罗宾斯管理学双语教学讲稿4

【免费下载】罗宾斯管理学双语教学讲稿1111 Managerial Communication and InformationTechnology1.INTRODUCTION.Communication between managers and employees provides the information necessary to get work done effectively and efficiently in organizations. In this chapter, basic concepts in communications will be presented including: the interpersonal communication process, methods of communicating, barriers to effective communications and ways to overcome these barriers, communication flow and communication networks, and contemporary issues and challenges associated with electronic communications and information technology.2.UNDERSTANDING MANAGERIAL COMMUNICATION.The importance of effective communication c an’t be overemphasized because everything a manager does involves communicating.A.What Is Communication?Communication is the transfer and understanding of meaning.1.If no information or ideas have been conveyed or transferred,communication hasn’t taken place.2.For communication to be successful, the meaning must beimparted and understood.3.Good communication does not require agreement with themessage, just a clear understanding of the message./doc/f04abdb2f11dc281e53a580216fc700a ba685227.html munication encompasses both interpersonalcommunication(between two or more people) andorganizational communication (all the patterns, networks, andsystem of communication within an organization).B.Functions of Communication: Serves four major functions.1.Control2.Motivation3.Emotional Expression/doc/f04abdb2f11dc281e53a580216fc700a ba685227.html rmation3.INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION.A.Interpersonal Communication Process Elements.Exhibit11.1illustrates the seven elements of the communicationprocess: the communication source, the message, encoding, the channel,decoding, the receiver, and feedback. Note that the entire process issusceptible to noise—disturbances that interfere with the transmission,receipt, or feedback of a message.1. A sender initiates a message by encoding a thought. Fourconditions influence the effectiveness of that encoded messages:skills, attitudes, and knowledge of the sender, and thesociocultural system.2.The message is the actual physical product encoded by thesource. It can be the written document, the oral speech, and eventhe gestures and facial expressions we use.3.The message can be affected by the symbols used to transfermeaning, the content of the message itself, and the selecting andarranging of both the symbols and the content.a.Noise can distort the communication process in any ofthese areas.4.The channel chosen to communicate the message also has thepotential to be affected by noise.a.Managers need to recognize that certain channels aremore appropriate for certain messages.b. A manager might want to use multiple channels—thisdecreases the potential for distortion.5.The receiver is the individual to whom the message is directed.a.The receiver must decode the message.b.Decoding accuracy is limited by the skills, attitudes,knowledge of the receiver, and sociocultural system.6.The feedback loop is the final link in the communicationprocess.a.Feedback provides a check on whether understandinghas been achieved.b.Because feedback can be transmitted along the sametypes of channels as the original message, it faces thesame potential for distortion.B.Methods of Communicating Interpersonally.1.Exhibit11.2provides a comparison of the variouscommunication methods.2.Nonverbal Communication is communication transmittedwithout words. The best-known types of nonverbalcommunication are body language and verbal intonation.a.Body language refers to gestures, facial expressions,and other body movements that convey meaning.b.Verbal intonation refers to the emphasis someone givesto words or phrases that convey meaning.C.Barriers to Effective Interpersonal Communication.1.Filtering is the deliberate manipulation of information to make itappear more favorable to the receiver.a.As information is communicated up through theorganizational levels, it’s condensed and synthesized,and those doing the condensing filter communicationthrough their personal interests and perceptions of whatis important.b.The more that organizational cultural rewards emphasizestyle and appearance, the more that managers will bemotivated to filter communications in their favor.2.Emotions influence how a receiver interprets a message when itis received. It’s best to avoid reacting to a message when thereceiver is upset because he/she is not likely to be thinking clearly/doc/f04abdb2f11dc281e53a580216fc700a ba685227.html rmation overload happens when the information we have towork with exceeds our processing—such as 600 waiting e-mailmessages in the in box.a.Receivers tend to select out, ignore, pass over, or forgetinformation when they have too much information.b.Or, receivers may put off further processing until theoverload situation is over—still ineffectivecommunication.4.Defensiveness—engaging in behaviors such as verballyattacking others, making sarcastic remarks, being overlyjudgmental, and questioning others’ motives—happens whenpeople feel that they’re being threatened./doc/f04abdb2f11dc281e53a580216fc700a ba685227.html nguage—words means different things to different people.a.Age, education, and cultural background can influencelanguage use and definition given to wordsb.Jargon is specialized terminology or technical languagethat members of a group use to communicate amongthemselves.6.National culture can affect the way a manager chooses tocommunicate.D.Overcoming the Barriers to Effective Interpersonal Communication./doc/f04abdb2f11dc281e53a580216fc700a ba685227.html e feedback. This feedback can be verbal or nonverbal.2.Simplify language.3.Listen actively.a.Listening is an active search for meaning, whereashearing is passive.b.Active listening is listening for full meaning withoutmaking premature judgments or interpretations, anddemands total concentration.c.Active listening is enhanced by developing empathywith the sender—placing yourself in the sender’sposition.d.Exhibit11.4 lists other specific behaviors that activee.Listeners demonstrate.4.Constrain emotions. The simplest answer is for a manager torefrain from communicating until he/she has regainedcomposure.5.Watch nonverbal cues—actions speak louder than words./doc/f04abdb2f11dc281e53a580216fc700a ba685227.html ANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATION.A.Formal versus Informal Communication.1.Formal communication refers to communication that followsthe official chain of command or is part of the communicationrequired to do one’s job./doc/f04abdb2f11dc281e53a580216fc700a ba685227.html rmal communication is organizational communication thatis not defined by the organization’s structural hierarchy./doc/f04abdb2f11dc281e53a580216fc700a ba685227.html rmal communication systems permit employees tosatisfy their needs for social interaction./doc/f04abdb2f11dc281e53a580216fc700a ba685227.html rmal communication systems can improve anorganization’s performance by creating alternative, andfrequently faster and more efficient, channels ofcommunication.B.Direction of Communication Flow.1.Downward communication—flows from a manager toemployees and is used to inform, direct, coordinate, and evaluateemployees.2.Upward communication flows from employees to managersa.Upward communication can be used in order to keepmanagers aware of how employees feel about their jobs,their coworkers, and the organization in general.b.The organizational culture influences the extent ofupward communication. A climate of trust, respect, andparticipative decision-making will encourageconsiderable upward communication. A highlymechanistic and authoritarian environment will severelylimit upward communication in both style and content./doc/f04abdb2f11dc281e53a580216fc700a ba685227.html teral communication takes place among employees on thesame organizational level.4.Diagonal communication is communication that cuts acrossboth work areas and organizational levels.a.The increased use of e-mail facilitates diagonalcommunications.b.Diagonal communication has the potential to createproblems if employees don’t keep their managersinformed./doc/f04abdb2f11dc281e53a580216fc700a ba685227.html anizational Communication Networks.1.Types of Communication Networks. Exhibit11.4illustratesthree common communication networks.a.The chain network represents communication flowingaccording to the formal chain of command, bothdownward and upward.b.The wheel network represents communication flowingbetween a clearly identifiable and strong leader andothers in a work group or team. The leader serves as thehub through which all communication passes.c.The all-channel network represents communicationflowing freely among all members of a work team.2.The grapevine is the informal organizational communicationnetwork.a.The grapevine is active in almost every organization.One survey reported that 75 percent of employees hearabout matters first through rumors on the grapevine.b.The grapevine can act as both a filter and a feedbackmechanism.5.UNDERSTANDING INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY.A.How Technology Affects Managerial Communication.Two developments in information technology seem to be having themost significant impact on current managerial communication:networked computer systems and wireless capabilities./doc/f04abdb2f11dc281e53a580216fc700aba685227.html worked computer systems are computers linked togetherthrough compatible hardware and software, creating anorganizational network.a.E-mail is the instantaneous transmission of writtenmessages on computers that are linked together. It is fastand cheap and can be used to send the same message tonumerous people at the same time.b.Instant messaging (IM) is interactive real-timecommunication that takes place among computer userswho are logged onto the computer network at the sametime.c.Voice-mail systems digitize spoken messages, transmitthem over the network, and store the messages on diskfor the receiver to retrieve later.d.Fax machines allow the transmission of documentscontaining both text and graphics over ordinarytelephone lines.e.Electronic data interchange (EDI) is a way fororganizations to exchange standard business transactiondocuments, such as invoices or purchase orders, usingdirect computer-to-computer networks.f.Teleconferencing allows a group of people to confersimultaneously using telephone or e-mail groupcommunications software.g.Videoconferencing involves teleconferencing membersto see each other over video screen.h.Intranet systems are organizational communicationnetworks that use Internet technology and are accessibleonly by organizational employees.i.Extranet systems are organizational communicationnetworks that use Internet technology and allowauthorized users inside the organization to communicatewith certain outsiders such as customers and vendors.2.Wireless Capabilities. Wireless communication depends onsignals sent through air or space without any physical connectionusing things such as microwave signals, satellites, radio wavesand radio antennas, or infrared light rays.B.How Information Technology Affects Organizations./doc/f04abdb2f11dc281e53a580216fc700a ba685227.html munication and the exchange of information amongorganizational members are no longer constrained by geographyor time.2.However, managers must not forget to address the psychologicaldrawbacks such as the cost of an employee being constantly accessible, pressure to “check in” even during off hours, and theseparation of work lives and personal lives.6. COMMUNICATION ISSUES IN TODAY’S ORGANIZATIONS.Effectively communicating means being connected to any of theorganization’s stakeholders.A. Managing Internet Gripe Sites.Rather than be defensive, managers should view them as a source ofinformation.B.Managing the Organization’s Knowledge Resources.Managers need to make it easy for employees to communicate and sharetheir knowledge so than can learn from each other.1.Create online information databases.2.Create communities of practice, which are groups of peoplewho share a concern, a set of problems, or a passion about a topand who increase their knowledge about the topic by interactingon an on-going basis.C. The Role of Communication in Customer Service.What communication takes place and how it takes place can have asignificant impact on customer satisfaction.1.The quality of their interpersonal interaction between the contactemployee and the customer has an impact on customersatisfaction.2. “Politically Correct” Communication.We must be sensitive to ot hers’ feelings. Be careful on how we selectcertain words that can stereotype, intimidate, and insult.a. Words are a primary means of communicating. Politicalcorrectness can reduce our options for conveying messages clearly. This represents a significant challenge.1.Why isn’t effective communication synonymous with agreement?A message can be clearly understood, but not agreed with. As long as themessage is clearly understood, effective communication has happened.2.Which do you think is more important for the manager: speaking accurately orlistening actively? Why?Students’ reactions may vary. However, they need to make a strong case for their specific opinion. Many will think that listening actively is more important because correct information cannot be returned to the employees or supervisor if the manager has not listened actively and correctly heard the information request.Others will make the argument that it’s more important for the manager to speak accurately to begin with.3.“Ineffective communication is the fault of the sender.” Do you agree or disagreewith this statement? DiscussStudent responses to this question will vary. In fact, this would be an excellent question to set up as a debate with half of the class supporting the sender and the other half supporting the receiver.4.How might managers use the grapevine for their benefit?Managers can stay on top of issues that concern employees and, in turn, can use the grapevine to disseminate important information.5.Is information technology helping managers be more effective and efficient?Explain your answer.Yes, information technology is helping managers be moreeffective and efficient. It has significantly improved a manager’s ability to monitor individual or team performance, it has allowed employees to have more complete information to make faster decisions, and it has provided employees more opportunities to collaborate and share information. It has also made it possible for people in organizations to be fully accessible, any time, regardless of where they are.。

