Empirical Study on Relevancy of Mandatory and Voluntary Accounting Changes—Based on Chinese Lis

MOTIVATION IN LANGUAGE LEARNING: SELECTED REFERENCES(last updated 9 May 2013)Ames, C. (1984). Competitive, cooperative, and individualistic goal structures: A cognitive-instructional analysis. In R. E. Ames & C. Ames (Eds.), Research on motivation ineducation (pp. 177-207). New York: Academic Press.Ames, C. (1986). Effective motivation: The contribution of the learning environment. In R. S.Feldman (Ed.), The social psychology of education (pp. 235-256). Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.Amrein, A., & Berliner, D. (2003). The effects of high-stakes testing on student motivation and learning. Educational Leadership, 60(5), 32-38.Bacon, S. M., & Finnemann, M. D. (1990). A study of the attitudes, motives, and strategies of university foreign language students and their disposition to authentic oral and writteninput. Modern Language Journal, 74, 459-473.Bandura, A., & Schunk, D. H. (1981). Cultivating competence, self-efficacy, and intrinsic interest through proximal self-motivation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 41, 586-598.Benson, M. (1991). Attitudes and motivation towards English: A survey of Japanese freshmen.RELC Journal, 22(1), 34-48.Bråten, I., & Olaussen, B. S. (1998). The relationship between motivational beliefs and learning strategy use among Norwegian college students. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 23, 182-194.Brophy, J. (1998). Motivating students to learn. New York: McGraw-Hill.Brophy, J. E. (1999). Towards a model of the value aspects of motivation in education: Developing an appreciation for particular domains and activities. EducationalPsychologist, 34, 75-85.Brophy, J. & Kher, N. (1986). Teacher socialization as a mechanism for developing student motivation to learn. In R. S. Feldman (Ed.), The social psychology of education (pp. 257-288). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Brown, J. D., Cunha, M. I. A., & Frota, S. de F. N. (2001). The development and validation of a Portuguese version of the Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnarie. In Z. Dörnyei & R. Schmidt (Eds.), Motivation and second language acquisition (pp. 257-280).Honolulu, HI: Second Language Teaching & Curriculum Center, University of Hawai‘i Press.Brown, S., Armstrong, S., & Thompson, G. (1998). Motivating students. London: Kogan Page.Chambers, G. (1999). Motivating language learners. Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters. Cheng, H-F., & Dörnyei, Z. (2007). The use of motivational strategies in language instruction: The case of EFL teaching in Taiwan. Innovation in language learning and teaching, 1,153-174.Cohen, M., & Dörnyei, Z. (2002). Focus on the language learner: Motivation, styles and strategies. In N. Schmidt (Ed.), An introduction to applied linguistics (pp. 170-190).London, UK: Arnold.Cooper, H., & Tom, D. Y. H. 1984. SES and ethnic differences in achievement motivation. In R.E. Ames & C. Ames (Eds.), Motivation in education (pp. 209-242). New York:Academic Press.Cranmer, D. (1996). Motivating high level learners. Harlow, UK: Longman.Crookes, G., & Schmidt, R. W. (1991). Motivation: Re-opening the research agenda. Language Learning, 41, 469-512.Csikszentmihalyi, M., & Nakamura, J. (1989). The dynamics of intrinsic motivation: A study of adolescents. In R. Ames & C. Ames (Eds.), Handbook of motivation theory and research, Vol. 3: Goals and cognitions (pp. 45–71). New York, NY: Academic Press.Csizér, K., & Dörnyei, Z. (2005). Language learners’ motivational profiles and their motivated learning behavior. Language Learning, 55, 613-659.Csizér, K., Kormos, J., & Sarkadi, Á. (2010). The dynamics of language learning attitudes and motivation: Lessons from an interview study of dyslexic language learners. ModernLanguage Journal, 94(3), 470-487.deCharms, R. (1984). Motivation enhancement in educational settings. In R. E. Ames & C.Ames (Eds.), Motivation in education (pp. 275-310). New York: Academic Press. Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior. New York, NY: Plenum.Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1991). A motivational approach to self: Integration in personality. In R. A. Dienstbier (Ed.), Perspectives on motivation: Nebraska Symposium on Motivation, 1990 (pp. 237-288). Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press.Deci, E. L., Vallerand, R. J., Pelletier, L. G., & Ryan, R. M. (1991). Motivation and education: The self-determination perspective. Educational Psychologist, 26(3 & 4), 325-346.De Volder, M. L., & Lens, W. (1982). Academic achievement and future time perspective as a cognitive-motivational concept. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 44, 20-33Dörnyei, Z. (1990). Conceptualizing motivation in foreign language learning. Language Learning, 40, 45-78.Dörnyei, Z. (1994). Motivation and motivating in the foreign language classroom. Modern Language Journal,78, 273-284.Dörnyei, Z. (1998). Motivation in second and foreign language learning. Language Teaching, 31, 117-135.Dörnyei, Z. (2001). Motivational strategies in the language classroom. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.Dörnyei, Z. (2001). Teaching and researching motivation. Harlow, UK: Longman.Dörnyei, Z. (2002). The motivational basis of language learning tasks. In P. Robinson (Ed.), Individual differences and instructed language learning (pp. 137-158). Philadelphia, PA: John Benjamins.Dörnyei, Z. (2003). Attitudes, orientations, and motivations in language learning: Advances in theory, research, and applications. Language Learning, 53(Supplement 1), 3-32.Dörnyei, Z. (2007). Creating a motivating classroom environment. In J. Cummins & C. Davison (Eds.), International Handbook of English Language Teaching (Vol. 2) (pp. 719-731).New York, NY: Springer.Dörnyei, Z. (2008). New ways of motivating foreign language learners: Generating vision. Links, 38(Winter), 3-4.Dörnyei, Z. (2009). The L2 motivational self system. In Z. Dörnyei & E. Ushioda (Eds.), Motivation, language identity and the L2 self (pp. 9-42).Tonawanda, NY: MultilingualMatters.Dörnyei, Z., & Csizér, K. (1998). Ten commandments for motivating language learners: Results of an empirical study. Language Teaching Research, 2, 203-229.Dörnyei, Z., & Csizér, K. (2002). Some dynamics of language attitudes and motivation: Results of a longitudinal nationwide survey. Applied Linguistics, 23, 421-462.Dörnyei, Z., & K. Csizér. (2002). Some dynamics of language attitudes and motivation: Results of a longitudinal nationwide survey. Applied Linguistics, 23, 421–462.Dörnyei, Z., Csizér, K., & Németh, N. (2006). Motivation, language attitudes, and globalization:A Hungarian perspective. Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters.Dörnyei, Z., & Ottó, I. (1998). Motivation in action: A process model of L2 motivation. Working Papers in Applied Linguistics, 4, 43-69.Dörnyei, Z., & Schmidt, R. (Eds.). (2001). Motivation and second language acquisition.Honolulu: National Foreign Language Resource Center/ University of Hawai'i Press.Dörnyei, Z., & Skehan, P. (2003). Individual differences in second language learning. In C. J.Doughty & M. H. Long (Eds.), The handbook of second language acquisition (pp. 589-630). Malden, MA: Blackwell.Dweck, C. S. (1986). Motivational processes affecting learning. American Psychologist, 41, 1040-1048.Ehrman, M. (1996). An exploration of adult language learner motivation, self-efficacy, and anxiety. In R. Oxford (Ed.), Language learning motivation: Pathways to the new century (pp. 81-103). Honolulu, HI: University of Hawai’i Press.Gao, Y., Zhao, Y., Cheng, Y., & Zhou, Y. (2004). Motivation types of Chinese university undergraduates. Asian Journal of English Language Teaching, 14, 45-64.Gardner, R. (1985). Social psychology and second language learning: The role of attitude and motivation. London, UK: Edward Arnold.Gardner, R. (2001). Integrative motivation and second language acquisition. In Z. Dörnyei & R.Schmidt (Eds.), Motivation and language acquisition (pp. 1-19). Honolulu, HI:University of Hawai’i Press.Gardner, R. C. (2000). Correlation, causation, motivation, and second language acquisition.Canadian Psychology, 41, 10-24.Gardner, R. C. (2001). Integrative motivation: Past, present and future. Retrieved from ://publish.uwo.ca/~gardner/docs/GardnerPublicLecture1.pdfGardner, R. (2001). Integrative motivation and second language acquisition. In Z. Dörnyei & R.Schmidt (Eds.), Motivation and language acquisition (pp. 1-19). Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press.Gardner, R. C. (2005). Integrative motivation and second language acquisition. Retrieved from ://publish.uwo.ca/~gardner/docs/caaltalk5final.pdfGardner, R. C. (2009). Gardner and Lambert (1959): Fifty years and counting. Retrieved from ://publish.uwo.ca/~gardner/docs/CAALOttawa2009talkc.pdfGardner, R. C., & Lambert, W. E. (1959). Motivational variables in second language acquisition.Canadian Journal of Psychology, 13, 266-272.Gardner, R. C., & Lambert, W. E. (1972). Attitudes and motivation in second language learning. Rowley, MA: Newbury House.Gardner, R. C., Masgoret, A.-M., Tennant, J., & Mihic, L. (2004). Integrative motivation: Changes during a year-long intermediate-level language course. Language Learning, 54, 1-34.Gardner, R. C., & Smythe, P. C. (1981). On the development of the attitude/ motivation test battery. The Canadian Modern Language Review, 37, 510-525.Gardner, R. C., & Tremblay, P. F. (1994). On motivation, research agendas, and theoretical frameworks. The Modern Language Journal, 78, 359-368.Grabe, W. (2009). Motivation and reading. In W. Grabe (Ed.), Reading in a second language: Moving from theory to practice (pp. 175-193). New York, NY: Cambridge UniversityPress.Graham, S. (1994). Classroom motivation from an attitudinal perspective. In H. F. J. O'Neil and M. Drillings (Eds.), Motivation: Theory and research (pp. 31-48). Hillsdale, NJ:Lawrence Erlbaum.Guilloteaux, M. J., & Dörnyei, Z. (2008). Motivating language learners: A classroom-oriented investigation of the effects of motivational strategies on student motivation. TESOLQuarterly, 42, 55-77.Hadfield, J. (2013). A second self: Translating motivation theory into practice. In T. Pattison (Ed.), IATEFL 2012: Glasgow Conference Selections (pp. 44-47). Canterbury, UK:IATEFL.Hao, M., Liu, M., & Hao, R. (2004). An empirical study on anxiety and motivation in English asa Foreign Language. Asian Journal of English Language Teaching, 14, 89-104.Hara, C., & Sarver, W. T. (2010). Magic in ESL: An observation of student motivation in an ESL class. In G. Park, H. P. Widodo, & A. Cirocki (Eds.), Observation of teaching:Bridging theory and practice through research on teaching (pp. 141-153). Munich,Germany: LINCOM EUROPA.Hashimoto, Y. (2002). Motivation and willingness to communicate as predictors of reported L2 use: The Japanese ESL context. Retrieved from :///sls/uhwpesl/20(2)/Hashimoto.pdf.Hawkins, J. N. (1994). Issues of motivation in Asian education. In H. F. O’Neill & M. Drillings (Eds.), Motivation—theory and research (pp. 101-115). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Hsieh, P. (2008). Why are college foreign language students' self-efficacy, attitude, and motivation so different? International Education, 38(1), 76-94.Huang, S. (2010). Convergent vs. divergent assessment: Impact on college EFL students’ motivation and self-regulated learning strategies. Language Testing, 28(2), 251-270.Keller, J. M. (1983). Motivational design of instruction. In C. M. Reigeluth (Ed.), Instructional design theories and models (pp. 386-433). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Kim, S. (2009). Questioning the stability of foreign language classroom anxiety and motivation across different classroom contexts. Foreign Language Annals, 42(1), 138-157. Komiyama, R. (2009). CAR: A means for motivating students to read. English Teaching Forum, 47(3), 32-37.Kondo-Brown, K. (2001). Bilingual heritage students’ language contact and motivation. In Z.Dörnyei & R. Schmidt (Eds.), Motivation and language acquisition (pp. 433-460).Honolulu, HI: University of Hawai’i Press.Koromilas, K. (2011). Obligation and motivation. Cambridge ESOL Research Notes, 44, 12-20.Lamb, M. (2004). Integrative motivation in a globalizing world. System, 32, 3-19.Lamb, T. (2009). Controlling learning: Learners’ voices and relationships between motivation and learner autonomy. In R. Pemberton, S. Toogood, & A. Barfield (Eds.), Maintaining control: Autonomy and language learning (pp. 67-86). Hong Kong: Hong KongUniversity Press.Lau, K.-l., & Chan, D. W. (2003). Reading strategy use and motivation among Chinese good and poor readers in Hong Kong. Journal of Research in Reading, 26, 177-190.Lepper, M. R. (1983). Extrinsic reward and intrinsic motivation: implications for the classroom.In J. M. Levine & M. C. Wang (eds.), Teacher and student perceptions: implications for learning (pp. 281-317). Hillsdale, NJ; Erlbaum.Li, J. (2009). Motivational force and imagined community in ‘Crazy English.’ In J. Lo Bianco, J.Orton, & Y. Gao (Eds.), China and English: Globalisation and the dilemmas of identity(pp. 211-223). Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters.Lopez., F. (2010).Identity and motivation among Hispanic ELLs. Education Policy Analysis Archives, 18(16), 1-29.MacIntyre, P. D. (2002). Motivation, anxiety and emotion in second language acquisition. In P.Robinson (Ed.), Individual differences and instructed language learning (pp. 45-68).Amsterdam, The Netherlands: John Benjamins.MacIntyre, P. D., MacMaster, K., & Baker, S. C. (2001). The convergence of multiple models of motivation for second language learning: Gardner, Pintrich, Kuhl, and McCroskey. In Z.Dörnyei & R. Schmidt (Eds.), Motivation and language acquisition (pp. 461-492).Honolulu, HI: University of Hawai’i Press.Maehr, M. L. & Archer, J. (1987). Motivation and school achievement. In L. G. Katz (ed.), Current topics in early childhood education (pp. 85-107). Norwood, NJ: Ablex.Manderlink, G., & Harackiewicz, J. M. 1984. Proximal versus distal goal setting and intrinsic motivation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 47, 918-928.Markus, H. R., & Kitayama, S. (1991). Culture and self: Implications for cognition, emotion, and motivation. Psychological Review, 98(2), 224-253.Maslow, A. H. (1970). Motivation and personality. New York, NY: Harper & Row.McCombs, B. L. (1984). Processes and skills underlying continued motivation to learn.Educational Psychologist, 19(4), 199-218.McCombs, B. L. (1988). Motivational skills training: combining metacognitive, cognitive, and affective learning strategies. In C. E. Weinstein, E. T. Goetz & P. A. Alexander (Eds.),Learning and study strategies (pp.141-169). New York: Academic Press.McCombs, B. L. (1994). Strategies for assessing and enhancing motivation: keys to promoting self-regulated learning and performance. In H. F. O’Neill & M. Drillings (Eds.),Motivation: theory and research (pp. 49-69). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.McCombs, B. L., & Whisler, J. S. (1997). The learner-centered classroom and school: Strategies for increasing student motivation and achievement. San Francisco. CA:Jossey-Bass.McCrossan, L. (2011). Progress, motivation and high-level learners. Cambridge ESOL Research Notes, 44, 6-12.Melvin, B. S., & Stout, D. S. (1987). Motivating language learners through authentic materials.In W. Rivers (Ed.), Interactive language teaching (pp. 44–56). New York, NY:Cambridge University Press.Midraj, S., Midraj, J., O’Neil, G., Sellami, A., & El-Temtamy, O. (2007). UAE grade 12 students’ motivation & language learning. In S. Midraj, A. Jendli, & A. Sellami (Eds.), Research in ELT contexts (pp. 47-62). Dubai: TESOL Arabia.Molden, D. C., & Dweck, C. S. (2000). Meaning and motivation. In C. Sansone & J.Harackiewicz (Eds.), Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation: The search for optimalmotivation and performance (pp. 131-159). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.Mori, S. (2002). Redefining motivation to read in a foreign language. Reading in a Foreign Language, 14, 91-110.Noels, K. A., Clément, R., & Pelletier, L. G. (1999). Perceptions of teachers’ communicative style and students’ intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.Modern Language Journal,83, 23-34.Noels, K. A., Pelletier, L. G., Clément, R., & Vallerand, R. J. (2000). Why are you learning a second language?: Motivational orientations and self-determination theory. LanguageLearning, 50, 57-85.Oxford, R. L. (Ed.). (1996). Language learning motivation: pathways to the new century.Hono lulu: Second Language Teaching & Curriculum Center, University of Hawai’i.Oxford, R., & Shearin, J. (1994). Language learning motivation: Expanding the theoretical framework. Modern Language Journal, 78, 12-28.Papadimitriou, A. D. (2011). The impact of an extensive reading programme on vocabulary development and motivation. Cambridge ESOL Research Notes, 44, 39-47.Paris, S. C., & Turner, J. C. (1994). Situated motivation. In P. R. Pintrich, D. R. Brown, & C. E.Weinstein (Eds.), Student motivation, cognition, and learning (pp. 213-237). Hillsdale,NJ: Erlbaum.Peacock, M. (1997). The effect of authentic materials on the motivation of EFL learners. ELT Journal, 51(2), 144-156.Pedraza, P., & Ayala, J. (1996). Motivation as an emergent issue in an after-school program in El Barrio. In L. Schauble & R. Glaser (Eds.), Innovations in learning (pp. 75-91). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.Pintrich, P. R. (1999). The role of motivation in promoting and sustaining self-regulated learning.International Journal of Educational Research, 31(6), 459-470.Pintrich, P. R., & De Groot, E. V. (1990). Motivational and self-regulated learning components of classroom academic performance. Journal of educational psychology, 82(1), 33.Pintrich, P. R., & Schunk, D. H. (1996). Motivation in education: Theory, research and applications. Englewood Cliffs: NJ: Prentice-Hall.Ramage, K. (1991). Motivational factors and persistence in second language learning. Language Learning, 40(2), 189-219.Rueda, R., & Moll, L. (1994). A sociocultural perspective on motivation. In H. F. O’Neill & M.Drillings (Eds.), Motivation: theory and research (pp. 117-137). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: Classic definitions and new directions. Contemporary Educational Psychology,25, 54-67.Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55, 68-78. Schmidt, R., Boraie, D., & Kassabgy, O. (1996). Foreign language motivation: Internal structure and external connections. In R. Oxford (Ed.), Language learning motivation:Pathways to the new century (pp. 9-70). Honolulu: Second Language Teaching &Curriculum Center, University of Hawaii Press.Schutz, P. A. (1994). Goals as the transaction point between motivation and cognition. In P. R.Pintrich, D. R. Brown, & C. E. Weinstein (Eds.), Student motivation, cognition, andlearning (pp. 135-156). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Scott, K. (2006). Gender differences in motivation to learn French. The Canadian Modern Language Review, 62, 401-422.Syed, Z. (2001). Notions of self in foreign language learning: A qualitative analysis. In Z.Dörnyei & R. Schmidt (Eds.), Motivation and second language acquisition (pp. 127-147).Honolulu, HI: University of Hawaii Press.Schmidt, R., Boraie, D., & Kassabgy, O. (1996). Foreign language motivation: Internal structure and external connections. In R. Oxford (Ed.), Language learning motivation: Pathways to the new century (pp. 9-70). Honolulu, HI: Second Language Teaching & Curriculum Center, University of Hawaii Press.Scott, K. (2006). Gender differences in motivation to learn French. The Canadian Modern Language Review, 62, 401-422.Sisamakis, M. (2010). The motivational potential of the European language portfolio. In B.O’Rourke & L. Carson (Eds.), Language learner autonomy: Policy, curriculum,classroom (pp. 351-371). Oxford, UK: Peter Lang.Smith, K. (2006). Motivating students through assessment. In R. Wilkinson, V. Zegers, & C. van Leeuwen (Eds.), Bridging the assessment gap in English-medium higher education (pp.109-121). Nijmegen, The Netherlands: AKS –Verlag.St. John, J. (2007). Motivation: The teachers’ perspective. In S. Midraj, A. Jendli, & A. Sellami (Eds.), Research in ELT contexts (pp. 63-84). Dubai: TESOL Arabia.Syed, Z. (2001). Notions of self in foreign language learning: a qualitative analysis. In Z.Dörnyei & R. Schmidt, (Eds.), Motivation and second language acquisition (pp. 127-148).Honolulu: National Foreign Language Resource Center/ University of Hawai'iPress.Ushioda, E. (2003). Motivation as a socially mediated process. In D. Little, J. Ridley, & E.Ushioda (Eds.), Learner autonomy in the language classroom (pp. 90-102). Dublin,Ireland: Authentik.Ushioda, E. (2008). Motivation and good language learners. In C. Griffiths (Ed.), Lessons from good language learners (pp. 19-34). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Ushioda, E. (2009). A person-in-context relational view of emergent motivation, self and identity.In Z. Dörnyei & E. Ushioda (Eds.), Motivation, language identity and the L2 self (pp.215-228). Tonawanda, NY: Multilingual Matters.Ushioda, E. (2012). Motivation. In A. Burns & J. C. Richards (Eds.), The Cambridge guide to pedagogy and practice in language teahcing (pp. 77-85). Cambridge, UK: CambridgeUniversity Press.Verhoeven, L., & Snow, C. E. (Eds.). (2001). Literacy and motivation: Reading engagement in individuals and groups. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.Wachob, P. (2006). Methods and materials for motivation and learner autonomy. Reflections on English Language Teaching, 5(1), 93-122.Walker, C. J., & Quinn, J. W. (1996). Fostering instructional vitality and motivation. In R. J.Menges and associates, Teaching on solid ground (pp. 315-336). San Francisco, SF:Jossey-Bass.Warden, C. A., & Lin, H. J. (2000). Existence of integrative motivation in an Asian EFL setting.Foreign Language Annals, 33, 535-547.Weiner, B. (1984). Principles for a theory of student motivation and their application within an attributional framework. In R. Ames & C. Ames (Eds.), Research on motivation ineducation (pp. 15-38). New York: Academic Press.Weiner, B. (1992). Human motivation: Metaphors, theories and research. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.Weiner, B. (1994). Integrating social and personal theories of achievement motivation. Review of Educational Research, 64, 557-573.Williams, M., Burden, R., & Lanvers, U. (2002). French is the language of love and stuff: Student perceptions of issues related to motivation in learning a foreign language.British Educational Research Journal, 28, 503–528.Wlodkowski, R. J. (1985). Enhancing adult motivation to learn. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Wu, X. (2003). Intrinsic motivation and young language learners: The impact of the classroom environment. System, 31, 501-517.Xu, H., & Jiang, X. (2004). Achievement motivation, attributional beliefs, and EFL learning strategy use in China. Asian Journal of English Language Teaching, 14, 65-87.Yung, K. W. H. (2103). Bridging the gap: Motivation in year one EAP classrooms. Hong Kong Journal of Applied Linguistics, 14(2), 83-95.。

