Introduction Metonymy in Grammar

englishgrammar（introduction）English GrammarIntroduction: Grammatical HierarchyGrammar is the structural system of a language. It includes the organizing rules of a language, which can be used to describe and analyze what most of the native speakers say. Grammar also refers to the scientific study of the change of words and the structure of sentences. It includes morphology and syntax. The grammar of the English language is organized into five ranks: the sentence, the clause, the phrase, the word and the morpheme. Each rank is composed of one or more than one grammatical unit of the immediate lower rank. Thus the sentence is a grammatical unit that consists of one or more than one clause; the clause, one or more than one phrase; the phrase, one or more than one word; and the word, one or more than one morpheme. The sentence is the highest rank of grammatical unit while the morpheme is the minimum or lowest rank. A full sentence can generally be segmented rank by rank down to its smallest constituent---the morphemes.0.1MorphemeThe morpheme is the minimum of smallest grammatical unit, also the smallest meaningful element of speech. Morpheme fall into two categories: free morphemes and bound morphemes.1.free morpheme: a free morpheme has a complete meaning and can stand by itself as a simple word.2.bound morpheme:bound morphemes are mostly affixes. They are also meaningful, but meanings are not complete in themselves unless they are attached to some other forms. Therefore, a bound morpheme cannot stand by itself.0.2W ordsThe word is composed of one or more than one morpheme. Words can be classified in two ways---word formation and grammatical function.1.classification in terms of word formationIn terms of word formation, words can be divided into simple words, derivatives and compounds. A simple word is also called a morpheme word. It is equal to a free morpheme.A derivative is composed of a root and a derivational affix. The root is the basis of a derivative.A compound word is composed of two or more than two free morphemes including compound noun (sidewalk, snowman, classroom), compound adjective (dogtired, lightgreen, bloodthirsty), compound verb (sightsee, nickname, spotlight), compoundadverb (therefore, whatever, moreover), compound pronoun (something, whatever, another), compound conjunction (whenever, wherever, whereas), and compound preposition (inside, upon, alongside) etc.2.classification in terms of grammatical functionIn terms of grammatical function, words can be divided into two groups: notional words and form words.0.3PhrasesThe phrase is composed of one or more than one word. Generally, the phrase is a group of words organized in a specific way with a key word as its head. The word class of the head determines the class of the phrase and the way in which the words are organized.1.the noun phraseThe noun phrase is a phrase with a noun as its head. Thegeneral pattern of a noun phrase is: (determiner +) (pre-modifier +) noun (+ modifier), e.g.,all my college classmates; her new book on grammar2.the verb phraseThe verb phrase is a phrase with a main verb as its head. A verb phrase can be simple or complex. A simple verb phrase is just a main verb or “modifier + main verb”, such as: He arrived last night. / They fully appreciate our problems.A complex verb phrase is a main verb preceded by an auxiliary (or auxiliaries) (+ modifier), such as:It is getting dark. / She might have been studying in the classroom.3.the adjective phraseThe adjective phrase is a phrase with an adjective as its head. The general pattern of an adjective phrase is:(modifier +) adjective (+ post-modifier / complementation), e.g.,good / pretty easy / carefully enough / too hot to be eaten4.the adverb phraseThe adverb phrase is a phrase with an adverb as its head. The general pattern of an adverb phrase is:(modifier +) adverb (+ post-modifier), e.g.,clearly / so fast / very good indeed5.the prepositional phraseThe prepositional phrase is a phrase with a preposition as its head. The general pattern of a prepositional phrase is: (modifier +) preposition + complementation, e.g.,on your desk / directly above my head0.4ClausesThe clause is composed of one or more than one phrase. Afull-fledged clause is structurally a sequence of phrases and logically a construction of “subject + predicate”.1.independent and dependent clausesIn terms of grammatical function, a clause can be independent or dependent. An independent clause is a clause that can stand by itself and act as a complete utterance, as distinguished from a dependent clause which forms only part of another clause or of a phrase.He learns French well. (independent clause)We know he learns French well. (dependent clause)2.simple and complex clausesWhen a clause consists of only one construction of “subject + predicate”, it is a simple clause. An independent simple clause is at the same time a simple sentence. When a clause comprises another clause or other clauses as its element or elements, it is a complex clause. An independent complex clause is at the same time a complex sentence.You are right. (simple clause) / I believe that you are right. (complex clause)3.main and subordinate clausesIn a complex clause, the clause that takes another clause as its element is the main clause, while the clause that forms part of the main clause is a subordinate clause.I believe that |what you have said| is true.|subordinate clause || main clause || subordinate clause || main clause |4.finite and non-finite clausesA clause can be finite and non-finite. A finite clause is onewith a finite verb phrase as its predicate verb or predicator; a non-finite clause is a clause with a non-finite verb clause as its predicator.He went there last night. (finite clause)He went there to get the license. (non-finite clause)5.verbless clausesWhen a clause is marked by the absence of any form of verb element, it is a verblessclause. A verbless clause is just a construction of “subject + predicate” without any form of verb element.Hungry and cold, they got home.Weather permitting, we shall go boating.0.5SentencesThe sentence is the highest rank of grammatical unit. Based on one or more than one clause, the sentence is also the basic linguistic unit of connected discourse; it can stand alone and perform a function in social communication. Thus, a sentence can be defined asa grammatical unit that can stand by itself and perform a communicative function.1.full and minor sentencesA full sentence is a sentence with an expressed subject and predicate. This kind of sentence is mostly used in formal speech and writing. A minor sentence is only a sentence fragment which in specific contexts and situations can stand by itself and perform a communicative function.A: When did he arrive? (full sentence)B: Last night. (minor sentence)No smoking! (minor sentence)Fire! (minor sentence)2.simple, compound, complex and compound-complex sentencesA simple sentence is a sentence that comprises only one independent clause. Two or more coordinated independent clauses make a compound sentence. When an independent clause comprises one or more dependent clauses as its element(s). This makes a complex sentence. Two or more coordinated independent clauses with at least one complex clause make a compound-complex sentence.The boy can stay in the room for a few minutes. (simple sentence)The boy can stay in the room for a few minutes but he likes playing outside. (compound sentence)The boy can stay in the room for a few minutes so long as he keeps quiet. (complex sentence)The boy can stay in the room for a few minutes so long as he keeps quiet but he likes playing outside. (compound-complex sentence)。