ThreeOrganizational Culture and the Environment The Constraints 1. INTRODUCTION.Managers must be aware that organizational culture and organizational environments will influence both the way an organization is managed as well as its effectiveness. In this chapter, both organizational culture and organizational environment are explored in order to understand the complexities involved with each.2.THE MANAGER: OMNIPOTENT OR SYMBOLIC?Two positions on the role that managers play in an organization’s su ccess or failure have been proposed.The omnipotent view of management says that managers are directly responsible for the success or failure of an organization. This view of managers as omnipotent is consistent with the stereotypical picture of the take-charge executive who can overcome any obstacle in carrying out the organization’s objectives. When organizations perform poorly, someone must be held accountable. Ac cording to this view, that “someone” has been management.The symbolic view of management takes the view that much of an organization’s success or failure is due to external forces outside managers’ control. 1.What managers do affect greatly are symbolic outcomes.2. Organizational results are influenced by factors outside the control of managers: economy, market changes, governmental policies, competitors’ actions, the state of the particular industry, the control of proprietary technology, and decisions made by previous manager in the organization. 3. The manager’s role is seen as creating meaning out of randomness, confusion, and ambiguity. 4. According to the symbolic view, the actual part that management plays in the success or failure of an organization is minimal.Reality suggests a synthesis. In reality, managers are neither helpless nor all powerful. Instead, it’s more logical to look at the manager operating within constraints imposed by the organization’s culture and environment. (See Exhibit 3.1.)3.THE ORGANIZATION’S CULTURE.Just as individuals have a personality, so, too, do organizations. We refer to an organiza tion’s personality as its culture.A. Organizational culture is a system of shared meaning and beliefswithin an organization that determines, in large degree, how employeesact. This definition implies:1. Individuals perceive the organizational culture on the basis ofwhat they see, hear, or experience within the organization2. Organizational culture is shared by individuals within theorganization.anizational culture is a descriptive term. It describes rather thanevaluates.4. Seven dimensions of an organization’s culture have beenproposed (see Exhibit3.2):a. Innovation and risk taking (the degree to whichemployees are encouraged to be innovative and takerisks)b. Attention to detail (the degree to which employees areexpected to exhibit precision, analysis, and attention todetail)c. Outcome orientation (the degree to which managersfocus on results or outcomes rather than on thetechniques and processes used to achieve thoseoutcomes)d. People orientation (the degree to which managementdecisions take into consideration the effect on peoplewithin the organization)e. Team orientation (the degree to which work activitiesare organized around teams rather than individuals)f. Aggressiveness (the degree to which people areaggressive and competitive rather than easygoing andcooperative)g. Stability (the degree to which organizational activitiesemphasize maintaining the status quo in contrast togrowth)5. Exhibit 3.3describes how the cultural dimensions can becombined to create significantly different organizations.B. Strong vs. Weak Cultures.1.Strong cultures are possessed by those organizations in whichthe key values are intensely held and widely shared.2. Whether an organization’s cultur e is strong, weak, or somewherein between will depend on organizational factors such as size,age, employee turnover rate, and intensity of original culture.3. A culture will have increasing impact on what managers do as itbecomes stronger.4. Most orga nizations have moderate to strong cultures. There’shigh agreement on what’s important, what defines “good”employee behavior, and so forth.5. Studies of organizational culture have shown various results.One found that employees in firms with strong cultures weremore committed to their firm than employees in firms with weakcultures. Organizations with strong cultures also used theirrecruitment efforts and socialization practices to build employeecommitment. And an increasing body of research suggests thatstrong cultures are associated with high organizationalperformance.C.The original source of an organization’s culture is usually a reflection of thevision or mission of the organization’s founders. It results from the interaction between the foun ders’ biases and assumptions and what the first employees subsequently learned from their own experiences.D. How an Organization’s Culture Continues.1.Once a culture is in place, practices help maintain it.2.Hiring practices reflect the culture in terms of fit.3.Actions of top executives.4.Employees adapt to an organization’s culture throughsocialization—where new employees learn the organization’sway of doing things.5.Exhibit 3.4summarizes how an organization’s culture isestablished and maintained.E. How Employees Learn Culture.1.Culture is transmitted principally through stories, rituals,material symbols, and language.2. Organizational stories are one way that employees learn theculture. These stories typically involve a narrative of significantevents or people.3. Rituals are repetitive sequences of activities that express andreinforce the key values of the organization, what goals are mostimportant, which people are important, and which areexpendable.4. The use of material symbols is another way in which employeeslearn the culture, learn the degree of equality desired by topmanagement, and find out who is important and the kinds ofbehavior that are expected and appropriate.5. Finally, language is often used to identify members of a culture.Learning this language indicates members’ willingness to acceptand preserve the culture. This special lingo acts as a commondenominator that unites members of a given culture.F.How Culture Affects Managers. Because the organizational cultureestablishes constraints on what managers can and cannot do, it’s particularly relevant.1. The link between corporate values and managerial behavior isfairly straightforward.2. The culture conveys to managers what is appropriate behavior.3. A n organization’s culture, particularly a strong one, constrains amanager’s decision-making options in all managerial functions.(See Exhibit3.5.)4.CURRENT ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE ISSUES FACING MANAGERS.Four current cultural issues managers should consider:A.Creating an Ethical Culture. (See Exhibit3.6 for suggestions on howmanagers can create a more ethical culture).1. Content and strength of an organization’s culture influence itsethical climate and ethical behavior of its members.2. Strong organizational culture will exert more influence onemployees than a weak one.3. An organizational culture most likely to shape high ethicalstandards is one that’s big in risk tolerance, low to moderate inaggressiveness, and focuses on means as well as outcomes.B.Creating an Innovative Culture1. What does an innovative culture look like? Swedish researcherGoran Ekvall provides these characteristics:a. Challenge and involvementb. Freedomc. Trust and opennessd. Idea timee. Playfulness/humorf. Conflict resolutiong. Debatesh. Risk-takingB.Creating a Customer-Responsive Culture1. What does a customer-responsive culture look like? Research showsthe following six characteristics that are routinely present: (seeExhibit3.7for managerial actions to make their cultures morecustomer responsive).a. Type of employeeb. Few rigid rules, procedures, and regulationsc. Widespread use of empowermentd. Good listening skillse. Role clarityf.Employees who are conscientious in desire to pleasecustomersB.Spirituality and Organizational Culture1. Workplace spirituality is the recognition that people have an innerlife that nourishes and is nourished by meaningful work that takesplace in the context of community.2. Five cultural characteristics evident in spiritual organizationsa. Strong sense of purposesb. Focus on individual developmentc. Trust and opennessd. Employee empowermente. Toleration of employee expression5. THE ENVIRONMENT.The impact of the external environment on a m anager’s actions and behaviors cannot be overemphasized. There are forces in the environment that play a major role in shaping man agers’ endeavors.A. The environment is defined as outside institutions and forces outsidethe organization that potentially affect an organization’s performance.1. The specific environment is that part of the environment thatincludes the constituencies that are directly relevant to theachievement of an organiza tion’s goals.a. The specific environment is unique and changes withconditions.b. It also varies depending on the niche the organizationserves with respect to the range of products or services itoffers and the markets it serves.c. The main constituencies include customers, suppliers,competitors, and pressure groups.1) Suppliers include firms that provide materialsand equipment as well as providers of financialand labor inputs. Managers seek to ensure asteady flow of the needed materials, equipment,financial, and labor inputs at the lowest possibleprice.2) Customers are the reasons that organizationsexist, as they absorb the outputs. They obviouslyrepresent potential uncertainty, particularly iftheir tastes and desires change.3) Competitors cannot be ignored. They’re animportant environmental force to monitor andrespond to. Most organizations have one ormore competitors.4) Pressure groups also cannot be ignored bymanagers. Changes in social and politicalmovements influence the power that thesepressure groups have on organizations.2. The general environment includes the broad economic,political/legal, sociocultural, demographic, technological, andglobal conditions.a. Economic conditions include interest rates, inflationrates, changes in disposable income, stock marketfluctuations, and the general business cycle, amongother things.b. Political/legal conditions include the general politicalstability of countries in which an organization doesbusiness and the specific attitudes that elected officialshave toward business. Federal, state, and localgovernments can influence what organizations can andcannot do (See Exhibit3.9for a listing of significantlegislation affecting businesses.)c. Sociocultural conditions include the changingexpectations of society. Societal values, customs, andtastes can change, and managers must be aware of thesechanges.d. Demographic conditions, including physicalcharacteristics of a population, such as gender, age, levelof education, geographic location, income and familycomposition, can change, and managers must adapt tothese changes.e. Technological conditions include the changes that areoccurring in technology.f. Global factors include global competitors and globalconsumer markets.B. How the Environment Affects Managers.Environments are not all the same. They differ in the amount of environmental uncertainty, which is defined as the degree of change and complexity in an organi zation’s environment. (See Exhibit3.10.)1. Degree of change is measured as dynamic or complex. If thecomponents in an organization’s environment change frequently,it’s a dynamic environ ment. If change is minimal, theenvironment is called a stable one.2. The other dimension of uncertainty relates to the degree ofenvironmental complexity, which is defined as the number ofcomponents in an organiza tion’s environment and the extent ofan organization’s knowledge about its environmentalcomponents.3. If the number of components is minimal and there’s minimalneed for sophisticated knowledge, the environment is classifiedas simple. If there are a number of components, they are notsimilar, and there is a high need for sophisticated knowledge, theenvironment is complex.4. Because uncertainty is a threat to organizational effectiveness,managers try to minimize itC. The more obvious and secure an organization’s relationships becomewith external stakeholders, the more influence managers will have overorganizational controls.1. Stakeholders are any constituencies in the organization’sexternal environment that are affected by, or have a vestedinterest in, the organization’s de cisions and actions. (SeeExhibit3.11 for an identification of some of the most commonones.)2. Stakeholder relationship management is important for tworeasons:a. It can lead to improved predictability of environmentalchanges, more successful innovation, greater degrees oftrust, and greater organizational flexibility to reduce theimpact of change.b. It is the “right” thing to do, because organizations aredependent on external stakeholders as sources of inputsand outlets for outputs and should be considered whenmaking and implementing decisions.3. Stakeholder relationships are managed using four steps:a. Identify external stakeholdersb. Determine the specific interests of each stakeholdergroupc. Decide how critical these interests are to theorganizationd. Determine what specific approach managers should useto manage each relationship based on criticalness ofstakeholder and environmental uncertainty.1. Refer to Exhibit 3.3. How would a first-line manager’s job differ in these twoorganizations? How about a top-level manager’s job?In Organization A, there’s strong attention to detail and little innovation and risk taking. Teamwork would not be encouraged, and employees would be viewed asa means to an end. Strict controls would be placed on workers, and taskachievement would be most important. The supervisor would not have much latitude and would do things “by the book.”In Organization B, innovation and risk taking are highly encouraged.The supervisor would have more autonomy in how to achieve goals. Employees would be given the opportunity to provide input, and a team approach is used.People are viewed as important contributors. T he supervisor’s job would be more like that of a coach, encourager, and facilitator.2. Describe an effective culture for (a) a relatively stable environment and (b) adynamic environment. Explain your choices.An effective culture for a relatively stable environment would likely emphasize outcomes such as quality and productivity and have strong attention to detail. It wouldn’t need to have high levels of innovation and risk taking or aggressiveness.On the other hand, an effective culture for a dynamic environment would likely emphasize aggressiveness, innovation and risk taking, and team orientation. To stay on top of the continual environmental changes, this organization’s culture would need to celebrate work behaviors that kept the organization on top.3. Classrooms have cultures. Describe your class culture using the sevendimensions of organizational culture. Does the culture constrain your instructor? How?Answers to this question will vary. Have students look at the seven dimensions of organizational culture described in the text and rate them from high to low for the class. One point you might want to explore is what role the instructor plays in establishing the culture of the classroom. Then, relate this to what role a manager might play in establishing the culture of an organization or organizational unit.4. Can culture be a liability to an organization? Explain.A culture in which the organization exits (or the organization’s culture) could bea liability in extreme cases. In a global environment one can see where thiscould have an impact. For example, if the society (and organizational cultures) discriminates against certain ethnic groups or on the basis of gender or engages in exploitation of workers, this could create a backlash from consumers in other nations (see for example Reebok and Nike’s troubles regarding manufacturing in emerging nations).5. Why is it important for managers to understand the external forces that areacting on them and their organization?The external environment consists of many factors that have an impact on the organization. Political and legal factors (government regulations), demographics (that can affect labor supply), technological improvements, and other factors directly affect the management of the organization including planning and decision-making.6.“Businesses are built on relationships.” What do you think this statementmeans? What are the implications for managing the external environment?Organizations depend on their environment and their stakeholders as a source of inputs and a recipient of outputs. Good relationships can lead to organizationaloutcomes such as improved predictability of environmental changes, more successful innovations, greater degrees of trust among stakeholders, and greater flexibility in order to act to reduce the impact of change. Also, relationship management and the maintaining of good relationships have been proven by many researchers to have an effect on organizational performance. The high-performing companies tend to consider the interests of all major stakeholder groups as they make decisions.7.What would be the drawbacks to managing stakeholder?The term boundary spanner refers to the fact that managers must span (bridge) the boundary between the organization and its environment. When managers are being boundary spanners, or are utilizing stakeholder management or stakeholder partnering, the boundaries of the organization are going to become more flexible and permeable. This could lead to or ganizational information being “leaked” or known outside of the organization. And, in addition, these relationship management techniques all require mangers’ time, which can be a very limited commodity to begin with.。