总论假设有两个人正在讨论最低工资法，这是你听到的两种表述：甲：最低工资法引起了失业乙：应该提高最低工资现在不管你是否同意这两种表述，应该注意的是，甲和乙想要做的事情是不同的。

甲的说法像一个科学家：他作出了一种关于世界如何运行的表述。

乙的说法象一个决策者，他作出了他想要如何改变世界的表述。

一般说来，关于世界的表述有两种类型。

一种类型，如甲的表述，是实证的。

他们做出关于世界是什么的表述。

第二种类型，如乙的表述，是规范的。

规范表述是命令性的，他们作出关于世界应该是什么的表述。

实证和规范的主要差别是我们如何判断他们的正确性。

从原则上说，我们可以通过检验证据而确认或否定实证表述。

上面几段是经济学书上的解释。

当然我是复制别人的。

我个人认为：实证分析就是用实际的、带有普遍性的例子证明一个事物是按照什么规律运行着的；而规范分析则则是通过公理、定理逐渐证明事物应该按照什么规律运行着，但没有或者偏离、正要偏离轨道的运行着。

计量经济学中的实证分析说白了就是运用计量方法，对事物过去的数据进行的一种分析，既然是过去的数据，那就说明肯定用的是普遍的例子而且是实际的例子，所以计量经济学本身就是实证分析的一种方法，用计量经济学方法进行的分析都应该被认为是实证分析。

实证性研究作为一种研究范式，产生于培根的经验哲学和牛顿——伽利略的自然科学研究。

法国哲学家孔多塞（1743-1794）、圣西门（1760-1825）、孔德（1798-1857）倡导将自然科学实证的精神贯彻于社会现象研究之中，他们主张从经验入手，采用程序化、操作化和定量分析的手段，使社会现象的研究达到精细化和准确化的水平。

孔德1830到1842年《实证哲学教程》六卷本的出版，揭开了实证主义运动的序幕，在西方哲学史上形成实证主义思潮。

实证主义所推崇的基本原则是科学结论的客观性和普遍性，强调知识必须建立在观察和实验的经验事实上，通过经验观察的数据和实验研究的手段来揭示一般结论，并且要求这种结论在同一条件下具有可证性。

借助英文报纸培养高中学生阅读策略的实证研究的开题报告Title: An Empirical Study on Enhancing High School Students' Reading Strategies with English NewspapersIntroduction:Reading is an essential skill in acquiring knowledge and improving language competency. It is especially important for high school students to develop effective reading strategies to prepare for academic achievements and life-long learning. English newspapers are considered an effective reading tool as they offer a wide range of topics, current issues, and authentic language. This study aims to investigate how using English newspapers can enhance high school students' reading strategies.Objectives:1. To explore high school students' reading strategies before and after using English newspapers.2. To investigate the impact of using English newspapers on high school students' motivation and reading comprehension.3. To examine the correlation between students' backgrounds, English proficiency, and their reading comprehension with English newspapers.4. To provide recommendations for teachers and educators on how to integrate English newspapers into the teaching and learning process.Methodology:This study will use a mixed-methods approach, including a pre-test and post-test design, surveys, and interviews. The participants will be high school students from different backgrounds and English proficiency levels. They will be divided into two groups, one that uses English newspapers as a reading tool and the other that uses traditional reading materials.The data collection will be conducted through a questionnaire to collect students' demographic information, motivation, and reading strategies. A pre-test and a post-test will be administered to assess students' reading comprehension. Additionally, qualitative data will be collected through interviews with students and teachers to explore their experiences and attitudes towards using English newspapers.Expected Outcomes:The findings of this study will contribute to understanding the effectiveness of using English newspapers as a reading tool for high school students. The results will provide insights for teachers and educators to design effective methods and strategies to integrate English newspapers into their teaching and learning practices. The study also aims to promote students' motivation and enhance their readingstrategies, which can lead to better academic performance and language competency.。

高中学生研究性课题题目英语在高中学习生涯中，研究性课题是一种重要的学习方式，旨在培养学生的科学研究能力和创新意识。

选取一个合适的研究性课题对于学生的学术发展和未来职业规划都具有重要意义。

本文将介绍一些适合高中学生研究性课题的英语题目，希望能够为学生提供一些灵感和启示。

1. The Impact of Social Media on Teenagers’ Mental HealthThis research topic aims to investigate how social media usage affects the mental health of teenagers. The study will explore the relationship between social media addiction, cyberbullying, and depression/anxiety among adolescents. It will also examine the role of parental guidance and peer influence in moderating the impact of social media on teenagers’ mental well-being.2. Gender Disparities in STEM Education: An Analysis of High School Students’ PerceptionsThis research project seeks to explore the gender disparities in STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics) education among high school students. The study will investigate the factors that contribute to the underrepresentation of girls in STEM fields and analyze the perceptions of male and female students towards STEM subjects. Recommendations for promoting gender equality in STEM education will also be discussed.3. The Effects of Diet and Exercise on Academic PerformanceThis study aims to examine the relationship between diet, exercise, and academic performance among high school students. The research will investigate how healthy eating habits and physical activity impact students’ cognitive function, concentration, and overall academic achievement. It will also explore the role of school policies and parental involvement in promoting healthy lifestyle choices among teenagers.4. Environmental Awareness and Sustainable Practices among High School StudentsThis research topic focuses on assessing high school students’ environmental awareness and engagement in sustainable practices. The study will examine students’ knowledge of environmental issues, their attitudes towards conservation, and their participation in eco-friendly activities. It will also explore the impact of environmental edu cation programs on students’ behavior and attitudes towards environmental sustainability.5. The Influence of Peer Pressure on Academic PerformanceThis research project investigates the impact of peer pressure on high school students’ academic performance. The study will analyze how peer influence, social dynamics, and group norms affect students’ motivation, study habits, and educational outcomes. It will also explore strategies for empowering students to resist negative peer pressure and cultivate a positive learning environment.以上是几个适合高中学生研究性课题的英语题目，每个课题都涉及到不同领域的问题，旨在启发学生的思维、培养他们的研究能力和创新精神。

英文回答：As an academic activity, research must be based on philosophy and methodology. At the philosophical level, research needs to be based on two philosophical schools： empirical and critical. Empiricalism emphasizes objective and verifiable facts and patterns, as well as access to knowledge through observation and experimentation. In research studies, the concept of empiricalism supports objective observation and description of social phenomena, focusing on the discovery of objective and objective patterns. Criticism focuses on the impact of power, social structure and ideology on society, emphasizing criticism and emancipation. In research studies, critical theories support critical analysis of social phenomena and liberal practices. These two philosophies provide different theoretical bases and perspectives for research, allowing research to more fully grasp the nature and patterns of social phenomena.调查研究作为一种学术活动，必须在哲学和方法论上立足。

