英美概况Unit1-2 Summary

英美概况Unit1-2Summary英美概况Unit1-2 A Brief Introduction to the United Kingdom1. It is an island country by the sea.Northwest Atlantic Ocean off the north coast of Europe. English Channel in the south and the North Sea in the east. 2. Geographical NAMESthe British Isles Great Britain England the United Kingdom (UK) 3.The British Isles:the island of Great Britainthe island of Irelandsurrounding islesUK=Great Britain + Northern IrelandGreat Britain =England +Scotland + Wales4.Official name:the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland5. Other names:the British Empire (大不列颠帝国)British Commonwealth of Nations（英联邦国家）England6.London1) Capital city Largest city Largest port2) Largest population (one seventh of the nation’s population)3) Financial and Commercial centre4) Culture (host the Olympic Games in 1908 ,1948, 2012)7.Political centre1) Westminster central government administrative area2)Palace of Westminster Houses of parliament (Big Ben)3)Westminster Abbey ancient church4)Whitehall (street)8.Downing street, the house of No.10 official residence of the Prime Minster9. Buckingham palace royal residence of the Queen10.A complicated country1) imperial country2)Commonwealth of Nations3) member of European Union4) a member of Group of Seven5) multiracial6) a society with a class structure7) region difference (just like China)11 The people1) Total population : about 60 million2) unevenly distributed3) Highly urbanized4) Mutiracial/Mutinational12.The origins or ancestors of the people:Anglo-Saxons →the EnglishCelts →the Scots, Welsh and Irishnon-European ethnicity →( Indian, Pakistan, Caribbean, etc.) immigrants/doc/062589667.html,mon characteristics1) Cautious 2) Adaptable 3) Conservative4)Have strong national consciousness14.Three political divisions on the island of Great Britain: England, Scotland and Wales.(1) England is in the southern part of Great Britain. It is the largest, most populous section.(2) Wales is in the west of Great Britain. Capital: Cardiff(3) Scotland is in the north of Great Britain. It has three natural zones (the Highlands in the north；the Central lowlands；the south Uplands) Capital: Edinburgh(4) Northern Ireland is the fourth region of the UK.Capital: Belfast15.A History of invasionsEngland was occupied by Celtic people.1) in 43AD →the Roman empire2) The 5th century AD →the Angle-Saxon3) The late 8th centu ry →the Vikings and Danes4) 1066 The Norman →the important battle of Hastings Scotland The second largest nationHave the most strong national confidence.Topography: the most rugged part three natural zonesthe Highland in the north, the central Lowlands, and the Southern Uplands.1.The history of invasionsa. Scotland was not conquered by the Romans.b. Most of Scotland wasn’t conquered by Anglo- Saxons.c. In 9th century the Vikings invaded Scotland.2.PoliticsIn 1707, Scotland joined the Union by agreement of the English and the Scottish parliament.3.PartyThe Labour PartyThe Scottish National PartyThe Conservative PartyWales In the west of Great Britain.The smallest on British mainland, larger than Northern Ireland Topography: Pasture Capital: Cardiff(320,000 people) Language: English/Welsh(19%), Localism is deep-rooted. Economy: Traditional industry: Coal-mining, coal and steel New industries by attracting investment.1.History of invasiona. Wales was conquered by the Romans.b. Wales wasn’t c onquered by Anglo-Saxons and the Vikings.c. Wales was invaded by the NormansNorthern IrelandOld name: Ulster the smallest in area and population Topography: Low hills and lake district, rugged coastlines Landmark: Giant’s CausewayCapital: Belfast (about 480 000 people, Titanic was built there ) Industry: shipbuilding and aircraft manufacture Economy: stagnant forLow crime and murder rateLow wealth per headLow living cost1.Partylegal: a. the Sinn Fein partyb. SDLP: Social Democratic and Labour Party Illegal: IRA: Irish Republican Army2.Results: most of the casualties of civilians1) 1969 event2) The Provisional IRA3) Paramilitary groups4) Gettoes in Northern Irish cities5) The policy of Internment6) The Bloody Sunday。