《罗宾斯管理学》读后感斯蒂芬·P·罗宾斯博士，是美国著名的管理学教授，组织行为学的权威，他在亚利桑那大学获得博士学位，罗宾斯博士的实践经验丰富，学识渊博，并非一般象牙塔中研究管理学的教授可以比拟。

他曾就职于壳牌石油公司和雷诺金属公司，他先后在布拉斯加大学、协和大学、巴尔的摩大学、南伊利诺伊大学和圣迭戈大学任教，并在一些著名的跨国公司中担任咨询顾问。

这样一位经历丰富的作者写出的这样一部著作，我在拜读后立即感觉他用浅显易懂的语言阐述了什么事管理以及如何做一名合格杰出的管理者。

而且选用的都是贴近实际生活的例子，对学习实践具有直观的指导意义。

从结构上讲，本书基本上是围绕管理的几大模块阐述的，从管理的基本了解到定义管理者的领地到计划这三大方面一一进行了说明，特别是对管理，管理者的决策和管理的约束力等进行了超越一般见解的论述。

而且，本书还纠正了一些在在许多流行的管理书籍中未经证实的观点，以实践证据他们做了反驳。

所以，我对本书的观点就是，这是一本从多方面、多角度、多实例、多实践的管理型书籍，对我学习管理学有很大的帮助和能够让我更好的从中学到多方面的知识。

然而为什么要学习管理学，组织和管理和效率和效果之间又有些什么样的联系，在学习完本书后我有了大概的一个认识。

学习管理学除了是我们专业的要求和将来工作的需要，更重要的也是学了管理学之后我们的待人处事将会更有条理性。

就像是一个侦探事件一般，要解决所有的事得出最后的结论，必须通过管理自己的大脑理清所有的程序，以及理清身边所出现的事物才能得到正确的结果。

另外，学好管理学也是处理人际关系的一种很重要的课程。

就像本书中所论断的原因有这些：第一个原因是，由于改进组织的管理方式关系到我们每个人的切身利益。

学习管理的第二个原因是，当你从学校毕业开始你的事业生涯时，你所面对的现实是，不是管理别人就是被别人管理。

这样会有一个稍微明晰的学习认知。

虽然书中摆出的原因就那么两个，但我认为知识都是灵活变通的，管理学的应用之处和学习它的原因必定是多的，只是这两个最为现实和明显罢了。

罗宾斯《管理学》决策引言在商业和组织管理中，决策是一个至关重要的环节。

它涉及到分析问题、评估选项并做出最佳的选择。

《管理学》是一本经典的管理学教材，作者罗宾斯对决策过程进行了系统的研究和讲解。

本文将以罗宾斯《管理学》为主要参考，探讨决策的概念、决策过程以及与决策相关的因素。

决策的概念决策是指在面临不同选择时，根据一定的目标、条件和假设做出的最佳选择或方案。

它是管理过程中最重要的一环，决策的质量和准确性直接影响组织的绩效和成果。

决策可以分为个人决策和群体决策。

个人决策是指由个体单独做出的决策，而群体决策则是多个个体参与讨论和协商，最终做出的决策。

在群体决策中，通常通过集体智慧和专业知识的汇聚，可以得到更全面和准确的决策结果。

决策过程决策过程是一个系统的、连续的过程，包括以下几个阶段：1.问题识别：识别出存在的问题或挑战，将其明确化和具体化。

2.信息收集：收集和收集关于问题的数据和信息，以便做出更准确的决策。

3.问题定义：明确定义问题的目标和标准，为后续的评估和选择提供依据。

4.方案评估：评估各种解决方案的优劣，比较它们的风险、成本和效益等因素。

5.方案选择：根据评估结果选择最佳方案，确保符合预定的目标和标准。

6.方案执行：将选择的方案转化为具体的行动计划，并实施起来。

7.方案评估：对执行结果进行评估和反馈，及时调整和改进。

影响决策的因素决策过程受到多种因素的影响，包括但不限于以下几个方面：1.信息可得性：信息的可得性和质量对决策的影响很大。

缺乏关键信息可能导致决策的不准确性和不完整性。

2.时间压力：决策的时间压力可能会限制决策者的思考和分析能力。

在一定的时间限制下做出的决策可能并不完全理想。

3.风险偏好：决策者对风险的偏好也会影响决策的结果。

某些决策者更偏好保守的决策方案，而其他人则更愿意冒险。

4.经验和知识：决策者的经验和专业知识对决策的质量和准确性有很大的影响。

经验丰富的决策者通常能够更快速、更准确地做出决策。

第一章绪论一、管理的涵义人类的共同劳动资源（人、财、物、信息、时间）共同目标定义：为实现预定目标而进行的计划、组织、人员配备、领导、控制（孔茨）或合理组织和有效利用有限资源以达到既定目标的过程。