高中生英语学习期望价值的实证研究的开题报告Title: An Empirical Study on the Expected Value of English Learning for High School StudentsIntroduction:English is an essential language that has become an international means of communication. It is one of the core subjects in high school that students must learn, and its importance cannot be overstated. In recent years, the level of English proficiency among Chinese high school students has been a concern. Students spend a significant amount of time studying English, yet their proficiency level is still low. Therefore, it is necessary to explore why this is the case.This research aims to investigate the expected value of English learning for high school students, using empirical data. The research will seek to provide insights into the value of English learning, how it is perceived by students, and how it influences their learning.Objectives:The objectives of this research are:1. To identify the expected value of English learning for high school students;2. To explore the factors that influence the expected value of English learning for high school students;3. To analyze the relationship between the expected value of English learning and the actual English proficiency level of high school students.Methodology:This study will use a mixed-methods research design. The research will be conducted in phases. In the first phase, a survey will be conducted to gather quantitative data. The survey will be distributed among high school students from different regions in China, and the participants will be selected using a stratified sampling method. The survey questionnaire will be designed to gather information about the expected value of English learning, such as the importance of English learning, the motivation to learn English, and the perceived benefits of English learning.In the second phase of the research, interviews will be conducted with a small group of students who participated in the survey. The interviews will provide qualitative data that will help to understand the factors that influence the expected value of English learning.Data Analysis:The data collected from the surveys and interviews will be analyzed using descriptive statistics and content analysis. Descriptive statistics will be used to analyze the quantitative data, while content analysis will be used to analyze the qualitative data. The data analysis will aim to identify patterns, themes, and relationships between variables.Expected Outcomes:The expected outcomes of this research are:1. To identify the expected value of English learning for high school students;2. To identify the factors that influence the expected value of English learning for high school students;3. To analyze the relationship between the expected value of English learning and the actual English proficiency level of high school students;4. To provide recommendations for improving the value of English learning for high school students.Conclusion:In conclusion, this research aims to investigate the expected value of English learning for high school students. The research will use a mixed-method approach to collect and analyze data. The findings of this research will provide insights into the importance of English learning, the motivation to learn English, and the perceived benefits of English learning. The research will also provide recommendations for improving the value of English learning for high school students.。