英语修辞metonymy 英语Metonymy、Synecdoche和Antonomasia与汉语借代的用法摘要Metonymy、Synecdoche和Antonomasia是英语中三种借代的辞格旁借和对代是汉语中两种借代辞格。

本文将分析和比较英语和汉语中借代用法之间的关联和区别并且通过用例来具体说明。

关键词借代旁借对代metonymysynecdocheantonomasia借代是一种常见的修辞方法不管在文学作品中还是在生活中我们都会遇到。

这种修辞格就是利用事物之间存在的种种关系在语言表达中换个名称、换个说法时的表达更加丰富多彩、形象生动从而能够增强语言的感染力。

人们在生活中或写作当中自觉或不自觉地运用和理解借代修辞格存在着广泛的心理基础。

在认知心理学中有一个很重要的概念认知框架。

所谓认知框架就是人们根据经验建立起来的概念与概念之间的相对固定的关联模式。

假如两个或多个概念存在于一个认知框架里那么它们就比较容易被人们认识和理解。

比如一个人有明显的外貌特征这个人的特征和其本人就处在同一个认知框架里因而一提到这个人的特征就很容易联系到这个人。

物品和品牌也在同一个认知框架里我们会说买了一台联想那应该就是说买了一台联想的电脑。

其他情况比如部分和整体、容器和内容、具体和抽象、物体和特征、特定和普通、原因和结果等也都分别属于同一个认知框架。

在借代中被代的事物叫本体借来代替本体事物的事物叫借体。

借代修辞格中的本体和借体应当而且必须共处于同一个认知框架内这两个事物的互相关联性是借代修辞格的重要认识心理基础。

在英语和汉语中都有相应的借代类型和用法不过它们还是有一定的区别。

下面就借代在这两种语言中的使用做一分析。

一、英语的Metonymy、Synecdoche和Antonomasia英语中将借代通称为metonymy换喻、转喻。

它是由某一事物名称来代替与该事物有关联的另一事物的名称简而言之就是借用甲来表示乙但前提条件是甲必须与乙关系密切和本质上有相似之处也就是我在文章开头提到的认知基础。

介绍英语语法的作文English GrammarEnglish grammar is the set of rules and principles that govern the structure of sentences, phrases, and words in the English language. It is essential for understanding and effectively communicating in English.Parts of SpeechOne of the fundamental aspects of English grammar is the identification and understanding of the eight parts of speech: nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections. Each part of speech plays a specific role in constructing sentences and conveying meaning.Sentence StructureEnglish grammar also encompasses the rules for constructing sentences, including the formation of subjects, predicates, objects, and complements. Understanding sentence structure is crucial for creating clear and coherent communication.TensesVerbs in English grammar are conjugated to indicate the time of an action, and there are twelve basic tenses. These tenses include simple present, simple past, simple future, presentcontinuous, past continuous, future continuous, present perfect, past perfect, future perfect, present perfect continuous, past perfect continuous, and future perfect continuous. Mastery of verb tenses is essential for expressing actions accurately in English.PunctuationPunctuation is a vital aspect of English grammar that helps in organizing and clarifying written communication. It includes the use of periods, commas, semicolons, colons, exclamation marks, question marks, apostrophes, quotation marks, and more. Proper punctuation enhances the readability and comprehension of written English.Subject-Verb AgreementSubject-verb agreement is the principle that the subject and verb in a sentence must agree in number. This means that a singular subject requires a singular verb, and a plural subject requires a plural verb. Understanding and applying subject-verb agreement is crucial for constructing grammatically correct sentences.ModifiersModifiers are words or phrases that provide additional information about other words in a sentence. They includeadjectives (which modify nouns) and adverbs (which modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs). Proper use of modifiers is essential for conveying precise and vivid descriptions in English.Conditional SentencesEnglish grammar includes the rules for constructing conditional sentences, which express hypothetical situations and their potential outcomes. There are four types of conditional sentences, each with its own structure and usage. Understanding these structures is important for accurately conveying different types of hypothetical scenarios.SyntaxSyntax refers to the arrangement of words and phrases to create well-formed sentences in a language. English syntax includes rules for word order, sentence structure, and the formation of clauses and phrases. Mastery of syntax is crucial for creating coherent and meaningful sentences in English.In conclusion, English grammar is a complex and essential system for understanding and effectively communicating in the English language. Mastery of its various components, including parts of speech, sentence structure, tenses, punctuation, subject-verb agreement, modifiers, conditional sentences, andsyntax, is crucial for proficiency in English.英语语法英语语法是规范英语语言中句子、短语和单词结构的一套规则和原则。