•管理的实质是一种手段、工具，不是目的。

•管理的作用在于它的有效性，追求效率与效果的统一。

效率是以较少的代价完成活动，涉及活动的方式。

即正确地做事效果指目标达成度，涉及活动的结果。

即做正确的事好的管理在于把对的事情做得更好。

低水平的管理表现在：1）无效率（某些政府部门的办事程序）2）无效果（某些企业的库存积压产品）3）牺牲效率的效果[例] 90年代中期，国家进行了金融体制改革，国有银行开始向商业银行转变，在这种形势下，各行纷纷打算拓展自己的业务。

某银行也制定了一个长远规划：通过不断增设营业部，在五年之内，把每年的储蓄额提高到20亿元。

规划中的另一个目标是，一旦每年的储蓄额达到20亿，那么年利润要达到2亿元。

经过几年的努力，该行在各地开设了20个营业部，而且在规定的时间内也达到了储蓄额为20亿元的目标，只有一件事出了差错：它不是赚了2亿元，而是亏了近5000万元，使自身陷入困境，连掉头的机会也微乎其微。

------答：有效果，无效率二、管理的基本特征1、管理是一种社会现象。

（只要有人类社会存在，就有管理活动）管理产生的二个条件：二人以上的集体活动共同的目标管理是社会化劳动的产物，可追溯到原始社会。

2、管理的载体是组织，管理总是存在于一定的组织之中。

什么是组织？3、操作者：管理者：有下属向其汇报工作。

上层包括中层共同任务：设计和维持一种环境，使人们努力工作以基层实现既定目标。

4．管理的核心是处理各种人际关系。

5、管理的职能法约尔：计划、组织、指挥、协调、控制孔茨：计划、组织、人员配备、领导、控制6、管理工作的普遍性管理工作具有普遍性，无论他在何处，所履行的职责有内在共同性。

•组织的类型（如企业、政府部门、学校）•组织的规模（如小公司与大公司）•组织中的层次•跨区域的可转移性计划组织领导控制基层管理者 15% 24% 51% 10%中层管理者 18% 33% 36% 13%高层管理者 28% 36% 22% 14%7、管理与经营管理经营条件：社会化劳动的产物商品经济的产物背景：原始社会奴隶社会末期目的：提高效率提高效益角度：内向性（资源的组织利用）外向性（环境）适用：一切组织企业三、管理的性质1．管理的二重性：自然属性：管理与生产力、社会化大生产相联系的性质。