Buckingham Shum, S. (1996). Analyzing the Usability of a Design Rationale Notation. In T. P. Moran and J. M. Carroll, (Eds.) Design Rationale: Concepts, Techniques, and Use, 185-215. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.Analysing the Usability of a Design Rationale NotationSimon Buckingham ShumABSTRACTSemiformal, argumentation-based notations are one of the main classes of formalism currently being used to represent design rationale (DR). However, our understanding of the demands on designers of using such representations has to date been drawn largely from informal and anecdotal evidence. One way to tackle the fundamental challenge of reducing DR’s representational overheads, is to understand the relationship between designing, and the idea structuring tasks introduced by a semiformal DR notation. Empirically based analyses of DR in use can therefore inform the design of the notations in order to turn the structuring effort to the designers’ advantage. This is the approach taken in this chapter, which examines how designers use a DR notation during design problem solving.Two empirical studies of DR-use are reported, in which designers used the QOC notation (MacLean et al., this volume) to express rationale for their designs. In the first study, a substantial and consistent body of evidence was gathered, describing the demands of the core representational tasks in using QOC, and the variety of strategies which designers adopt in externalising ideas. The second study suggests that an argumentation-based design model based around laying out discrete, competing Options is inappropriate during a depth-first,‘evolutionary’ mode of working, centered around developing a single, complex Option. In addition, the data provide motivation for several extensions to the basic QOC notation. The chapter concludes by comparing the account of the QOC–design relationship which emerges from these studies, with reports of other DR approaches in use.Simon Buckingham Shum is a Research Fellow at the Knowledge Media Institute, The Open University, UK, studying the implications and applications of the internet and interactive media for learning anddesign.Knowledge Media Institute, The Open University, Milton Keynes, MK7 6AA, U.K.Email: S.Buckingham.Shum@CONTENTS1.THE NEED FOR EMPIRICAL STUDIES OF DR IN USE2.THE STUDIES: DESIGNERS, TRAINING, AND TASKS3.CORE REPRESENTATIONAL TASKS IN QOC-AUTHORING3.1.QOC authoring as an opportunistic activity3.2.Classifying ideas3.3.Naming and renaming3.4.Structuring and restructuring3.5.Summary4.PROBLEMS USING QOC IN ‘EVOLUTIONARY’ DESIGN:TRYING TO ARGUE ABOUT ONE OPTION?4.1.Difficulties encountered with QOC constructsQuestionsOptionsCriteria4.2.Characterising the relationship between QOCand the two modes of designing5.QOC’S EXPRESSIVENESS5.1.Representing evolution within QOC structures5.2.Expressing constraints and dependencies5.3.The subtleties of expressing Options, Criteria, and Assessments6.RELATIONSHIP TO REPORTS OF OTHER DR APPROACHES IN USE7.CONCLUSIONS8.REFERENCES1.THE NEED FOR EMPIRICAL STUDIES OF DESIGN RATIONALE IN USESemiformal, argumentation-based notations are one of the main classes of formalism currently being used to represent design rationale (DR). Whilst from a notational perspective, graphical formalisms are well suited for recording design arguments as they arise, doing so also introduces representational overheads for the designer. This chapter is concerned with understanding the nature of the extra cognitive work introduced by argumentation-based DR. This is obviously important in the context of a fast-flowing, time-pressured activity such as software design, in which ‘documentation’ is already a bad word.Usable, effective DR tools can only be developed once we have an understanding of the cognitive, group, and organizational factors implicated in the introduction of explicit DR to the design process. The present work focusses on the cognitive factors which determine the usability of argumentation-based DR notations, taking as an example the QOC notation and Design Space Analysis perspective (MacLean, Young, Bellotti, & Moran, this volume, Section 2). Whilst MacLean et al. focus on the properties of QOC as a representation for DR, and its relationship to other approaches, attention in this chapter shifts to the process of authoring QOC, and its relationship to different modes of software design activity. The analyses of the data gathered in these studies address issues relating to QOC’s usability and scope, with broader implications for other DR approaches and their associated representational schemes.2.THE STUDIES: DESIGNERS, TRAINING, AND TASKSAnalyses of two empirical studies are presented in this chapter. All of the data reported are drawn from video-based observational analyses of design problem solving. In Study A, 12 pairs of software designers (16 professionals/8 students) spent an hour using QOC to redesign and rationalize the user interface to a bank’s automated teller machine (ATM). The task was based on that employed by MacLean et al. (this volume, Figure 4).1 In Study B, in which different modes of design are considered, an electronics research student engaged in doctoral research described his work (designing Smalltalk-80 data structures) and use of QOC over three 141hour sessions.In Studies A and B, the designers underwent a training procedure which introduced DR as a general concept, and QOC specifically. Emphasis was placed on the importance of developing coherent rationales which would communicate clearly to an outsider the key reasons behind the designs, reflecting the more retrospective Design Space Analysis approach. The QOC tutorial-tasks were intended to give the designers practice in structuring natural discourse semiformally. Designers were required to translate into QOC the key aspects of several fictional design discussions, such that a third party could understand what had been discussed. By varying the length of these design discussions, and the medium in which they were presented (as transcripts plus sketches, or as a video-recording of a discussion) the representational task became steadily more demanding. Details can be found in Shum (1991).1Two tasks were in fact used, in a between-subjects experimental design. The first described user-steps fora Standard-ATM (SATM) interface, and requested a new design and DR. The second additionallydescribed the Fast-ATM interface, and several SATM usability problems. Designers were required to evaluate the FATM, and if necessary, devise and rationalize changes. The data from both tasks are combined for the analysis presented here.1In all of the studies, designers used pens and large sheets of paper as opposed to a software tool. Under these conditions, the authoring process could be studied with minimal interference from extraneous factors, whilst preserving or even enhancing properties of the online medium such as display space, resolution, and ease of local editing. Whilst computational tools can alleviate some of the mechanical overheads of the task, the core tasks of deciding how to express reasoning as structured argumentation remain essentially unchanged.Throughout this paper, extracts from the design transcripts are used to illustrate points. In longer transcript extracts, the key points are shown in bold, and ideas recorded as QOC are shown like this. Most of the examples in this section are from Study A’s ATM design problem, which centered around reducing customer queues without sacrificing the number of services offered. Other extracts are from Study A tutorial exercises: one task was to design the remote control for a video-recorder intended for the elderly, and the other was to design an airport public information symbol to indicate a “one hour left-luggage office.”3.CORE REPRESENTATIONAL TASKS IN QOC-AUTHORINGIn order to translate ideas into QOC, the designer is faced with three basic cognitive tasks: deciding what kind of an idea one has (classification), how to label it meaningfully (naming), and how it relates to other ideas (structuring). Before these tasks are illustrated, however, it is necessary to emphasize their non-linear relationship, that is, the exploratory, opportunistic nature of the process.3.1.QOC authoring as an opportunistic activityWhen studying designers using QOC, it soon becomes clear that externalising ideas as structured argumentation is not a smooth, top-down process. Continual revision and switching from one task to another characterize QOC authoring as an opportunistic mode of working (Guindon, 1990). The QOC evolves through multiple, sometimes embedded, represent-and-evaluate cycles, switching between different parts of the structure.Various approaches to representing QOC were adopted, demonstrating that the process of developing QOC analyses is quite different from the orderly structure of the final product. For instance, in the following extract in which the designers discuss how the ATM should dispense different kinds of output, it was most natural to generate Options, then Criteria, and the Question last of all.[Study A: Pair 2]P:Halifax machines drop everything into a little drawer... the Question here is... wellthe ideas [i.e. Options] are as is, and everything from one place. The Criteriaare...D:what are you going to call the Question though?P:Hmm, I get caught on the Questions....the Criteria are natural feel to it - getting itfrom different holes doesn’t feel naturalD:actually, it’s more like a teller, more humanP:what? If you get it all from the same hole?D:the same kind of thing like when you go the counter, and the guy gives you itthrough the little slotP:[writes] security in mind (everything from a draw – feels secure). [LinkingOptions to Criteria] - as is – it doesn’t have a natural feel to it, everything fromdifferent slots.2What’s the Question here? (frustrated tone).D:erm... I suppose physical layout of...P:layout of holes [starts to write]D:physical layout of input/output stuff [P. writes layout of I/O for cash/card/receipt]Figure 1 shows the order in which QOC was constructed in another situation, illustrating switching between Questions to capture new ideas as they suggest themselves.2prog. info?minimise keys on controlno. of keystrokes1510Figure 1: [Study A tutorial exercise: Pair 2] Moving opportunistically to a new Question and Options as they arise, and then back to complete the original (numbers added to show sequence of ideas). In QOC, boxed Options indicate a decision, or at least a working commitment.In some cases, subjects explicitly adopted ‘strategies’ to representing the QOC, as ways of imposing some structure on their task. For example, in order to control the tendency to pursue new ideas as they arose opportunistically, one pair declared:[Pair 12: Study A]G:let’s try to write down some of the Questions of concern here, and then someCriteria, and then I think some of the Options will come from that - possibly... ’cosQuestions and Criteria are related a lot aren’t theyJ:so if we have one heading Questions and another here for Criteria, which might notbe relatedG:right - I’m going to concentrate in terms of Questions, and then the Criteria mightcome from the Questions. length of queue is a Question...About a minute later, they started to discuss the details of a possible Option but stopped themselves intentionally, aware that at this early stage it might be a tangent:A:so could you have a machine that behaves like a regular ATM or a fast ATMdepending on where you put the card in?2Apart from ‘cleaned-up’ graphic appearance, all QOC examples used in this chapter are copied directly from designers' QOC representations, unless otherwise stated.3A:you could... but would that be...? – right, soG:yeah - so (writes) variety of machines ... (no further discussion on that Option untillater)It is important to note, however, that strategies of this sort seemed to be short-term, flexible modes of working, that is, they did not govern the structure of the whole session, and within them there was flexibility to attend to different parts of the QOC and to switch strategies, such as:• listing Questions in advance, before elaborating them;• generating Options and Criteria, and then the Question;• generating Questions and Options first, and then evaluating with Criteria.QOC authoring is not only opportunistic when used during conceptual problem solving of the sort required by the ATM task. Even when the decisions have been made and all the arguments are known (i.e. retrospective DR), working out how best to represent them is a separate task. Having recognized that the authoring process is far from a tidily sequenced activity, let us now turn to its constituent tasks.3.2.Classifying ideasThis section focusses on the normal process of classifying ideas. When QOC is being used, the vocabulary and orientation of discussion inevitably changes, with regular references to the new constructs, e.g. that’s an Option; could that be a Question?; this Criterion keeps coming up, and so forth. As with any language, fluency increases with use, such that arguments are more smoothly and accurately translated over time. In Study A, it was found that normally subjects classified ideas without spending much time discussing what type they should be. However, as the examples of restructuring QOC show [Section 3.4], the first translation which springs to mind is not necessarily the optimal representation. Even relative ‘experts’with QOC (e.g. QOC’s developers) still engage in restructuring, reclassification, and renaming, revision activities which are dealt with below. The following examples illustrate classification difficulties characteristic of early use of QOC.(i) Figure 2 shows a typical error in classifying an idea (natural order is initially recorded as an Option, but then corrected to be a Criterion):fast atm-order of eventsfastFigure 2: [Study A: Pair 2] A typical error in classifying an idea (a Criterion as an Option).(ii) In the following extract, an Option is first represented as a Question: [Study A: Pair 2]4D:what does this do then? – the Fast ATM do, if you press the cash amount and not(put in) the card?P:I guess it just goes ‘Ha Ha,’ and clears itself. It’ll have a time out, or clear key.D: yeah, but that’s an Option though – a Clear key.P:on where?D:well on the normal ATM. You could change the order of the events, but you have aclear key and a timeoutP:fast ATM order of events [writes this as a new Question]... that’s an Option?D:yeah that’s an OptionP:oh, it’s an Option which addresses this security issue isn’t it [deletes Question:clear key and timeout on ATM, and writes clear key + timeout as an Option].What’s the Question? It’s sort of a vandalism issue...