Module4 Section IⅠ.单词拼写1．I d________the question with Mary.2．The police found no t________of the man.3．My a________come from China.4．I like the r________of the music.5．I come from the north and can't understand the southern d________.6．Pay attention to your________(语调), please.7．The police came to help me________(立即；马上)．8．It doesn't________(要紧)whether you come.9．The building was easily________(能认出的)as a prison.10．Every point in this game________(重要)．答案：1.debated 2.trace 3.ancestors 4.rhythm 5.dialect 6.intonation7.instantly 8.matter9.recognizable10.countsⅡ.短语翻译1．把……与……区分开____________________2．只要____________________3．在于____________________4．以防；万一____________________5．特别；尤其____________________6．be known as ____________________7．the same as ____________________8．agree on ____________________9．or rather ____________________10．be different from ____________________答案：1.tell...apart 2.as long as 3.lie in 4.in case 5.in particular 6.作为……而著名7.与……一样8.同意；达成协议9.更确切地说10.与……不同⑤passed⑥lie⑦African⑧rhythm⑨second⑩influencedⅣ.单项填空1．The biggest difference between the Cannes and the Oscars________its voting process.A．lies in B．lies toC．lays in D．lays on答案：A考查动词短语辩析。

MetonymyExamplesMetonymy- About metonymy:Metonymy is a figure of speech in which a thing or concept is not called by its own name, but by the name of something intimately associated with that thing or concept. Metonymies are frequently used in literature and in everyday speech and often chosen because it is a well-known characteristic of a word. Understanding metonymy is contingent on knowing the meanings of the associated words used, otherwise readers will be left confused by the context of a written work. Metonymies are often considered a hidden language, because many words can be used in the place of others.One famous example of metonymy is the saying, "The pen is mightier than the sword," from Edward Bulwer Lytton's play Richelieu. This metonymy means the pen, or written word, is more powerful than the sword, or aggression and violence. Other common examples are:Crown, which is used in place of royalty.?-Hollywood, used to describe the U.S. film industry.?-Silver-fox, which refers to an attractive older man.?-Giving a hand, which means to offer help or assistance.- The types:1、以人或事物的特征或标记代替人或事物（1）老夫聊发少年狂，左牵黄（狗），右擎苍（2） Grey hair（old man） should be respected（3） Those blue (red) eyes（special people） are walking in the office 2、用事物的原材料或工具代替事物（1）无丝竹(弦乐和管乐)之乱耳，无案牍之劳形（2）语言既可骇，笔墨尤其精(文字、诗文)（3） Sometimes the pen( the articles or books written by someone with a pen)may be mightier than the sword(武人或动武者)（4） He had only a few coppers(铜钱) in his pocket3、以容器的名称代所称的东西（1）再来一碗！(碗中所盛的饭菜)（2） He carried away a bag(袋中所装的东西).4、以地点、作者或商标名称带事物（1）年轻人应该多读点马恩列斯(这四人所写的著作)（2）熟读王叔和(王叔和和所著的医术)，不如临症多（《儒林外史》第三十一回）（3） He is listening to Beethoven(贝多芬的音乐)（4） Do you like to read Shakespeare(莎士比亚的作品)?（5） Alan has bought a Kodak(柯达的照相机)5、部分与整体相代（1）红旗卷起农奴戟，黑手高悬霸主鞭(工农红军和工人、农民等阶级)（2）沙鸥翔集，锦鳞(鱼）游泳（3）两岸青山相对出，孤帆（船）一片日边来。