TwoManagement Yesterday and Today1. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF MANAGEMENT.There are many examples from past history that illustrate how management has been practiced for thousands of years.The Egyptian pyramids and the Great Wall of China are good examples of projects of tremendous scope and magnitude that employed tens of thousands of people. How was it possible for these projects to be completed? The answer is management. Regardless of what managers were called at the time, someone had to plan what was to be done, organize people and material, lead and direct the workers, and impose controls to ensure that things were done as planned.Other examples of early management practices can be seen at the Arsenal of Venice. For instance, assembly lines, accounting systems, and personnel functions are just a few of the processes and activities in organizations at that time that are also common to today’s organizations. Organizations and managers have been around for thousands of years.Adam Smith, author of the classical economics doctrine, The Wealth of Nations, argued brilliantly about the economic advantages that division of labor (the breakdown of jobs into narrow, repetitive tasks) would bring to organizations and society.The Industrial Revolution can be thought of as possibly the most important pre-twentieth-century influence on management. The introduction of machine powers, combined with the division of labor, made large, efficient factories possible. Planning, organizing, leading, and controlling became necessary.Exhibit 2.1 presents six major approaches to management.2. SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT.Scientific management is defined as the use of the scientific method to define the “one best way” for a job to be done.A. Important ContributionsFrederick W. Taylor is known as the “father” of scientific management.Taylor’s work at the Midvale and Bethlehem Steel companies motivatedhis interest in improving efficiency.a. Taylor sought to create a mental revolution among bothworkers and managers by defining clear guidelines forimproving production efficiency. He defined fourprinciples of management (Exhibit2.2).b. His “pig iron” experiment is probably the most widelycited example of scientific management.c. Using his principles of scientific management, Taylorwas able to define the one best way for doing each job.d. Overall, Taylor achieved consistent improvements inproductivity in the range of 200 percent. He affirmed therole of managers to plan and control and of workers toperform as they were instructed.2. Frank and Lillian Gilbreth were inspired by Taylor’s work andwent on to study and develop their own methods of scientificmanagement.a. Frank Gilbreth is probably best known for hisexperiments in reducing the number of motions inbricklaying.b. The Gilbreths were among the first to use motion picturefilms to study hand and body motions in order toeliminate the wasteful ones.c. They also devised a classification scheme to label 17basic hand motions called therbligs.B. How Do Today’s Managers Use Scientific Management?The guidelines that Taylor and others devised from improvingproduction efficiency are still used in organizations today. Currentmanagement practice isn’t restricted to scientific management, however.Some elements still used include:1. The use of time and motion studies.2. Best qualified workers.3. Design incentive systems based on output.3. GENERAL ADMINISTRATIVE THEORISTS.This group of writers focused on the entire organization. They’re important for developing more general theories of what managers do and what constitutes good management practice.A. The two most prominent theorists behind the general administrative approachwere Henri Fayol and Max Weber.1. Henri Fayol wrote during the same time period as Frederick Taylor.Fayol was the managing director of a large French coal-miningfirm.a. His attention was aimed at the activities of all managers.b. He described the practice of management as distinctfrom other typical business functions.c. He stated 14 principles of management(fundamental or universal truths of management that can be taught in schools). (See Exhibit2.3.)2. Max Weber (pronounced VAY-ber) was a German sociologistwho wrote in the early part of the 20th century.a. He developed a theory of authority structures anddescribed organizational activity based on authorityrelations.b. He described the ideal form of organization—thebureaucracy, defined as a form of organization markedby division of labor, a clearly defined hierarchy, detailedrules and regulations, and impersonal relationships. (SeeExhibit2.4.)B. How Do Today’s Managers Use General Administrative Theories?Some of our current management concepts and theories can be traced tothe work of the general administrative theorists.1. The functional view of a manager’s job can be traced to HenriFayol.2. Weber’s bureaucratic characteristics are still evident in many oftoday’s large organizations—even in highly flexibleorganizations of talented professionals where some bureaucraticmechanisms are necessary to ensure that resources are usedefficiently and effectively.4. QUANTITATIVE APPROACH TO MANAGEMENT.The quantitative approach to management involves the use of quantitative techniques to improve decision-making. This approach has been called operations research or management science. It includes applications of statistics, optimization models, information models, and computer simulations.A. Important Contributions.1. The quantitative approach evolved out of the development ofmathematical and statistical solutions to military problemsduring World War II.2. One group of military officers—the Whiz Kids—includedRobert McNamara and Charles “Tex” Thornton.B. How Do Today’s Managers Use the Quantitative Appro ach?1. This approach has contributed most directly to managerialdecision making, particularly in planning and controlling.2. The availability of sophisticated computer software programsmade the use of quantitative techniques somewhat lessintimidating for managers.5. TOWARD UNDERSTANDING ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR.The field of study concerned with the actions (behaviors) of people at work is called organizational behavior. Organizational behavior (OB) research has contributed much of what we know about human resources management and contemporary views of motivation, leadership, trust, teamwork, and conflict management.A. Early Advocates.Four people stand out as early advocates of the OB approach. Theseinclude Robert Owen, Hugo Munsterberg, Mary Parker Follett, andChester Barnard. Their ideas provided foundation for practices such asemployee selection procedures, motivation programs, work teams, andorganization-environment management techniques. (See Exhibit2.5 fora summary of the most important ideas of these early advocates.)B. The Hawthorne Studies were, without question, the most importantcontribution to the developing OB field.1. These were a series of experiments conducted from 1924 to theearly 1930s at Western Electric Company’s Haw thorne Works inCicero, Illinois joined by Harvard professor Elton Mayo and hisassociates.2. The studies were initially devised as a scientific managementexperiment to assess the impact of changes in various physicalenvironment variables on employee productivity.3. Other experiments looked at redesigning jobs, making changesin workday and workweek length, introducing rest periods, andintroducing individual versus group wage plans.4. The researchers concluded that social norms or group standardswere the key determinants of individual work behavior.5. Although not without critics (of procedures, analyses offindings, and the conclusions), the Hawthorne studies didstimulate an interest in human behavior in organizations.C. How Do Today’s Managers Use the Behavioral Approach?1. The behavior approach aids managers in designing motivatingjobs, working with employee teams, and opening upcommunication channels.6. 2. The behavioral approach has provided the foundation for currenttheories of motivation, leadership, group behavior and development,and other behavioral topics. THE SYSTEMS APPROACH.During the 1960’s researches began to analyze organizations from a systemsperspective based on the physical sciences.1. A system is a set of interrelated and interdependent partsarranged in a manner that produces a unified whole.2. The two basic types of systems are open and closed. A closedsystem is one that is not influenced by and does not interact withits environment. An open system is one that dynamicallyinteracts with its environment (see Exhibit2.6).A.The Systems Approach and Managersanization is made up of “interdependent factors, includingindividuals, groups, attitudes, motives, formal structure, interactions,goals, status and authority.2.Managers coordinate the work activities of the various parts of theorganization3.Decisions and actions taken in one organizational area will affectothers and vice versaOrganizations are not self-contained. They rely on their environment.7. THE CONTINGENCY APPROACH.A contingency approach is intuitively logical. One thing to say that the wayto manager “depends on the situation” and another to say what it depends on.1. The contingency approach to management is a view that theorganization recognizes and responds to situational variables asthey arise.2. Some popular contingency variables are