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Lecture 2 Phonological Rhetoric and StylisticsStep I lead-inWilliam Somerset Maugham(1874-1965): “Words have sound, weight and appearance, and only by considering this can you write a sentence that is good to look at and good to listen to.”Leibniz认为人类的原始语言是根据拟声原则而创造出来的。
如：尽管语言体系不同，但是爸妈的发音却是如此相近。
“妈妈”称呼在英语中是mum，法语中是maman，俄语中是MaMa，德语中是Mama；“爸爸”，在英语也称为papa，法语称为papa，德语称为papa。
《论语·里仁》解释为“子曰：‘父母之年，不可不知也。
一则以喜，一则以惧。
’”，即“父”、“母”是模拟婴儿高兴、恐惧时发出的无意识自然呼唤声而误会成的拟声词。
（陈北郊1999）Step II Sound symbolismTwo large categories of sound speech: Consonants and V owelsThe description of English consonantsPhonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns, and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.Alexander Pope(1688-1744)“The sound must seem an echo to the sense.”语音和思想必须产生共鸣。
A New Seaghsounds of spoken English≠letters of written English↓InternationalPhonetic Alphabet →IPAIPA is a standardized and internally accepted system of phonetic transcription.Its basic principle is using a different letter for each distinguishable speech sounds. With minor modification it is now still used by phoneticians and linguists.The International Phonetic Alphabet (Revised to 2005)only some of the sounds →units in the language system.study from various perspectives ↓PhoneticsPhonologyPhonetics -studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived.Articulatory Phonetics- the study of the production of speech sounds.Acoustic Phonetics- the study of the physical properties of speech sounds. Perceptual or Auditory Phonetics - concerned with the perception of speech sounds.- the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages. Aim- discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur.1- analyze an individual language, say English, in order to determine itsphonological structure, i.e. whichsound units are used and how they are put together.2- compare the properties of sound systems in different languages in order to make hypotheses about the rulesthat underlie the use of sounds inthem, and3- ultimately discover the rules that underlie the sound patterns of alllanguages.nasal cavityoral cavitypharyngealcavityThe three resonating cavitiesSpeech Organs 1.lips 2.teeth 3.teeth ridge (alveolar) 4.hard palate 5.soft palate (velum) 6.uvula 7.tip of the tongue 8.blade of the tongue 9.front of the tongue 10.back of the tongue11.vocal cords1 2 1 234 567 8 910 11MouthConsonants are produced ‘by a closure in the vocal tract, or by a narrowing which is so marked that air cannot escape without producing audible friction’.By contrast, a vowel is produced without such ‘stricture’ so that ‘air escapes in a relatively unimpeded way through the mouth or nose’.The distinction between vowels and consonants lies in the obstruction of airstream.As there is no obstruction of air in the production of vowels, the description of the consonants and vowels cannot be done along the same lines.The place of articulation refers to the point where a consonant is made.Consonants - any place between the lips and the vocal folds.Bilabial双唇音*[w] tongue body raises to velum →labia-velar[f], [v]Upper teeth & Lower lip 唇齿音[ð], [θ]Tongue tip/blade & teeth 齿音[t], [d], [s], [z], [n], [l] , [ ]tongue tip/blade&alveolar ridge齿龈音[ſ],[3],([tſ],[d3])tongue tip&back of the alveolar ridge 后齿龈音[j][k], [g], [η], [w] [h] Palatal 硬腭音Velars 软腭音Glottal 声门音[ ] - 书[ u] [ ][ ] [ ] Retroflex 卷舌音Uvular 小舌音Pharyngeal喉音Place of Articulation Bilabial [p], [b], [m], [w] Labiodental [f], [v]Dental [ð], [θ]Alveolar [t], [d], [s], [z], [n], [l], Post-alveolar [ſ], [3],Palatal [j]Velar [k], [g], [η], [w] Glottal [h]RetroflexUvularPharyngealComplete closure(articulators)→ airstreamcannot escapethrough themouth.1.Closing phasepression3.release [p], [b], [k], [g], [t], [d]爆破音（plosive）Most sounds are produced orally, with the velum raised, preventing air flow from entering the nasal cavity. However, when the velum is lowered and the airstream is allowed to flow out through the nose to produce sounds -nasals. [m][n][η]鼻音air stream partially obstructed and turbulent airflow is produced [f], [v] [ð], [θ] [s], [z] [ſ], [3] [h]摩擦音one articulator is close to another, but without the vocal tract being narrowed for turbulent air stream[w][j]无摩擦延续音（半元音）obstruction in the incomplete closure between one or both sides of the tongue and the roof of the mouth [l]边音塞擦音a stop followedimmediately by africativean articulator is set vibrating by the airstream [r] ( )颤音only one vibration is produced [ ]触音/闪音[p] [b] [f] [v] [m] Voiceless bilabial stopVoiced bilabial stopVoiceless labiodental fricative Voiced labiodental fricative Bilabial nasal。