英语语法术语总结(中英对照)1. 语法 grammar2. 句法 syntax3. 词法 morphology4. 结构 structure5. 层次 rank6. 句子 sentence7. 从句 clause8. 词组 phrase9. 词类 part of speech10. 单词 word11. 实词 notional word12. 虚词 structural word13. 名词 noun14. 专有名词 proper noun15. 普通名词 common noun16. 可数名词 countable noun17. 不可数名词 uncountable noun18. 抽象名词 abstract noun19. 具体名词 concret noun20. 物质名词 material noun21. 集体名词 collective noun22. 个体名词individual noun23. 介词 preposition24. 连词 conjunction25. 动词 verb26. 主动词 main verb27. 及物动词 transitive verb28. 不及物动词 intransitive verb29. 系动词 link verb30. 助动词 auxiliary verb31. 情态动词 modal verb32. 规则动词 regular verb33. 不规则动词 irregular verb34. 短语动词 phrasal verb35. 限定动词 finite verb36. 非限定动词 infinite verb37. 使役动词 causative verb38. 感官动词 verb of senses39. 动态动词 event verb40. 静态动词 state verb41. 感叹词 exclamation42. 形容词 adjective 43. 副词 adverb44. 方式副词 adverb of manner45. 程度副词 adverb of degree46. 时间副词 adverb of time47. 地点副词 adverb of place48. 修饰性副词 adjunct49. 连接性副词 conjunct50. 疑问副词 interrogative adverb51. 关系副词 relative adverb52. 代词 pronoun53. 人称代词 personal pronoun54. 物主代词 possessive pronoun55. 反身代词 reflexive pronoun56. 相互代词 reciprocal pronoun57. 指示代词 demonstrative pronoun58. 疑问代词 interrogative pronoun59. 关系代词 relative pronoun60. 不定代词 indefinite pronoun61. 物主代词 possessive pronoun62. 名词性物主代词nominal possessive pronoun63. 形容词性物主代词adjectival possessive pronoun64. 冠词 article65. 定冠词 definite article66. 不定冠词 indefinite article67. 数词 numeral68. 基数词 cardinal numeral69. 序数词 ordinal numeral70. 分数词 fractional numeral71. 形式 form72. 单数形式 singular form73. 复数形式 plural form74. 限定动词 finite verb form75. 非限定动词 non-finite verb form76. 原形 base form77. 从句 clause78. 从属句 subordinate clause79. 并列句 coordinate clause80. 名词从句 nominal clause81. 定语从句 attributive clause82. 状语从句 adverbial clause83. 宾语从句 object clause84. 主语从句 subject clause85. 同位语从句appositive clause86. 时间状语从句adverbial clause of time87. 地点状语从句adverbial clause of place88. 方式状语从句adverbial clause of manner89. 让步状语从句adverbial clause of concession90. 原因状语从句adverbial clause of cause91. 结果状语从句adverbial clause of result92. 目的状语从句adverbial clause of purpose93. 条件状语从句adverbial clause of condition94. 真实条件状语从句adverbial clause of real condition95. 非真实条件状语从句adverbial clause of unreal condition96. 含蓄条件句adverbial clause of implied condition97. 错综条件句adverbial clause of mixed condition98. 句子 sentence99. 简单句 simple sentence100. 并列句 compound sentence101. 复合句 complex sentence102. 并列复合句compound complex sentence 103. 陈述句 declarative sentence104. 疑问句 interrogative sentence105. 一般疑问句 general question106. 特殊疑问句 special question107. 选择疑问句 alternative question108. 附加疑问句 tag question109. 反义疑问句 disjunctive question110. 修辞疑问句 rhetorical question111. 感叹疑问句 exclamatory question112. 存在句 existential sentence113. 肯定句 positive sentence114. 否定句 negative sentence115. 祈使句 imperative sentence116. 省略句 elliptical sentence117. 感叹句 exclamatory sentence118. 基本句型 basic sentence pattern119. 句子成分 members of sentences120. 主语 subject121. 谓语 predicate122. 宾语 object123. 双宾语 dual object124. 直接宾语 direct object125. 间接宾语 indirect object126. 复合宾语 complex object127. 同源宾语 cognate object128. 补语 complement129. 主补 subject complement130. 宾补 object complement 131. 表语 predicative132. 定语 attribute133. 同位语 appositive134. 状语 adverbial135. 句法关系 syntatic relationship136. 并列coordinate137. 从属 subordination138. 修饰 modification139. 前置修饰 pre-modification140. 后置修饰 post-modification141. 限制 restriction142. 双重限制 double-restriction143. 非限制 non-restriction144. 数 number145. 单数形式 singular form146. 复数形式 plural form147. 规则形式 regular form148. 不规则形式 irregular form149. 格 case150. 普通格 common case151. 所有格 possessive case152. 主格 nominative case153. 宾格 objective case154. 性 gender155. 阳性 masculine156. 阴性 feminine157. 通性 common158. 中性 neuter159. 人称 person160. 第一人称 first person161. 第二人称 second person162. 第三人称 third person163. 时态 tense164. 过去将来时 past future tense165. 过去将来进行时past future continuous tense 166. 过去将来完成时past future perfect tense 167. 一般现在时 present simple tense168. 一般过去时 past simple tense169. 一般将来时 future simple tense170. 现在完成时 past perfect tense171. 过去完成时 present perfect tense172. 将来完成时 future perfect tense173. 现在进行时 present continuous tense174. 过去进行时 past continuous tense175. 将来进行时 future continuous tense176. 过去将来进行时 past future continuous tense 177. 现在完成进行时present perfect continuous tense178. 过去完成进行时past perfect continuous tense 179. 语态 voice180. 主动语态 active voice181. 被动语态 passive voice182. 语气 mood183. 陈述语气 indicative mood184. 祈使语气 imperative mood185. 虚拟语气 subjunctive mood186. 否定negation187. 否定范围 scope of negation188. 全部否定 full negation189. 局部否 partial negation190. 转移否定 shift of negation191. 语序 order192. 自然语序 natural order193. 倒装语序 inversion194. 全部倒装 full inversion195. 部分倒装 partial inversion196. 直接引语 direct speech197. 间接引语 indirect speech198. 自由直接引语 free direct speech199. 自由间接引语 free indirect speech200. 一致 agreement201. 主谓一致subject-predicate agreement202. 语法一致 grammatical agreement203. 概念一致 notional agreement204. 就近原则 principle of proximity205. 强调 emphasis206. 重复 repetition207. 语音 pronunciation208. 语调 tone209. 升调 rising tone210. 降调 falling tone211. 降升调 falling-rising tone212. 文体 style213. 正式文体 formal214. 非正式文体 informal215. 口语 spoken/oral English216. 套语 formulistic expression217. 英国英语 British English218. 美国英语 American English219. 用法 usage 220. 感情色彩 emotional coloring 221. 褒义 commendatory222. 贬义 derogatory223. 幽默 humorous224. 讽刺 sarcastic225. 挖苦 ironic226. 英语修辞手法:一、明喻（simile）二、隐喻（metaphor）三、提喻（synecdoche）四、拟人（personification）五、夸张（hyperbole）六、叠言（rhetorical repetition）七、借代（metonymy）八、双关语（pun）九、拟声（onomatcpocia）十、讽刺（irony）十一、通感（synesthesia）十二、头韵法（alliteration）。