shown in Exhibit2.7.8. CURRENT TRENDS AND ISSUESNow that you’ve got a good understanding of the evolution and past history of management theories and practices, what current concepts and practices are shaping today’s management history and changing the way that managers do their jobs?A. Globalization. Organizational operations no longer stop at geographicborders. Managers in all types and sizes of organizations are faced withthe opportunities and challenges of globalization.A.Ethics. Cases of corporate lying, misrepresentations, and financialmanipulations were widespread during 2002. Managers of firms such asEnron, ImClone, Global Crossing, and Tyco International put their self-interest ahead of others who might be affected by their decisions.1.While most managers continue to behave in a highly ethical manner,the abuses suggest a need to “upgrade” ethical standards.2.Ethics education is being widely emphasized in college curriculumsanizations are taking a more active role in creating and using codesof ethics, ethics training programs, and hiring ethics officers.Workforce diversity refers to employees in organizations who are heterogeneous in terms of gender, race, ethnicity, or othercharacteristics. The challenge for managers is to make theirorganizations more accommodating to diverse groups of people byaddressing different lifestyles, family needs, and work styles.1.Workforce diversity is a global issue2.Before the early 1980’s a melting pot or assimilation model wasused. It has been replaced by the recognition and celebration ofdifferences.3.Challenge for managers is to make organizations moreaccommodating to diverse groups of people by addressing differentlifestyles, family needs, and work styles.4.Smart managers recognize diversity as an asset in bringing a broadrange of viewpoints and problem-solving skills to a company.D. Entrepreneurship refers to the process whereby an individual or agroup of individuals uses organized efforts and means to pursueopportunities to create value and grow by fulfilling wants and needsthrough innovation and uniqueness.1. Three important themes stand out in this definition:a. The pursuit of opportunitiesb. Innovationc. Growth2. Entrepreneurship will continue to be important to societiesaround the world.Note: At the end of each major section in this book, a specialentrepreneurship module has been included that looks atthe topics presented in that section from anentrepreneurial perspective.E. Managing in an E-Business World.1. E-business(electronic business)—a comprehensive termdescribing the way an organization does its work by usingelectronic (Internet-based) linkages with key constituencies inorder to efficiently and effectively achieve its goals.2. While critics have questioned the viability of Internet-basedcompanies (dot-coms) after the high-tech implosion in 2000 and2001, e-business is here for the long-run.3. E-commerce(electronic commerce) is any form of businessexchange or transaction in which the parties interactelectronically.4. Categories of e-business involvement (see Exhibit2.8):a. E-business enhanced organization—uses the Internet toenhance (not to replace) their traditional ways of doingbusiness.b. E-business enabled organization—Internet enablesorganizational members to do with work moreefficiently and effectively.F. c. Total e-business organization—whole existence is madepossible by and revolves around the Internet. Knowledge Managementand Learning Organizations.1.Change takes place at an unprecedented rate.anizations to be successful need to be learning organizations—ones that have developed the capacity to continuously learn, adapt,and change. (Exhibit2.9demonstrates the differences between alearning organization and a traditional organization.)Knowledge management involves cultivating a learning culture where organizational members systematically gather knowledge and share itwith others in the organization so as to achieve better performance.G. Quality Management.1. Total quality management is a philosophy of management thatis driven by customer needs and expectations and focuses oncontinual improvement in work processes. (See Exhibit2.10.)2. TQM was inspired by a small group of quality experts, of whomW. Edwards Deming was one of the chief proponents.3. TQM represents a counterpoint to earlier management theoristswho believed that low costs were the only road to increasedproductivity.4. The objective of TQM is to create an organization committed tocontinuous improvement.1. What kind of workplace would Henri Fayol create? How about Mary ParkerFollett? How about Frederick Taylor?Fayol would probably create a workplace in which managers could perform the managerial functions of planning, organizing, coordinating, commanding, and controlling. In addition, he would have a workplace in which his 14 management principles would be followed.Follett would undoubtedly create a workplace in which managers and workers viewed themselves as partners, as part of a common group. In such a workplace, managers would rely more on their expertise and knowledge to lead subordinates, rather than the formal authority of their position. Empowerment and teamwork would be hallmarks of a Follett-style workplace.Taylor would create a workplace in which managers and workers scientifically analyzed and determined the “one best way” to accomplish each job. He would put the right person on the job with the correct tools and equipment, would have the worker follow instructions exactly, and would motivate the worker with an economic incentive of a significantly higher daily wage. Consistent productivity improvements would be his goal in the workplace.2. Can a mathematical (quantitative) technique help a manager solve a “people”problem such as how to motivate employees or how to distribute work equitably?Explain.Although we need to recognize that some “people” problems can’t be expressed quantitatively, mathematical techniques could help a manager solve these problems. Statistical methods, information models, computer simulations, and other quantitative techniques are designed to help managers make better decisions. As such, they could help a manager address people problems being encountered in the workplace.3. Is globalization an issue for e-businesses? Explain.Management, in a traditional, and especially in an e-business world, is no longer constrained by national borders. The world is definitely become a global village, so globalization is an issue! Anywhere business constituencies has Internet-capable, an e-business transaction can take place, regardless of geographic location and proximity.4. “Entrepreneurship is only for small, start-u p businesses.” Do you agree ordisagree with this statement? Explain.Entrepreneurship by definition is the process whereby an individual or a group of individuals uses organized efforts and means to pursue opportunities to create value and grow by fulfilling wants and needs through innovation and uniqueness, no matter what resources are currently controlled. It involves the discovery of opportunities and resources to exploit them. So, yes, entrepreneurship is for small, start-up businesses, but it is also important for larger organizations.Organizations, regardless of size, must be innovative and flexible, which is closely related to entrepreneurship.5. How do societal trends influence the practice of management? What are theimplications for someone studying management?Societal trends greatly influence the practice of management. For example, the change in society’s emphasis on the value of diversity has profound implications for management. The U.S. society went from an emphasis on assimilation (“melting pot”) of differences in the early 1980’s to a celebration and recognition of differences today. Therefore, the way that organizations are structured, motivation programs, and other work-related processes must be aligned with the needs of a diverse and pluralistic workforce. This is a global issue as other countries such as Japan and Australia are experiencing similar diversity trends.6.Would you feel more comfortable in a learning organization or in a traditionalorganization? Why?The answers for these questions will vary according to each student. However, the important part of the answer is how well each student explains or supports his/her preference.The task for students to accomplish with this activity is to do some preliminary work on creating a knowledge base for your particular institution, such that differentorganizational members could utilize the information to increase efficiency and effectiveness. Form groups of three to four students for discussion.One suggestion would be for each group to develop a knowledge “list” for different campus offices or functions. For instance, have one group concentrate on the Registrar’s Office, another with the Financial Aid Office, another with the Student Union, the Alumni Office, etc. The groups should identify what tasks the office performs for students and other institutional offices, what common activities the office performs that other offices might also be performing, and what unique tasks the office performs. After discussing these issues, compile an outline of major areas of important knowledge the organization has as a whole.A couple of hints that might help get the activity started are: using technology in classrooms, keeping in touch with former students and/or alumni.。