(iii) This extract shows the pair generating ideas in discussion, and then striving to represent those ideas as QOC:[Study A: Pair 5]R:that’s a design decision [pointing to the keypad sketch]. Deciding that Cancel isgoing to be the emergency get-out, and that we should stick with that as its mode -the mode of that key is ‘get out of this, now’.J:well it certainly is... it goes back to this question of buttons - is that what theCancel... I mean we’ve added the Cancel key, and consider that to be a designconclusion – I like that because it’s intuitive. I suppose that could be a Criterion –in fact it’s a very important user-Criterion. [sigh] How do we record that?(...)J:We’ve not got much time left. We could do with identifying this Cancel key morespecifically. But I don’t know what the Question is.R:in fact the Question is ‘How does the card get returned?’J:you can put it under the question of buttons......I think the Enter key and Cancel key are part of the question of buttons. That’sthe Question [indicates Q. of buttons] – now there are probably other Questionswhich feed into this, and I don’t know that you can actually... Hah! [laughs] Whenis something a Question, and when is it a Criterion?In the above extract, the decisions and arguments are clear in J.’s mind, but neither he nor his partner are sufficiently fluent with QOC to translate them. J. notes in particular the informality inherent in QOC (e.g. how to classify ideas).3.3.Naming and renamingNaming entities is often a process of renaming. The renaming of nodes was a prevalent activity for every pair of designers in Study A. Renaming reflects the problem solving process of developing ideas; if a QOC is constructed as the problem is explored, it is inevitable that node-names which do not reflect current understanding of the problem must be updated.Naming in QOC takes up a significant amount of time for several reasons. Firstly, a node’s name must be succinct, and convey the idea it represents. Secondly, to aid interpretation, a further constraint on Criteria is that they be expressed positively, e.g. easy to learn,low error5rate,low cost,high speed.3 Thirdly, a particularly important characteristic of names is focus. Focus refers to the level of generality at which the idea is expressed: a Question may address several issues; an Option may embody several key features which differentiate it from others, but not along the dimension which is addressed by the Question; a Criterion might be expressed so generally (e.g. intuitive; simple) that it is hard to see how it relates to an Option.A fourth property of a name is its relationship to others of its type: it should be distinctive. An Option may really be an example of another, or two Criteria might really be re-expressions of each other (e.g. each side of a trade-off—depending on the context, this might be useful or redundant). Both distinctiveness and focus in naming are characteristics of ‘well-formed’ QOC.4Although these requirements were not made explicit to designers in Study A, they still appreciated the importance of finding good names for ideas. The extracts below illustrate the cooperative process of refining names.[Study A tutorial exercise: Pair 5]R:so how are we going to...T:“keys to what kind of functions...”R:that’s not a very good way of putting it...T:it’s like the “classes of functions...”R:classes! That’s the way to put it.T:What classes of function keys?R:...you see teletext is the only thing you read – you don’t read other things – youdon’t read the picture.T:what we have are two negative reasonsR:we have to make them positive though...ok, so, “easy to read?”T:well, that wasn’t the point was it? um... it was like that they couldn’t actually...R: they can’t see it, so they don’t need it.T:[laughs] yeah -- it’s like the Criterion is that you’re providing a function which theycan actually make use of, and they can’t make use of the teletext because it’s toosmall to read.R:ok – useful function?T:yeah, ok.The following comment summarizes the experience of many subjects in having to name Criteria positively:[Study A: Pair 5]R:... I mean, I really struggled on that first exercise, and found that very awkward andvery difficult. In fact the thing I found most difficult was negating everything, sothat the attribute was a positive attributeJ:yesR:I just couldn’t get my brain to pick out the right word to describe that attribute.3With this constraint, supports Assessment links to Options can always be interpreted as ‘pros’, and objects-to links as ‘cons’; because Criteria have different weights [Section 5.3], decisions clearly cannot be made on the basis of how many supports links Options have, but they provide an initial visual indication.4Principles for well-formed structures were collated as a ‘QOC styleguide.’63.4.Structuring and restructuringThe primary organization which presents itself to someone browsing a QOC diagram is the Question structure, and it is under Questions which design ideas must be eventually placed. For this reason, the problems which designers choose to address through the Questions are important: the Questions addressed define the space which the team sees their design occupying, and guides the direction of future deliberation. Many examples of Question structuring and restructuring were collated in this and other studies, three of which are reproduced below. Note that renaming of Questions is covered here (rather than in the previous section) because of their importance in shaping the macro-structure of the QOC. (i) Working out the Question together:[Study A: Pair 12]G:(new sheet) Our first Question - do you want different kinds of ATMs for thedifferent – you know, a fast ATM and a fully functional one – or do you want to doit all at once?J:ok, so what’s the Question - ’cos those are the Options aren’t they?G:do you want..um.. well the Question is...em...J:single machineG:yeah, kinds of... do you want to have just one machine or do you want to have...J:well those are OptionsG:yeah, well I know those are Options [laughs], but the Question can kind of beg thequestionJ:well it could be a Question – “do you want a variety of machines?” Yes or NoG:well [Question] number of ATM designs: one and more than one - typically two:[Options] fast and fully functional(ii) The subjects return to their first Question, and realize that it no longer expresses what they have now identified as the real problem (the design of the first screen):[Study A: Pair 10]T:oh no. [pause - returns to Question] Except that this isn’t really how to developuser interface - it’s [really to do with] the first screen isn’t it?A:what do we show initially?T:yeahA:[changes first Question] what do we display on 1st screen?(iii) Similar to the last example, Figure 3 shows how a Question is refocussed to express the problem which the generated Options now seem to be addressing (user interface education).reduces queueseffectivetake noticeFigure 3: [Study A: Pair 2] Refocussing a general Question to capture the issue actually addressed by the Options.7As Bellotti, MacLean and Moran (1991) emphasize, asking the right Questions is critical to developing a useful design space representation, and avoiding particular mental sets or design fixations (Jansson & Smith, 1991). The data collected in these studies in fact demonstrate that Question revision is the natural process which designers follow when using QOC, even though the Study A designers (from whom all of the above examples are taken) were not explicitly told to work on refining Questions. Design Space Analysis, with its particular emphasis on asking good Questions, attempts to build on and support this activity.The above examples showed that the reformulation of Questions often takes place in response to the Options generated. The relationship is reciprocal, however, since an insight into the nature of a Question can lead to restructuring of those Options, by moving them to new or existing Questions; another example would be making an implicit criterion embedded in a Question explicit as a Criterion. Whilst this distinction is useful for analytic purposes, the two are often tightly interwoven during authoring. Several examples of restructuring are presented below.(i) In Figure 4, Options to a Question are moved when it is realized that the Question breaks down into two separate Questions (the Options are separated to indicate that stopwatch and subsequent Options now respond to a second Question).how to represent only for one hour hourglassunderstandability stopwatchhow to showtime passingFigure 4: [Study A tutorial exercise: Pair 8] Dividing a Question into two as it is realized that the Options serve two different roles.(ii) In Figure 5, the designers make the Criterion increased queueing explicit, rather than leaving it embedded in the Question. It can then be used to differentiate between the two Options.how to increase no. of services available, but not increase queueingreduce no. of screensneed extra'complete key' increased queueingFigure 5: [Study A: Pair 8] Extracting an important, but implicit requirement in a Question, and making it explicit as a Criterion to evaluate the Options.8(iii) In another incident [Study A: Pair 10], two designers initially recorded several ideas as Options (reduce response time, minimize key depressions, minimize no. screens) in response to a high level Question, How to reduce queues?They then realized that they really wanted to choose all of them, which was a clue that they could serve as Criteria. The Question was restructured accordingly, and the Criteria reused in subsequent Questions. This pattern has been observed on other occasions, and reflects the process of defining goals (or requirements) as the first step to formulating and evaluating solutions. Recognizing regularities such as these is valuable to user communities as they seek to build and share knowledge and expertise in a particular formalism.(iv) In Study B, a design session involved the gradual identification of hierarchical relationships between Options. The designer redrew his QOC structure in order to make this explicit and went on to develop the hierarchy further, as shown schematically in Figure 6.910low memory requirementslow data transfer rate requiredlow processorcalculation requiredlow data throughput requirement during playlow memory requirementwhen to download data to new instrument allocation?decide whether there is time to downloadlow (high level) computation timecompute time to loadpreload data patterns if Option 1allocate instruments1. one inst. inst. for each eventQuestion Option 1.2.1Option 1.1Option 1.2Figure 6: [Study B] Structural overview of QOC structures to show how they were restructured in order to workon the Option hierarchy (Option numbers added to show the transition). Note that the process of making the Option-structure explicit prompted the designer to change Option 1.3 to Option 1.2.3, and to decompose Option 1.2.2 one level further. (As the designer was using pen and paper and renamed and restructured extensively, the original QOC was littered with changes which have been omitted for clarity). Reproduced from Buckingham Shum and Hammond (1994), with permission, Academic Press, Ltd.3.5.Study A: ConclusionsOpen-ended, ill-structured, ‘wicked’ problems (Rittel & Webber, 1973) are rendered manageable only through the exploratory process of framing and reframing views in order to better understand constraints on the solution space. For the designers studied, designing the ATM user interface engendered such a mode of working, which led to extensive revision of QOC names and structure as ideas developed.Whilst the amount of effort devoted to classifying, naming, and structuring was not documented quantitatively, it is likely that relative amounts would depend at least in part on the users, task and familiarity of domain. Ongoing experiences in using QOC does, however, suggest that these tasks persist as features of ‘expert’ QOC-use, although experts are able to draw on strategies for advancing the QOC in situations which might ‘stall’ a less experienced user (cf. Section 3.4, example (iii), and MacLean et al.’s heuristics (this volume, Appendix)). One would not in fact expect such features of the task to disappear since a claim made explicitly by proponents of semiformal notations is that the discipline of expressing ideas within a constrained vocabulary encourages a dialogue with the representation, which can ‘talk back’ to the designer and expose weaknesses in thinking.The above analysis of authoring behaviour was based on data from a task intentionally selected to allow QOC to be studied—the problem domain was novel, with many issues left open, and the competing ATM designs (presented to half the designers) focussed attention on tradeoffs between Options. In contrast, the evidence described next, from Study B, points to a possible boundary to QOC’s scope of application. Specifically, the study suggests that QOC’s focus on arguing about design spaces defined by multiple Options is poorly suited to work dominated by the evolution of a single Option.4.PROBLEMS USING QOC IN ‘EVOLUTIONARY’ DESIGN:TRYING TO ARGUE ABOUT ONE OPTION?Three sessions were spent with a designer who was working on developing a music composition system in the Smalltalk environment. In session 1, it became clear that many of his ideas were already quite well developed, as a lot of thinking had been invested in the problem beforehand; the main task to which QOC was put was therefore rationalization and decision making. The designer was very positive about QOC’s role in this context, and it was clear from the data (Shum, 1991, Case Study 1) that QOC had assisted in drawing out existing but vague ideas, and clarified relationships between Options and Criteria which would have otherwise remained unarticulated (see Figure 6 for an extract from session 1). In sessions 2 and 3, however, serious difficulties were encountered in using QOC, and no explicit DR was constructed.Let us begin by characterising what will be termed the ‘evolutionary’ mode of working, that is, the iterative development of what the designer conceptualized as one, complex design Option. The designer spent sessions 2 and 3 developing two representations of two Smalltalk data structures, respectively, a hierarchy of data types, and a table of data types such that each column progressively refined the previous one.The designer described the method of developing the hierarchy in session 2 as follows: [Study B]what I’m doing is a sort of consistency check – thinking through the implications of whatI’m doing – this draft suggestion here. And I’ll incrementally alter things [i.e. the datastructure] – I mean I’ve already done that many times to get to this stage...11。