英语Metonymy、Synecdoche和Antonomasia与汉语借代的用法摘要：Metonymy、Synecdoche和Antonomasia是英语中三种“借代”的辞格，“旁借”和“对代”是汉语中两种借代辞格。

本文将分析和比较英语和汉语中“借代”用法之间的关联和区别，并且通过用例来具体说明。

关键词：借代；旁借；对代；metonymy；synecdoche；antonomasia借代是一种常见的修辞方法，不管在文学作品中，还是在生活中我们都会遇到。

这种修辞格，就是利用事物之间存在的种种关系，在语言表达中换个名称、换个说法，使得表达更加丰富多彩、形象生动，从而能够增强语言的感染力。

人们在生活中或写作当中自觉或不自觉地运用和理解借代修辞格，存在着广泛的心理基础。

在认知心理学中有一个很重要的概念：认知框架。

所谓认知框架，就是人们根据经验建立起来的概念与概念之间的相对固定的关联模式。

假如两个或多个概念存在于一个认知框架里，那么它们就比较容易被人们认识和理解。

比如一个人有明显的外貌特征，这个人的特征和其本人就处在同一个认知框架里，因而一提到这个人的特征，就很容易联系到这个人。

物品和品牌也在同一个认知框架里，我们会说买了一台联想，那应该就是说买了一台联想的电脑。

其他情况，比如部分和整体、容器和内容、具体和抽象、物体和特征、特定和普通、原因和结果等也都分别属于同一个认知框架。

在借代中，被代的事物叫本体，借来代替本体事物的事物叫借体。

借代修辞格中的本体和借体应当而且必须共处于同一个认知框架内，这两个事物的互相关联性是借代修辞格的重要认识心理基础。

在英语和汉语中都有相应的借代类型和用法，不过它们还是有一定的区别。

下面就借代在这两种语言中的使用做一分析。

一、英语的Metonymy、Synecdoche和Antonomasia英语中将借代通称为metonymy（换喻、转喻）。

它是由某一事物名称来代替与该事物有关联的另一事物的名称，简而言之，就是借用甲来表示乙，但前提条件是甲必须与乙关系密切和本质上有相似之处，也就是我在文章开头提到的认知基础。