管理学罗宾斯11版中英文对照详解第一篇：管理学罗宾斯11版中英文对照详解第一部分• Efficiency效率P8 –“Doing things right”–Getting the most output for the least inputs • Effectiveness 效果–“Doing the right things” – Attaining organizational goals The Manager: P44 Omnipotent or Symbolic? • Omnipotent View of Management管理万能论viewing the world solely through your own perspectives, leading to an inability to recognize differences between people.• Ethnocentric Attitude民族中心论the view that the managers in the host country know the best work approaches and practices for running their business.东道国取向• Geocentric Attitude全球中心论–aworld-oriented view that focuses on using the best approaches and people from around the globe.全球取向• Mu ltinational Corporation(MNC)跨国公司an obstacle(障碍)that makes it difficult to achieve a desired goal or purpose.• Why Do Managers Plan?为什么管理者要制定计划• Purposes of Planning计划的目的– Provides direction给出方向– Reduces uncertainty降低不确定性– Minimizes waste and redundancy减少重复和浪费– Sets the standards for controlling便于控制Mission:使命P227 a statement of the purpose of an organization对组织目的的声明• 范围• Organizational Designthe transfer and understanding ofmeaning.意义的传递和理解• Transfer means the message was received in a form that ca n be interpreted by the receiver.• Understanding the message is not the same as the receiver agreeing with the message.• Interpersonal Communication人际沟通-communication between two or more people.主要指存在于两人或多人之间的沟通；• Organizational Communication组织沟通-all the patterns, networks, and systems ofcommunications within an organization.主要指组织中沟通的各种方式、网络Work specialization工作专门化Departmentalization部门化Chain of command指挥链Span of control管理跨度Centralization and decentralization集权与分权 Formalization 正规化和系统。