2021年3月第29卷第1期西安外国语大学学报Journal o f X i' an International Studies UniversityMar. 2021Vol. 29. No. 1心智哲学视域下译者意向性的表征研究—以理雅各和汪榕培《庄子》英译为例林琳112,周桂君1(1.东北师范大学外国语学院吉林长春130024; 2.沈阳化工大学外国语学院辽宁沈阳11_)摘要：文章以心智哲学意向性理论为指导，结合理雅各和汪榕培《庄子》英译实例，探讨翻译过程中译者意向性在翻译实践活动中的表征问题。

研究发现:译者在对原文心智识解和译文言语表征的各步骤皆以自身意向性为前提。

通 过自主建构“译者意向性系统运行模型”，文章重点探讨了译者意向性的语言表征方式，涉及译文叙事维的原文背景显化和意向状态改写及副文本维的译序和注释等。

这对拓展心智哲学视域下的翻译研究或有启示意义。

关键词：心智哲学；译者意向性；言语表征;译文叙事；副文本中图分类号：H059 文献标识码：A 文章编号：1673-9876(2021)01-0084-05Abstract：Guided by the theory of intentionality in philosophy of mind, this paper discusses the representation of the transla­tor* s intentionality based on the translation of Zhuangzi by James Legge and Wang Rongpei. It is found that each step such as mental construal of the source text, verbal representation of the target text presupposes the translator's intentionality. Through the independent construction of “ translator intentionality system operation model”，this paper focuses on the linguistic repre­sentation of the translator^ intentionality, including the explicitation of the original background in the narrative dimension of the translation, the rewriting of the intentional state and the preface and annotation of the paratext dimension. This may be the enlightenment to the study of translation from the perspective of philosophy of mind.Key words：philosophy of mind ；translator *s intentionality ；linguistic representation ；translation narrative ；paratexti.引言译者是翻译活动的主体，是保证翻译生态链良性运 转的重要一环。