基本语言与逻辑词汇英中对照表Aaccent 口音acquisition 習得affixes 詞綴agrammatic 語法錯亂╱語法失能all 所有╱凡ambiguity 歧義analogy 類推and 而╱且anomaly 異常antecedent 前件antonym 反義字aphasia 失語症argument 論證╱主目argument by analogy 類比論證argument from authority 根據權威論證asymmetry 非對稱性Austin, John Langshaw 奧斯丁axiom 公理Bbase 詞基biconditional 雙如言bilingual 雙語blend 混成詞Boole, George 布爾bound morphemes 粘著詞素Broca's area 布羅卡區╱布洛卡區╱布若卡氏區CCarnap, Rudolf 卡爾納普╱卡納普casual inference 因果推論categorical 類稱Chomsky, Noam 喬姆斯基╱杭士基Church, Alonzo 丘崎╱邱奇circumfix 環綴closed class 封閉性詞類cognate 同源詞╱同根詞╱同系語言cognitive 認知的cohesiveness 銜接complementary 互補性compound 複合詞condition 條件conditional 如言conjunction 連言規則connotative 隱含的╱內涵的consequent 後件consistency 一致性constituent structure 成分結構constituent structure tree 成分結構樹形圖contradiction 矛盾contrafactual conditional 反事實如言content morpheme 內容詞素content words 實詞context 語境╱脈絡contingency 適真言cooperative principles 合作原則counter example 反例critical-age hypothesis 語言臨界期假說DDe Morgan, Augustus 狄．摩根╱德．摩根deductive 推論╱演繹deep structures / d-structures 深層結構deixis 指示語denotative 指示的descriptive grammar 描寫語法dialect 方言dilemma 兩難論╱兩難推理╱兩刀論法discourse 語段╱話語╱文段╱討論discreteness 離散性disjunct 選項disjunction 選言disjunctive syllogism 選言三段論domain 域╱範域Eelement 分子equivalence 等值╱等價equal 同一euphemism 婉語╱委婉語exclusive or 不可兼容的或explanation 解說explanandum 待解說項explanans 解說項Ffallacies 謬誤╱謬論free morphemes 自由詞素Frege, Gottlob 弗雷格╱弗列格function words 功能詞GGodel, Kurt 哥德爾╱戈代爾generative grammar 衍生語法╱生成語法grammar 語法grammatical category 語法范疇Hhomonym 同形同音異義字homophone 同音異形異義字human mind 人類心智hyponym 下義詞Iidentity 等同idiom 成語if 若╱如果╱假如if and only if (iff) 若且唯若╱恰好如果╱有而且只有╱有而且只當╱當且僅當implication 涵蘊inclusive or 可兼容的或inconsistency 不一致性incompleteness theorem 不完備定理inductive 歸納inductive generalization 歸納推廣inference 推演infixes 中綴Jjargon aphasia 行話失語症Llanguage universals 語言普遍性lateralization 偏側優勢lexicon 語彙lexis 詞語linguistics analysis 語言分析loan words 外來詞localization 局部化logico-linguistics analysis 語理分析Mmaterial conditional / material implication 實質如言╱實質顯示╱實質蕴涵maxims of conversation 會話準則mental dictionary 心理詞典mental grammar 心理語法meta- 後視metaphor 隱喻methodology of thinking 思考方法學metonyms 轉喻詞╱換喻詞metonymy 轉喻╱換喻╱借喻minimalist program 最簡方案modus ponens 肯定前件律╱離斷律modus tollens 否定後件律morphemes 詞素morphology 構詞學╱形態學Nnecessary 必要negated conjunction 否連言negated disjunction 否選言negation 否言negative connective 否言詞neurolinguistics 神經語言學Oor 或╱或者Pparadox 悖論╱弔詭╱詭局performative verb 施為動詞person deixis 指示語phonetics 語音學phonology 音韻學╱音系學╱語音體系phrase structure rules 短語結構規則phrase structure tree 短語結構樹形圖place deixis 地點指示語polysemy 多義詞╱一詞多義╱多種解釋postulate 公設pragmatics 語用學╱語用論predicate 述詞prefixes 前綴premise 前提prescriptive grammar 規定語法proof 證明proper subset 真子集proposition 命題psycholinguistics 心理語言學Qquantifier 量號Quine, W.V.O. 蒯因╱蒯英╱奎因RReductio ad absurdum 反證法╱歸謬法╱導謬法referent 指示對象╱指稱對象rhetoric 修辭rhetorical force 修辭用意Russell, Bertrand 羅素SSapir-Whorf hypothesis 薩丕爾-沃爾夫假說╱薩丕爾-沃夫假說scope 範圍Searle, John Rogers 塞爾╱希爾勒semantics 語義學╱語義論sentence 語句set 集set theory 集合論slang 俚語sociolinguistics 社會語言學sound 可靠╱健全split-brain patients 裂腦患者statement 敘說stem 詞干structure dependency 結構依存性subset 子集sufficient 足夠╱充分sufficient and necessary 充分必要suffixes 後綴superordinate 上義詞surface structures / s-structures 表層結構syllogism 三段論symbolize 符示╱符號化synecdoche 借代╱提喻synonym 同義字╱類義字synonymy 同義字型syntactic class 句法分類syntax 句法╱句法學Ttautology 套套邏輯╱同義反復╱恆真言╱恆真句teaching grammar 教學語法theorem 定理time deixis 時間指示語transformational rules 轉換規則transitive verb 及物動詞transposition rule / contraposition 質位同換規則truth table 直值表Uundecidable 不可決定的universal grammar 普遍語法unsound 不可靠╱不健全Vvalid 有效variable 變詞variant 變式V enn diagram 范恩圖解verb 動詞WWernicke's area 韋尼卡區╱韋尼克氏區。

