working class, the author cites the examples of all of the following EXCEPT ______.（分数：2.50）A.hairstylist and waitressB.carpenter and mechanicC.electrician and plumberD.street cleaner and shop assistant √解析：[解析] 对文章基本内容的理解，具体内容见第四至六段。

The weight of one unit of volume of a material is called its density. 材料的单位体积的重量被称为密度。

⏹The friction between the air and the surface of the plane causes large amounts of heat.空气和飞机表面之间的摩擦力生成大量的热。

⏹The presence of a substituent group in benzene exerts a profound control over both orientation and the ease of introductionof the entering substituent. 苯中取代基的存在对进入基团的方位及进入的难易程度起着强有力的控制作用⏹Hydrocarbons that do not contain the maximum number of hydrogen atoms possible are called unsaturated hydrocarbons不含有最大可能氢原子数的烃叫不饱和烃。

⏹Man was not the first living thing to communicate through the use of sound．第一个用声音进行联络的生物并不是人。

（不定式做后置定语）⏹In the 1880’s, engineer Herman Hoclerith was searching for a way to record census information ．在19世纪80年代，工程师赫尔曼在寻求一种记录人口普查信息的方法。

（不定式做后置定语）⏹The objective of evaporation is to concentrate a solution consisting of nonvolatile solute and a volatile solvent.蒸发的目的是浓缩包含有难挥发的溶质和易挥发溶剂的溶液。

高级英语（下）_习题集（含答案）《高级英语（下）》课程习题集一、汉译英1.他们召开会议，研究该提升谁，别人准备并发布的声明上也要署上他们的名字。

2.她的头靠在窗帘上，鼻孔上是提花窗帘布上的尘土气。

3.通常电视画面凌驾于观点之上。

4.我们将感情建筑在原始的害怕、偏见和陈规老套上而不是建筑在知识和远见上。

5.他希望她不会太生气，因为她生气的时候他会想他当初该不该和她结婚，而有了这种怀疑使他感到很憋闷。

6.我受的是科学的教育，曾为一份科学刊物写过某个领域的一篇专题文章。

7.我们已总结出三种鲜明的价值准则，这样说是因为每种准则都引发出一种不同的顾客价值观8.我们以后的一切麻烦都来自于这个想法9.他很固执，和他从前一样，而且有点迟钝，但他已经准备要转过身来了10.几乎很想加上一句：没有什么东西不能引起人的势力感11.收集艺术作品是收集文化象征，而文化象征则还意味着社会声望。

12.观众中传出了因恐怖而倒吸气的声音，然后便是焦急的不停的窃笑13.寻找刺激是如此深刻的需要以至于手边没有无害途径，它便会找到这类有害途径来发泄。

14.但他们没能做到的是在任何一方面有所突破而达到新的高度。

15.可是如果人们吃葱头不是因为它们有葱头的味道，那么他们究竟为什么要吃洋葱？16.纪律在监督和激励着他们。

17.也许她再也看不到她做梦都没想过要与之分开的一切熟悉的东西了。

18.电视比报纸更依赖商业广告，既然广告是大生意，广告在本性上是亲共和党的。

19.衰老过程是人类生命周期中被忽视的非亲生儿。

20.此价值准则拥护者着重供应的不是市场所需的而是特定顾客群体所需的。

21.他站在大门口，尖顶帽推在后脑勺上，头发向前散乱垂在晒得黧黑的脸上。

22.当音乐中突然加进了萨克管，速度变快了，他小心地和她旋转起来，用自己的双肩打着拍子。

23.运作卓越的公司提供了质量、价格、购物便利的最佳组合，这是市场上其他公司无法与之相比的。

24.她没有把花放在车里带来，但她把花放在心中带来了。