14Foundations of Behavior1. INTRODUCTION.This chapter looks at a number of factors that influence employee behavior and what the implications are for managers.2. WHY LOOK AT INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOR?Behavior is defined as the actions of people. Organizational behavior is the study of the actions of people at work. One of the challenges in OB is understanding issues that aren’t obvious because the organization is like an iceberg with its hidden aspects. (See Exhibit14.1)A. Focus of Organizational Behavior.Organizational behavior focuses on two major areas.1. Individual behavior2. Group behaviorB. The goals of OB are to explain, predict, and influence behavior.3. ATTITUDES.Attitudes are defined as evaluative statements concerning objects, people, or events.A. There are three components of attitudes.1. The cognitive component of an attitude is the beliefs,opinions, knowledge, or information held by a person.2. The affective component of an attitude is the emotional orfeeling segment of an attitude.3. The behavioral component of an attitude is an intention tobehave in a certain way toward someone or something.B. Managers are particularly interested in job-related attitudes thatemployees have. Job-related attitudes include the following.1. Job satisfaction is a person’s general attitude toward his or herjob.2. Job involvement is the degree to which an employee identifieswith his or her job, actively participates in it, and considers hisor her job performance important to his or her self-worth.3. Organizational commitment is an employee’s orientationtoward the organization in terms of his or her loyalty to,identification with, and involvement in the organization.4. A fourth job-related concept is organizational citizenshipbehavior, which is the discretionary behavior that is not part ofan employee’s formal job requirements, but promotes theeffective functioning of the organization.C. Attitudes and Consistency.Research has generally shown that people seek consistency among theirattitudes and between their attitudes and their behavior.D. Does the consistency principle mean that we can predict an individual’sbehavior if we know his or her attitude on a subject? The answerdepends.1. The theory of cognitive dissonance—any incompatibilitybetween two or more attitudes or between behavior andattitudes—was developed by Leon Festinger.2. Cognitive dissonance refers to any inconsistency that anindividual might perceive between attitudes or between behaviorand attitudes.3. This dissonance or inconsistency leads to an uncomfortable statefor the individual who will try to reduce the inconsistency.4. The desire to reduce dissonance is determined by (a) theimportance of the factors creating the dissonance, (b) the degreeof influence the individual believes he or she has over thosefactors, and (c) the rewards that may be involved in dissonance.5. Individuals reduce dissonance by changing behavior, concludingthat the dissonant behavior isn’t so important after all, or changethe attitude.E. Attitude surveys elicit responses from employees throughquestionnaires about how they feel about their jobs, work groups,supervisors, or the organization. Exhibit14.2shows a sample attitudesurvey.F. The Satisfaction-Productivity Controversy.There’s a controversy about the relationship between satisfaction andproductivity. Are happy workers productive workers?1. After the Hawthorne studies, many managers believed that ifyou kept people happy, they should be productive.2. A review of the research on worker productivity shows that ifsatisfaction does have a positive effect on productivity, thateffect is fairly small.3. Looking at contingency variables improves the relationship.a. The relationship appears strongest when the employee’sbehavior isn’t constrained by outside factors.b. Also, the relationship is strongest for higher-levelemployees.4. Studies that controlled for causal variations indicated that amore valid conclusion might be that productivity leads tosatisfaction rather than the other way around.G. The implication for managers from understanding attitudes is that thereis relatively strong evidence that committed and satisfied employeeshave lower rates of turnover and absenteeism. Also, the belief thatmaking employees happy will make them productive needs to bereexamined.4. PERSONALITY.Personality is defined as a combination of psychological traits that describes a person.A. There are dozens of personality traits. Two models for classifyingpersonality traits are widely used.1. The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) is a commonly usedpersonality trait test.a. The MBTI measures four dimensions.1) Social interaction: extrovert (E) or introvert (I)2) Preference for gathering data: sensing (S) orintuitive (N)3) Preference for decision-making: feeling (F) orthinking (T)4) Style of making decisions: perceptive (P) orjudgmental (J)b. Combining these preferences provides descriptions of 16different personality types.c. Some examples of MBTI personality types are shown inExhibit 14.32. The other model is the big-five model, which is a five-factormodel of personality that includes extraversion, agreeableness,conscientiousness, emotional stability, and openness toexperience.a. Research has shown that important relationships existbetween these personality dimensions and jobperformance.b. The big five personality traits are:1) Extraversion2) Agreeableness3) Conscientiousness4) Emotional Stability5) Openness to ExperienceB. Emotional Intelligence.1. Emotional intelligence (EI)is an assortment of noncognitiveskills, capabilities, and competencies that influence a person’sability to succeed in coping with environmental demands andpressures.2. EI is composed of five dimensions:a. Self-awarenessb. Self-managementc. Self-motivationd. Empathye. Social skills3. EI has been shown to be positively related to job performance atall organizational levels.C. Five specific personality traits have proved to be the most powerful inexplaining individual behavior in organizations.1. Locus of control is the degree to which people believe they are themasters of their own fate. It can be either external or internal.2. Machiavellianism is a measure of the degree to which peopleare pragmatic, maintain emotional distance, and believe thatends justify means.3. Self-esteem is an individual’s degree of like or dislike forhimself or herself.4. Self-monitoring is a personality trait that measures anindividual’s ability to adjust his or her beha vior to externalsituational factors.5. Risk taking refers to an individual’s willingness to take risks.D. Do these personality types hold for other cultures? We know that thereare certainly no common personality types for a given national culture.Howe ver, a country’s culture can influence dominant personalitycharacteristics of its people. This is particularly true for the personalitytrait, locus of control.E. The major value of a manager understanding personality differencesprobably lies in employee selection. Just as individual personalitiesdiffer, so too, do jobs. Efforts have been made to match the properpersonalities with the proper jobs.1. John Holland has developed the best-documented personality-job fit theory. (See Exhibit 14.4.)2. The key points of his model are that there do appear to beintrinsic differences in personality among individuals, there aredifferent types of jobs, and that people in job environmentscongruent with their personality types should be more satisfied.5. PERCEPTION.Perception is defined as the process of organizing and interpreting sensory impressions in order to give meaning to the environment.A. What factors influence perception? A number of factors operate to shapeand sometimes distort perception. These factors are found in thefollowing:1. The perceiver2. The target or object being perceived (See Exhibit 14.5.)3. The situation contextB. Attribution theory is a theory used to develop explanations of how wejudge people differently depending on the meaning we attribute to agiven behavior. The determination of the cause of the behavior (to whatdo we attribute this behavior) depends on three factors.1. Distinctiveness refers to whether an individual displays abehavior in many situations or whether it is particular to onesituation.2. Consensus refers to whether or not everyone who is faced with asimilar situation responds in the same way with the samebehavior.3. Consistency refers to the congruency in a person’s actions.4. Exhibit 14.6 summarizes the key elements of attribution theory.5. One of the most interesting findings of attribution theory is thatthere are errors or biases that distort attributions.a. The fundamental attribution error refers to thetendency to underestimate the influence of externalfactors and overestimate the influence of internal factorswhen making judgments about the behavior of others.b. Self-serving bias is the tendency for individuals toattribute their own successes to internal factors whileputting the blame for failures on external factors.C. There are four frequently used shortcuts we use in judging others.1. Selectivity refers to the process by which people assimilatecertain bits and pieces of what they observe, depending on theirinterests, background, and attitudes.2. Assumed similarity is the belief that others are like oneself.3. Stereotyping refers to judging a person on the basis of one’sperception of a group to which he or she belongs.4. Halo effect refers to a general impression of an individual basedon a single characteristic.D. The implication for managers regarding perception and its impact onemployee behavior is that they need to recognize that their employeesreact to perceptions, not reality.6. LEARNING.Learning is defined as any relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs as a result of experience.A. Operant conditioning is a type of conditioning in which desiredvoluntary behavior leads to a reward or prevents a punishment.1. B. F. Skinner is the person most often associated with operantconditioning theory.2. This theory proposes that behavior is determined fromwithout—that is, learned—rather than from within—reflexive orunlearned.3. Skinner argued that creating pleasing and desirableconsequences to follow some specific behavior would increasethe frequency of that behavior.4. People will most likely engaged in desired behaviors if they’repositively reinforced for doing so.B. Social learning theory says that people can learn through observationand direct experience. Four processes have been found to determine theinfluence that a model will have on an individual.1. Attentional processes, which mean that people learn from amodel only when they recognize and pay attention to its criticalfeatures.2. Retention pro cesses, which mean that a model’s influence willdepend on how well the individual remembers the model’saction.3. Motor reproduction processes, which describe how an individualcan perform the modeled activities.4. Reinforcement processes, which mean that individuals will bemotivated to exhibit modeled behavior if positive rewards areprovided.C. Shaping behavior is systematically reinforcing each successive step thatmoves an individual closer to a desired response. It can be a usefulmanagerial tool. Behavior can be shaped in four ways.1. Positive reinforcement is reinforcing a desired behavior byproviding something pleasant after that behavior.2. Negative reinforcement is reinforcing a desired behavior withthe termination or withdrawal of something unpleasant.3. Punishment penalizes undesirable behavior.4. Extinction involves eliminating any reinforcement that ismaintaining a behavior.D. From learning theory, managers should recognize that employees aregoing to learn on the job. Are managers going to manage their learningthrough the rewards they allocate and the examples they set, or allow itto occur haphazardly?1. How, if at all, does the importance of knowledge of OB differ based on amanager’s level in the organization? Be specific.Knowledge of OB is going to be important for managers at all levels of the organization because they’re dealing with people. Low-level managers are likely to be directly supervising employees, so they would need knowledge of attitudes, perception, and learning. Depending on whether they have selection responsibilities, they may need knowledge of personality. Middle-level managers are more likely to need knowledge of attitudes and personality as they may not be directly supervising employees. Finally, upper-level managers are likely to need knowledge of attitudes as they deal with structural design decisions and human resource management issues.2. “A growing number of companies are now convinced that people’s ability tounderstand and to manage their emotions improves their performance, their collaboration with peers, and their interaction with customers.” What are the implications of this statement for managers?If the manager’s company agrees with this statement, the manager must consider Emotional Intelligence (EI) as a necessary factor in employee selection, as well as employee training and development issues.3. What behavioral predictions might you make if you knew that an employee had(a) an external locus of control? (b) a low Mach score? (c) low self-esteem? (d)high self-monitoring tendencies?Employees with an external locus of control might be less satisfied with their jobs, more alienated from the work setting, and less involved in their jobs.Employees with a low Mach score would be overly idealistic, emotional, and concerned about fair and equitable treatment. Employees with low self-esteem would be more susceptible to external influence. Employees with high self-monitoring tendencies would tend to be more adaptable in adjusting their behavior to the demands of different situations.4. “Managers should never use discipline with a problem employee.” Do youagree or disagree? Discuss.Disagree. Discipline that is rooted in behavior theories can be quite positive and can be used as a means to promote acceptable and desired behavior. When disciplining, however, managers should keep in mind the implications of attitudes, perceptions, learning, and personality.。