Instructional designFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaInstructional Design(also called Instructional Systems Design (ISD)) is the practice of maximizing the effectiveness, efficiency and appeal of instruction and other learning experiences. The process consists broadly of determining the current state and needs of the learner, defining the end goal of instruction, and creating some "intervention" to assist in the transition. Ideally the process is informed by pedagogically(process of teaching) and andragogically(adult learning) tested theories of learning and may take place in student-only, teacher-led or community-based settings. The outcome of this instruction may be directly observable and scientifically measured or completely hidden and assumed. There are many instructional design models but many are based on the ADDIE model with the five phases: 1) analysis, 2) design, 3) development, 4) implementation, and 5) evaluation. As a field, instructional design is historically and traditionally rooted in cognitive and behavioral psychology.HistoryMuch of the foundations of the field of instructional design was laid in World War II, when the U.S. military faced the need to rapidly train large numbers of people to perform complex technical tasks, fromfield-stripping a carbine to navigating across the ocean to building a bomber—see "Training Within Industry(TWI)". Drawing on the research and theories of B.F. Skinner on operant conditioning, training programs focused on observable behaviors. Tasks were broken down into subtasks, and each subtask treated as a separate learning goal. Training was designed to reward correct performance and remediate incorrect performance. Mastery was assumed to be possible for every learner, given enough repetition and feedback. After the war, the success of the wartime training model was replicated in business and industrial training, and to a lesser extent in the primary and secondary classroom. The approach is still common in the U.S. military.[1]In 1956, a committee led by Benjamin Bloom published an influential taxonomy of what he termed the three domains of learning: Cognitive(what one knows or thinks), Psychomotor (what one does, physically) and Affective (what one feels, or what attitudes one has). These taxonomies still influence the design of instruction.[2]During the latter half of the 20th century, learning theories began to be influenced by the growth of digital computers.In the 1970s, many instructional design theorists began to adopt an information-processing-based approach to the design of instruction. David Merrill for instance developed Component Display Theory (CDT), which concentrates on the means of presenting instructional materials (presentation techniques).[3]Later in the 1980s and throughout the 1990s cognitive load theory began to find empirical support for a variety of presentation techniques.[4]Cognitive load theory and the design of instructionCognitive load theory developed out of several empirical studies of learners, as they interacted with instructional materials.[5]Sweller and his associates began to measure the effects of working memory load, and found that the format of instructional materials has a direct effect on the performance of the learners using those materials.[6][7][8]While the media debates of the 1990s focused on the influences of media on learning, cognitive load effects were being documented in several journals. Rather than attempting to substantiate the use of media, these cognitive load learning effects provided an empirical basis for the use of instructional strategies. Mayer asked the instructional design community to reassess the media debate, to refocus their attention on what was most important: learning.[9]By the mid- to late-1990s, Sweller and his associates had discovered several learning effects related to cognitive load and the design of instruction (e.g. the split attention effect, redundancy effect, and the worked-example effect). Later, other researchers like Richard Mayer began to attribute learning effects to cognitive load.[9] Mayer and his associates soon developed a Cognitive Theory of MultimediaLearning.[10][11][12]In the past decade, cognitive load theory has begun to be internationally accepted[13]and begun to revolutionize how practitioners of instructional design view instruction. Recently, human performance experts have even taken notice of cognitive load theory, and have begun to promote this theory base as the science of instruction, with instructional designers as the practitioners of this field.[14]Finally Clark, Nguyen and Sweller[15]published a textbook describing how Instructional Designers can promote efficient learning using evidence-based guidelines of cognitive load theory.Instructional Designers use various instructional strategies to reduce cognitive load. For example, they think that the onscreen text should not be more than 150 words or the text should be presented in small meaningful chunks.[citation needed] The designers also use auditory and visual methods to communicate information to the learner.Learning designThe concept of learning design arrived in the literature of technology for education in the late nineties and early 2000s [16] with the idea that "designers and instructors need to choose for themselves the best mixture of behaviourist and constructivist learning experiences for their online courses" [17]. But the concept of learning design is probably as old as the concept of teaching. Learning design might be defined as "the description of the teaching-learning process that takes place in a unit of learning (eg, a course, a lesson or any other designed learning event)" [18].As summarized by Britain[19], learning design may be associated with:∙The concept of learning design∙The implementation of the concept made by learning design specifications like PALO, IMS Learning Design[20], LDL, SLD 2.0, etc... ∙The technical realisations around the implementation of the concept like TELOS, RELOAD LD-Author, etc...Instructional design modelsADDIE processPerhaps the most common model used for creating instructional materials is the ADDIE Process. This acronym stands for the 5 phases contained in the model:∙Analyze– analyze learner characteristics, task to be learned, etc.Identify Instructional Goals, Conduct Instructional Analysis, Analyze Learners and Contexts∙Design– develop learning objectives, choose an instructional approachWrite Performance Objectives, Develop Assessment Instruments, Develop Instructional Strategy∙Develop– create instructional or training materialsDesign and selection of materials appropriate for learning activity, Design and Conduct Formative Evaluation∙Implement– deliver or distribute the instructional materials ∙Evaluate– make sure the materials achieved the desired goals Design and Conduct Summative EvaluationMost of the current instructional design models are variations of the ADDIE process.[21] Dick,W.O,.Carey, L.,&Carey, J.O.(2004)Systematic Design of Instruction. Boston,MA:Allyn&Bacon.Rapid prototypingA sometimes utilized adaptation to the ADDIE model is in a practice known as rapid prototyping.Proponents suggest that through an iterative process the verification of the design documents saves time and money by catching problems while they are still easy to fix. This approach is not novel to the design of instruction, but appears in many design-related domains including software design, architecture, transportation planning, product development, message design, user experience design, etc.[21][22][23]In fact, some proponents of design prototyping assert that a sophisticated understanding of a problem is incomplete without creating and evaluating some type of prototype, regardless of the analysis rigor that may have been applied up front.[24] In other words, up-front analysis is rarely sufficient to allow one to confidently select an instructional model. For this reason many traditional methods of instructional design are beginning to be seen as incomplete, naive, and even counter-productive.[25]However, some consider rapid prototyping to be a somewhat simplistic type of model. As this argument goes, at the heart of Instructional Design is the analysis phase. After you thoroughly conduct the analysis—you can then choose a model based on your findings. That is the area where mostpeople get snagged—they simply do not do a thorough-enough analysis. (Part of Article By Chris Bressi on LinkedIn)Dick and CareyAnother well-known instructional design model is The Dick and Carey Systems Approach Model.[26] The model was originally published in 1978 by Walter Dick and Lou Carey in their book entitled The Systematic Design of Instruction.Dick and Carey made a significant contribution to the instructional design field by championing a systems view of instruction as opposed to viewing instruction as a sum of isolated parts. The model addresses instruction as an entire system, focusing on the interrelationship between context, content, learning and instruction. According to Dick and Carey, "Components such as the instructor, learners, materials, instructional activities, delivery system, and learning and performance environments interact with each other and work together to bring about the desired student learning outcomes".[26] The components of the Systems Approach Model, also known as the Dick and Carey Model, are as follows:∙Identify Instructional Goal(s): goal statement describes a skill, knowledge or attitude(SKA) that a learner will be expected to acquire ∙Conduct Instructional Analysis: Identify what a learner must recall and identify what learner must be able to do to perform particular task ∙Analyze Learners and Contexts: General characteristic of the target audience, Characteristic directly related to the skill to be taught, Analysis of Performance Setting, Analysis of Learning Setting∙Write Performance Objectives: Objectives consists of a description of the behavior, the condition and criteria. The component of anobjective that describes the criteria that will be used to judge the learner's performance.∙Develop Assessment Instruments: Purpose of entry behavior testing, purpose of pretesting, purpose of posttesting, purpose of practive items/practive problems∙Develop Instructional Strategy: Pre-instructional activities, content presentation, Learner participation, assessment∙Develop and Select Instructional Materials∙Design and Conduct Formative Evaluation of Instruction: Designer try to identify areas of the instructional materials that are in need to improvement.∙Revise Instruction: To identify poor test items and to identify poor instruction∙Design and Conduct Summative EvaluationWith this model, components are executed iteratively and in parallel rather than linearly.[26]/akteacher/dick-cary-instructional-design-mo delInstructional Development Learning System (IDLS)Another instructional design model is the Instructional Development Learning System (IDLS).[27] The model was originally published in 1970 by Peter J. Esseff, PhD and Mary Sullivan Esseff, PhD in their book entitled IDLS—Pro Trainer 1: How to Design, Develop, and Validate Instructional Materials.[28]Peter (1968) & Mary (1972) Esseff both received their doctorates in Educational Technology from the Catholic University of America under the mentorship of Dr. Gabriel Ofiesh, a Founding Father of the Military Model mentioned above. Esseff and Esseff contributed synthesized existing theories to develop their approach to systematic design, "Instructional Development Learning System" (IDLS).The components of the IDLS Model are:∙Design a Task Analysis∙Develop Criterion Tests and Performance Measures∙Develop Interactive Instructional Materials∙Validate the Interactive Instructional MaterialsOther modelsSome other useful models of instructional design include: the Smith/Ragan Model, the Morrison/Ross/Kemp Model and the OAR model , as well as, Wiggins theory of backward design .Learning theories also play an important role in the design ofinstructional materials. Theories such as behaviorism , constructivism , social learning and cognitivism help shape and define the outcome of instructional materials.Influential researchers and theoristsThe lists in this article may contain items that are not notable , not encyclopedic , or not helpful . Please help out by removing such elements and incorporating appropriate items into the main body of the article. (December 2010)Alphabetic by last name∙ Bloom, Benjamin – Taxonomies of the cognitive, affective, and psychomotor domains – 1955 ∙Bonk, Curtis – Blended learning – 2000s ∙ Bransford, John D. – How People Learn: Bridging Research and Practice – 1999 ∙ Bruner, Jerome – Constructivism ∙Carr-Chellman, Alison – Instructional Design for Teachers ID4T -2010 ∙Carey, L. – "The Systematic Design of Instruction" ∙Clark, Richard – Clark-Kosma "Media vs Methods debate", "Guidance" debate . ∙Clark, Ruth – Efficiency in Learning: Evidence-Based Guidelines to Manage Cognitive Load / Guided Instruction / Cognitive Load Theory ∙Dick, W. – "The Systematic Design of Instruction" ∙ Gagné, Robert M. – Nine Events of Instruction (Gagné and Merrill Video Seminar) ∙Heinich, Robert – Instructional Media and the new technologies of instruction 3rd ed. – Educational Technology – 1989 ∙Jonassen, David – problem-solving strategies – 1990s ∙Langdon, Danny G - The Instructional Designs Library: 40 Instructional Designs, Educational Tech. Publications ∙Mager, Robert F. – ABCD model for instructional objectives – 1962 ∙Merrill, M. David - Component Display Theory / Knowledge Objects ∙ Papert, Seymour – Constructionism, LOGO – 1970s ∙ Piaget, Jean – Cognitive development – 1960s∙Piskurich, George – Rapid Instructional Design – 2006∙Simonson, Michael –Instructional Systems and Design via Distance Education – 1980s∙Schank, Roger– Constructivist simulations – 1990s∙Sweller, John - Cognitive load, Worked-example effect, Split-attention effect∙Roberts, Clifton Lee - From Analysis to Design, Practical Applications of ADDIE within the Enterprise - 2011∙Reigeluth, Charles –Elaboration Theory, "Green Books" I, II, and III - 1999-2010∙Skinner, B.F.– Radical Behaviorism, Programed Instruction∙Vygotsky, Lev– Learning as a social activity – 1930s∙Wiley, David– Learning Objects, Open Learning – 2000sSee alsoSince instructional design deals with creating useful instruction and instructional materials, there are many other areas that are related to the field of instructional design.∙educational assessment∙confidence-based learning∙educational animation∙educational psychology∙educational technology∙e-learning∙electronic portfolio∙evaluation∙human–computer interaction∙instructional design context∙instructional technology∙instructional theory∙interaction design∙learning object∙learning science∙m-learning∙multimedia learning∙online education∙instructional design coordinator∙storyboarding∙training∙interdisciplinary teaching∙rapid prototyping∙lesson study∙Understanding by DesignReferences1.^MIL-HDBK-29612/2A Instructional Systems Development/SystemsApproach to Training and Education2.^Bloom's Taxonomy3.^TIP: Theories4.^Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. - Educational Psychologist -38(1):1 - Citation5.^ Sweller, J. (1988). "Cognitive load during problem solving:Effects on learning". Cognitive Science12 (1): 257–285.doi:10.1016/0364-0213(88)90023-7.6.^ Chandler, P. & Sweller, J. (1991). "Cognitive Load Theory andthe Format of Instruction". Cognition and Instruction8 (4): 293–332.doi:10.1207/s1532690xci0804_2.7.^ Sweller, J., & Cooper, G.A. (1985). "The use of worked examplesas a substitute for problem solving in learning algebra". Cognition and Instruction2 (1): 59–89. doi:10.1207/s1532690xci0201_3.8.^Cooper, G., & Sweller, J. (1987). "Effects of schema acquisitionand rule automation on mathematical problem-solving transfer". Journal of Educational Psychology79 (4): 347–362.doi:10.1037/0022-0663.79.4.347.9.^ a b Mayer, R.E. (1997). "Multimedia Learning: Are We Asking theRight Questions?". Educational Psychologist32 (41): 1–19.doi:10.1207/s1*******ep3201_1.10.^ Mayer, R.E. (2001). Multimedia Learning. Cambridge: CambridgeUniversity Press. ISBN0-521-78239-2.11.^Mayer, R.E., Bove, W. Bryman, A. Mars, R. & Tapangco, L. (1996)."When Less Is More: Meaningful Learning From Visual and Verbal Summaries of Science Textbook Lessons". Journal of Educational Psychology88 (1): 64–73. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.88.1.64.12.^ Mayer, R.E., Steinhoff, K., Bower, G. and Mars, R. (1995). "Agenerative theory of textbook design: Using annotated illustrations to foster meaningful learning of science text". Educational TechnologyResearch and Development43 (1): 31–41. doi:10.1007/BF02300480.13.^Paas, F., Renkl, A. & Sweller, J. (2004). "Cognitive Load Theory:Instructional Implications of the Interaction between InformationStructures and Cognitive Architecture". Instructional Science32: 1–8.doi:10.1023/B:TRUC.0000021806.17516.d0.14.^ Clark, R.C., Mayer, R.E. (2002). e-Learning and the Science ofInstruction: Proven Guidelines for Consumers and Designers of Multimedia Learning. San Francisco: Pfeiffer. ISBN0-7879-6051-9.15.^ Clark, R.C., Nguyen, F., and Sweller, J. (2006). Efficiency inLearning: Evidence-Based Guidelines to Manage Cognitive Load. SanFrancisco: Pfeiffer. ISBN0-7879-7728-4.16.^Conole G., and Fill K., “A learning design toolkit to createpedagogically effective learning activities”. Journal of Interactive Media in Education, 2005 (08).17.^Carr-Chellman A. and Duchastel P., “The ideal online course,”British Journal of Educational Technology, 31(3), 229-241, July 2000.18.^Koper R., “Current Research in Learning Design,” EducationalTechnology & Society, 9 (1), 13-22, 2006.19.^Britain S., “A Review of Learning Design: Concept,Specifications and Tools” A report for the JISC E-learning Pedagogy Programme, May 2004.20.^IMS Learning Design webpage21.^ a b Piskurich, G.M. (2006). Rapid Instructional Design: LearningID fast and right.22.^ Saettler, P. (1990). The evolution of American educationaltechnology.23.^ Stolovitch, H.D., & Keeps, E. (1999). Handbook of humanperformance technology.24.^ Kelley, T., & Littman, J. (2005). The ten faces of innovation:IDEO's strategies for beating the devil's advocate & driving creativity throughout your organization. New York: Doubleday.25.^ Hokanson, B., & Miller, C. (2009). Role-based design: Acontemporary framework for innovation and creativity in instructional design. Educational Technology, 49(2), 21–28.26.^ a b c Dick, Walter, Lou Carey, and James O. Carey (2005) [1978].The Systematic Design of Instruction(6th ed.). Allyn & Bacon. pp. 1–12.ISBN020*******./?id=sYQCAAAACAAJ&dq=the+systematic+design+of+instruction.27.^ Esseff, Peter J. and Esseff, Mary Sullivan (1998) [1970].Instructional Development Learning System (IDLS) (8th ed.). ESF Press.pp. 1–12. ISBN1582830371. /Materials.html.28.^/Materials.htmlExternal links∙Instructional Design - An overview of Instructional Design∙ISD Handbook∙Edutech wiki: Instructional design model [1]∙Debby Kalk, Real World Instructional Design InterviewRetrieved from "/wiki/Instructional_design" Categories: Educational technology | Educational psychology | Learning | Pedagogy | Communication design | Curricula。