Session One1. Branches of linguistics and schools of linguistics●Branches of linguistics are divided by reference to object of study, i.e.the subject matter of language as a phenomenon, seen as composed of many aspects or facets.●Schools of linguistics are divided by perspectives and methodology.2. Formalism and functionalism of Post-Saussurean Western linguistics●Logico-philosophical vs. rhetorical-ethnographic orientations oflinguistic studies in Western countries---language as rule or language as resource●Differences in perspectives between formalism and functionalism3. Functionalism as a stream of linguistics●Functionalism in EuropeThe Prague School:Major achievement — phonemic analysisRepresentatives — V. Mathesius （马西/泰修斯）N.S. Trubetzky（特鲁别茨科依）[Russian]A. Martinet （马丁内）[French]The Copenhagen School:Major achievement — text/ discourse analysisRepresentative — L. Hjelmslev (1899 -1965) [叶尔姆斯列夫] The London School:Major achievement — theory of contextSystemic-functional grammar Major representatives —J. R. Firth (1890-1960) [弗斯] (British)M.A.K. Halliday（1925-）●Functionalism in the U. S. A.Major achievement—linguistic relativity;Conitive grammar;Cognitive semantcs;Conceptual metaphorRepresentatives — F.Boas (1858-1942)E.Sapir (1884-1939)B.L.Whorf (1897-1941)FillmoreLangackerLakoffTalmy●Functionalism in China11 annual conferences held(7th held in NENU); China Association of Functional Linguistics4. The meaning of the term function●Organic/ constitutive function●Role function●Speech functions (as purpose or intention)●Metafunctions (as broad categories of meanings)The theory of metafunctions is the cornerstone of systemic- functional linguistics5. Tenets of functional approach to language(as generalised by Butler, C.S. 2003. Sturcture and Function: A Guide to Three Major Structural-functional Theories. Amsterdam/Philodelphia: John Benjamins)(1) An emphasis on language as as means of human communication in social and psychological contexts;(2) Rejection of the claim that the language system(the grammar) is arbitrary and self-contained, in favour of functional explanation in terms ofcognition, socio-cultural, physiological and diachraonic factors;(3) Rejection of the claim that syntax is a self-contained system, in favour of an approach where semantic and pragmatic patterning is regarded as central;(4) Recognition of the importance of non-discreteness in linguistic description and, more generally, of the importance of the cognitive dimensions;(5) A consern for the analysis of texts and their contexts of use;(6) A strong interest in typological matters;(7) The adoption of a constructionist rather than an adaptionist view of language acquisition.Session Two1.What is system?●Definition“A group of related parts that work together as a whole for a particular purpose” ( Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English)“同类事物按一定的关系组成的整体”(《现代汉语词典》)---Traffic lights as system of symbols：Stopping --- redSlowing down --- amberGoing --- green( Now at main crossroads there are also arrows for right and left turns, so the system is changed )---Chess as a system---The difference between chess and language●Features---Elements---Wholeness1) The idea of system as a concept in linguistics is first expounded in Course in General Linguistics, where system refers to langue, understood as the syntagmatic relation(linear).“What is language?“Language,[……], is a self-contained whole and a principle of classification”（Saussure1959:9）But the meaning of system is different in Halliday’s theory of grammar.2) The conception of system appeared in Halliday’s early publications:Halliday, M.A.K(1956 )Grammatical Categories in Modern Chinese. Transitions of the Philological Society, 1956. pp. 177-224. Reprinted in Kress(ed.)( 1976).Halliday, M.A.K, 1961 Categories of the Theory of Grammar. In Word, vol. 17, 3: 241-292.Halliday, M.A.K, 1963. ‘Class in relation to the axes of chain and choice in language’.Linguistics.No.2In these articles, Halliday put forward four fundamental categories of grammar: unit（单位）, class(类别), structure （结构）and system（系统）. In addition, there are three scales（阶）: rank（级）, exponence（标示）, delicacy(精密度).“韩礼德对语法的两大部分‘范畴’和‘阶’做了比过去全面成熟的归纳和阐述，对语言学界产生深远的影响，被公认为‘阶与范畴’（scale and category grammar）语法的发端。