Lecture 2 Subject-verb Concord (1)By subject-verb concord is meant agreement between subject and predicate verb in number.2. 1 Guiding principlesThere are three principles guiding subject-verb concord; they are principles of grammatical concord, notional concord and proximity.1) Grammatical concordThe principle of grammatical concord refers to the rule that the verb must match its subject in number. If the subject is plural, the verb should take the plural form; if, on the other hand, the subject is singular or is a 'mass noun, the verb should take the singular form, eg:Both boys have their own merits.Every girl comes on time.Much effort is wasted.Difficulties arise when this principle comes into conflict with the other two principles: principle of notional concord and principle of proximity.2) Notional concordThe principle of notional concord refers to the rule that the verb can sometimes agree with the subject according to the notion of number rather than to the actual presence of the grammatical marker for that notion, eg:The government have asked the country to decide by a vote.Fifteen miles seems like a long walk to me.3) ProximityThe principle of proximity denotes agreement of the verb with a closely preceding noun phrase in preference to agreement with the head of the noun phrase that functions as subject, eg:Either my brothers or my father is coming.No one except his own supporters agree with him.Neither Julia nor I am going.Note that grammatical concord is the basic principle, but when the subject is realized by a collective noun, a coordinate form or an expression of quantity, the other two principles will have to be considered.2.2 Problems of concord with nouns ending in -sThere are quite a few nouns that end in -s but which are not countable. Some of these nouns are treated as singular, some as plural, and some either as singular or as plural. All this can be dealt with under the following headings.1) Disease and game names ending in -sNames of diseases ending in -s are mostly treated as singular, but there are a few suchnames (as measles and rickets) which can be used either as singular or as plural. Game names ending in -s are generally used as singular with the exception of cards which is usually treated as plural.2) Subject names ending in -icsNames of subjects ending in -ics are generally singular nouns, but some such nouns are treated as plural when used in other senses than subject names. Compare: Acoustics is the science of sound.The acoustics in the new concert hall are faultless.Economics is a required course for all the students.The economics of the project are still being considered.3) Geographical names ending in -sGeographical names such as the names of archipelagos, mountain ranges, straits and falls are generally used as plural, except for a few treated as singular when used as country names, eg:The Himalayas have a magnificent variety of plant and animal life.The Straits of Gibraltar have not lost their strategic importance.In early January 1976, the Netherlands was hit by its worst storm since 1953.4) Other nouns ending in -sNames for things made of two parts such as scissors, pincers, etc are usually used as plural. But when they are preceded by such unit nouns as a pair of and two pairs of, the number form of the following verb is generally determined by the number marker of the unit noun.Nouns usually taking plural endings such as archives, arms and clothes are generally used as plural with the exception of whereabouts, dramatics, etc which may be treated eith6r as plural or as singular.Nouns ending in -ings such as clippings, diggings, etc are generally used as plural with the exception of tidings which can be used both ways. There are also nouns such as barracks and headquarters whose singular and plural number share the same form. These nouns are treated as plural when used in the plural sense, or vice versa.2.3 Problems of concord with collective nouns as subjectCollective nouns are singular in form but plural in meaning. The choice between grammatical and notional concord is mostly dictated by usage.1) Collective nouns usually used as pluralThese include people, police, cattle, militia, poultry, vermin, etc:The Chinese people are a great people.Domestic cattle provide us with milk, beef and hides.2) Collective nouns usually used as singularThese include foliage, machinery, equipment, furniture, merchandise, etc:All the merchandise has arrived undamaged.All the machinery in the factory is made in China.3) Collective nouns used either as plural or as singularThere are collective nouns that can be used either as plural or as singular. The choice of the verb form following such nouns depends on the exact meaning of the noun in a specific context. When the noun is used in the sense of a collective as a whole, the verb takes the singular form. If, on the other hand, the noun is used in the sense of the individuals that make the collective, the verb takes the plural form. Compare:The anti-crime committee is to make, its report tomorrow.The committee are divided in opinion about this problem.That group of soldiers is a top-notch fighting unit.That group of soldiers have the best ratings of individual performance.4) A committee of, etc + plural nounWhen a plural noun is preceded by a committee of / a board of / a panel of, the verb usually takes the singular form, eg:A committee of five men and three women is to consider the matter.The board of directors is responsible for the management of the company.Keys to the exercisesEx. 2Ae2.are3.has / have4.are5.are6.are7.was / were8.is9.costs10.were11.are12.are13.was14.are15.lie16.were17.are18.is19.is20.was21.Has23.is24.is25.are26.is27.are28.cover / are29.is / are30.was / were Ex. 2 B2.have3.is, is4.was5.were6.is7.is8.are9.is10.are, are11.have12.are, their, their13.was, it, was14.It / They, is / are15.are, their, they, disapprove16.were, they17.was18.are19.were20.were。