内隐学习和外显学习对大学英语教学的启示摘要:内隐/外显认知是目前心理学研究的热点之一,它在整个认知系统中具有中心地位。

本文简要介绍了内隐/外显认知研究对英语语法教学的启示意义。

大学英语教学应当尽可能让学习者去体验和感悟英语,从而使其内隐认知机制在英语语法习得中自动发挥作用,让内隐学习达到最佳学习效果。

此外,内隐学习还要与外显学习紧密结合,只有两种学习方式相互配合,大学英语的教学质量才能真正提高。

关键词:二语;内隐/外显学习;英语教学一、引言现代心理学研究表明, 外显学习( exp licitlearning)和内隐学习( imp licit learning)是人类完成复杂学习任务、获得知识的两种最基本的方式(Bialystok 1994) 。

外显学习是受意识控制,需要意识参与并采取一定策略的学习方式,是有目的、有选择性注意的学习方式,也是人类获得知识和认识世界最基本的方式之一,其根本特性是需要有意识地努力参与。

与外显学习相反,内隐学习则是没有明确地意识到或陈述出控制学习者的行为规则是什么,但却获得了这种规则的学习方式,即无意识地获得关于刺激环境情境中复杂知识的学习方法。

二、内隐学习、外显学习的特征及其相互关系内隐学习是无意地获得知识,同时以隐性的方式存储在大脑中,在应用时自动提取。

外显学习强调有意识性(控制性) 。

在二语习得中,有意学习主要指有目的地识记单词(包括单词的拼写、发音和词义)和语法规则;而无意学习指在交际型活动中,学习者关注语言意义而非形式,以此方式习得一些单词和结构。

尽管内隐认知与外显认知存在巨大的差异,但它们并非完全独立,各自为政。

相反,几乎所有复杂的知识都须由二者合作获得,并加以运用。

作为人类认知系统的两大组成部分,它们之间实际上是一种扬长补短,相互协作, 相互促进的关系[ 1 ]197。

例如,Mathew(1989) 等人的人工语法范式学习实验表明,以先内隐后外显的认知方式进行学习,效率远高于单纯依赖一种机制的学习,而且也高于先外显后内隐的学习。

英语论文参考文献（全英文版）英语论文参考文献（全英文版）关键词：英文版，参考文献，英语论文英语论文参考文献（全英文版）简介：参考文献是英文类学术论文、研究报告中不可缺少的一部分，不可随意“从略”，更不可马虎了事或错误百出，很多作者在引用英文参考文献时，会出现引用不当、格式错误等问题，为大家分享正确的英语论文参考文献格式及范例。

一、英文论文参考文献格式要求英文参考文献与中文参考文献的格式英语论文参考文献（全英文版）内容：参考文献是英文类学术论文、研究报告中不可缺少的一部分，不可随意“从略”，更不可马虎了事或错误百出，很多作者在引用英文参考文献时，会出现引用不当、格式错误等问题，为大家分享正确的英语论文参考文献格式及范例。

一、英文论文参考文献格式要求英文参考文献与中文参考文献的格式要求基本相同，但写英文参考文献要注意一点，外文作者姓名的着录格式采用姓在前（全拼，首字母大写），名在后（缩写为首字母），中间用空格；着作类文献题名的实词首字母大写，期刊文献题名的首词首字母大写，期刊名称请用全称，勿用缩写。

具体如下：1、单一作者着作的书籍姓，名字首字母.(年). 书名(斜体). 出版社所在城市：出版社.如：Sheril, R. D.(1956). The terrifying future: Contemplating color television. San Diego:Halstead.2、两位作者以上合着的书籍姓，名字首字母., 姓，名字首字母.(年). 书名(斜体). 出版社所在城市：出版社.如：Smith, J., Peter, Q. (1992).Hairball: An intensive peek behind the surface of an enigma. Hamilton, ON:McMaster University Press.3、文集中的如：Mcdonalds, A.(1993). Practical methods for the apprehension and sustained containment ofsupernatural entities. In G. L. Yeager (Ed.), Paranormal and occult studies:Case studies in application (pp. 42–64). London: OtherWorld Books.4、期刊中的(非连续页码)如：Crackton, P.(1987). The Loonie: God's long-awaited gift to colourful pocket change?Canadian Change, 64(7), 34–37.5、期刊中的(连续页码)：姓，名字首字母.(年). 题目. 期刊名(斜体). 第几期，页码.如：Rottweiler, F. T., Beauchemin, J. L. (1987). Detroit and Narnia: Two foes on the brink ofdestruction. Canadian/American Studies Journal, 54, 66–146.6、月刊杂志中的如：Henry, W. A., III.(1990, April 9). Making the grade in today's schools. Time, 135, 28-31.二、英文论文参考文献范例。

Empirical Study on the Relations between the Use of the Library and the Learning Outcomes of
University Students——Taking Guilin Medical
College as an Example
作者： 徐云[1] 莫军成[2] 莫岚[1]
作者机构： [1]桂林医学院图书馆,广西桂林541004 [2]桂林医学院学工处,广西桂林
541004
出版物刊名： 图书馆
页码： 74-78页
年卷期： 2010年 第1期
主题词： 大学图书馆 学习成果 成果评估 实证研究
摘要：在大学生的学习中,大学生的知识获得能力的提高和图书馆的利用之间究竟存在何种关联这是学术界需要迫切解决的一个问题。

本研究主要从美国大学图书馆学会的out-come定义出发,以图书馆利用和学生的学习成果作为焦点进行问卷调查,得到的结果显示大学期间学生获得的学习成果和图书馆利用之间存在正相关。

尤其在综合素养培养和自学能力的形成方面,图书馆能发挥很大影响。

而且,学生利用图书馆类型与利用后的收获有关。

在学习场所组中,利用频率与收获成正相关。

而在资源利用组和沟通组中利用频率与收获无相关,图书馆服务的品质与满意度可能对利用后的收获有重要影响。