English GrammarIntroduction: Grammatical HierarchyGrammar is the structural system of a language. It includes the organizing rules of a language, which can be used to describe and analyze what most of the native speakers say. Grammar also refers to the scientific study of the change of words and the structure of sentences. It includes morphology and syntax. The grammar of the English language is organized into five ranks: the sentence, the clause, the phrase, the word and the morpheme. Each rank is composed of one or more than one grammatical unit of the immediate lower rank. Thus the sentence is a grammatical unit that consists of one or more than one clause; the clause, one or more than one phrase; the phrase, one or more than one word; and the word, one or more than one morpheme. The sentence is the highest rank of grammatical unit while the morpheme is the minimum or lowest rank. A full sentence can generally be segmented rank by rank down to its smallest constituent---the morphemes.0.1MorphemeThe morpheme is the minimum of smallest grammatical unit, also the smallest meaningful element of speech. Morpheme fall into two categories: free morphemes and bound morphemes.1.free morpheme: a free morpheme has a complete meaning and can stand by itself as a simple word.2.bound morpheme:bound morphemes are mostly affixes. They are also meaningful, but meanings are not complete in themselves unless they are attached to some other forms. Therefore, a bound morpheme cannot stand by itself.0.2W ordsThe word is composed of one or more than one morpheme. Words can be classified in two ways---word formation and grammatical function.1.classification in terms of word formationIn terms of word formation, words can be divided into simple words, derivatives and compounds. A simple word is also called a morpheme word. It is equal to a free morpheme.A derivative is composed of a root and a derivational affix. The root is the basis of a derivative.A compound word is composed of two or more than two free morphemes including compound noun (sidewalk, snowman, classroom), compound adjective (dogtired, lightgreen, bloodthirsty), compound verb (sightsee, nickname, spotlight), compoundadverb (therefore, whatever, moreover), compound pronoun (something, whatever, another), compound conjunction (whenever, wherever, whereas), and compound preposition (inside, upon, alongside) etc.2.classification in terms of grammatical functionIn terms of grammatical function, words can be divided into two groups: notional words and form words.0.3PhrasesThe phrase is composed of one or more than one word. Generally, the phrase is a group of words organized in a specific way with a key word as its head. The word class of the head determines the class of the phrase and the way in which the words are organized.1.the noun phraseThe noun phrase is a phrase with a noun as its head. The general pattern of a noun phrase is: (determiner +) (pre-modifier +) noun (+ modifier), e.g.,all my college classmates; her new book on grammar2.the verb phraseThe verb phrase is a phrase with a main verb as its head. A verb phrase can be simple or complex. A simple verb phrase is just a main verb or “modifier + main verb”, such as: He arrived last night. / They fully appreciate our problems.A complex verb phrase is a main verb preceded by an auxiliary (or auxiliaries) (+ modifier), such as:It is getting dark. / She might have been studying in the classroom.3.the adjective phraseThe adjective phrase is a phrase with an adjective as its head. The general pattern of an adjective phrase is:(modifier +) adjective (+ post-modifier / complementation), e.g.,good / pretty easy / carefully enough / too hot to be eaten4.the adverb phraseThe adverb phrase is a phrase with an adverb as its head. The general pattern of an adverb phrase is:(modifier +) adverb (+ post-modifier), e.g.,clearly / so fast / very good indeed5.the prepositional phraseThe prepositional phrase is a phrase with a preposition as its head. The general pattern of a prepositional phrase is:(modifier +) preposition + complementation, e.g.,on your desk / directly above my head0.4ClausesThe clause is composed of one or more than one phrase. A full-fledged clause is structurally a sequence of phrases and logically a construction of “subject + predicate”.1.independent and dependent clausesIn terms of grammatical function, a clause can be independent or dependent. An independent clause is a clause that can stand by itself and act as a complete utterance, as distinguished from a dependent clause which forms only part of another clause or of a phrase.He learns French well. (independent clause)We know he learns French well. (dependent clause)2.simple and complex clausesWhen a clause consists of only one construction of “subject + predicate”, it is a simple clause. An independent simple clause is at the same time a simple sentence. When a clause comprises another clause or other clauses as its element or elements, it is a complex clause. An independent complex clause is at the same time a complex sentence.You are right. (simple clause) / I believe that you are right. (complex clause)3.main and subordinate clausesIn a complex clause, the clause that takes another clause as its element is the main clause, while the clause that forms part of the main clause is a subordinate clause.I believe that |what you have said| is true.|subordinate clause || main clause || subordinate clause || main clause |4.finite and non-finite clausesA clause can be finite and non-finite. A finite clause is one with a finite verb phrase as its predicate verb or predicator; a non-finite clause is a clause with a non-finite verb clause as its predicator.He went there last night. (finite clause)He went there to get the license. (non-finite clause)5.verbless clausesWhen a clause is marked by the absence of any form of verb element, it is a verblessclause. A verbless clause is just a construction of “subject + predicate” without any form of verb element.Hungry and cold, they got home.Weather permitting, we shall go boating.0.5SentencesThe sentence is the highest rank of grammatical unit. Based on one or more than one clause, the sentence is also the basic linguistic unit of connected discourse; it can stand alone and perform a function in social communication. Thus, a sentence can be defined asa grammatical unit that can stand by itself and perform a communicative function.1.full and minor sentencesA full sentence is a sentence with an expressed subject and predicate. This kind of sentence is mostly used in formal speech and writing. A minor sentence is only a sentence fragment which in specific contexts and situations can stand by itself and perform a communicative function.A: When did he arrive? (full sentence)B: Last night. (minor sentence)No smoking! (minor sentence)Fire! (minor sentence)2.simple, compound, complex and compound-complex sentencesA simple sentence is a sentence that comprises only one independent clause. Two or more coordinated independent clauses make a compound sentence. When an independent clause comprises one or more dependent clauses as its element(s). This makes a complex sentence. Two or more coordinated independent clauses with at least one complex clause make a compound-complex sentence.The boy can stay in the room for a few minutes. (simple sentence)The boy can stay in the room for a few minutes but he likes playing outside. (compound sentence)The boy can stay in the room for a few minutes so long as he keeps quiet. (complex sentence)The boy can stay in the room for a few minutes so long as he keeps quiet but he likes playing outside. (compound-complex sentence)。