英美概况知识点总结英语1. Geography:The United Kingdom (UK) is located off the northwestern coast of mainland Europe. It consists of four constituent countries: England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland. The UK has a diverse landscape, including rolling hills, mountains, and fertile plains. It is also known for its coastline and numerous islands.On the other hand, the United States (US) is a vast country in North America, with 50 states and a federal district. It is the fourth-largest country in the world by land area and has a diverse geography that includes mountains, plains, deserts, and coastlines, as well as the Great Lakes and the Mississippi River.2. Politics and Governance:The UK is a parliamentary democracy with a constitutional monarchy. The Head of State is the monarch, currently Queen Elizabeth II, while the Prime Minister is the head of the government. The UK Parliament has two houses: the House of Commons and the House of Lords. The political system is based on the principle of parliamentary sovereignty.In contrast, the United States is a federal republic with a presidential system. It has a separation of powers among the executive, legislative, and judicial branches. The President is both the head of state and the head of government, and the Congress consists of the Senate and the House of Representatives. The US political system is based on the principles of federalism and checks and balances.3. Economy:The UK has one of the largest economies in the world, with a focus on services such as finance, healthcare, education, and creative industries. London is a global financial center, and the UK has a strong manufacturing and technology sector as well. It is also a member of the European Union, although it recently departed from the bloc following the Brexit referendum in 2016.The United States has the world's largest economy, characterized by its diversity and innovation. It is a global leader in technology, finance, entertainment, and manufacturing. The US economy is driven by private enterprise and innovation, with cities like New York, Los Angeles, and San Francisco serving as major economic hubs.4. Education:The UK has a well-established education system, including prestigious universities such as Oxford and Cambridge. Education is compulsory for children between the ages of 5 and 16, and the system is divided into primary, secondary, and tertiary (higher) education. The UK is known for its high-quality education and research facilities.In the United States, education is decentralized, with each state responsible for its own education system. The US has a wide range of educational institutions, including Ivy League universities, public and private colleges, and community colleges. The US is also a popular destination for international students seeking higher education.5. Culture and Society:Both the UK and the US have rich and diverse cultural traditions. The UK is known for its literature, theater, music, and art, with a strong influence from its historical legacy. British culture has also been shaped by its multicultural population, with significant contributions from immigrants and diverse ethnic communities.The US is a melting pot of cultures, influenced by the traditions of Native American, African, European, Asian, and Latin American communities. It has made significant contributions to global popular culture, including music, film, and sports. The US is also known for its emphasis on individualism and the "American Dream," the belief that anyone can achieve success through hard work and determination.6. Healthcare:The UK has a public healthcare system known as the National Health Service (NHS), which provides free or subsidized healthcare to all residents. The NHS is funded through taxation and offers comprehensive medical services, including primary care, hospital treatment, and emergency services.In the United States, healthcare is provided through a combination of private and public systems. While public programs like Medicare and Medicaid offer coverage to specific groups, the majority of Americans are covered by private health insurance. The US has a complex healthcare system with varying levels of access and quality, and healthcare costs are a major issue for many Americans.In conclusion, the United Kingdom and the United States are two influential and diverse countries with distinct characteristics in terms of politics, economy, education, culture, and healthcare. Despite their differences, they share a common language and history, and they continue to have a significant impact on global affairs. Understanding the nuances of these two nations can provide valuable insights into the complexities of international relations and the modern world.。

Section one：Origin of the English NationThe native Celts●The Celtic tribes are ancestors of the Highland Scots, the Irish, and the Welsh. And the Celtic language is thebasis of Welsh and Gaelic.●Religion: Druidism.●Stonehenge: the circular arrangement of large stones in Wiltshire, near Salisbury, England, was probably builtbetween about 3000 and 1000 B.C by Celts, but its function remains unknown.Roman Britain (55BC-410AD)●Romans got possession of England by driving native Celts into Scotland and Wales. They failed to conquerScotland. They built two great walls: the Hadrian's Wall, the Antonine Wall, along the northern border of England to prevent Picts in Scotland from invading England.●Many towns’ names end with: ster, cester, and shire. e.g., Lancast er, Winchester, Y orkshire, deriving fromcastra (Latin word for camp).●Religion: Christianity.The Anglo-Saxon Conquest (446-871)(mainly occupied the Lowland Zone)●New invader: Jutes (now the county of Kent), became the king of Kent. Soon after their relat ives and othertribes came trooping after them——●It is a collective name for the seven Anglo—Saxon kingdoms from the 7th century to the 9th century. They areKent, Essex, Sussex, Essex, East Anglia, Mercia and North Umbria. After the 9th century, the seven kingdoms were conquered one after another by the invading Danes.●Saxons and Angles came from northern Germany. After they had taken possession of all the England, theywere divided into 7 principal kingdoms, known as Heptarchy. those tribes were constantly at war with one another, each trying to get the upper hand.(hero: King Arthur)●Religion: Teutonic, practicing multi-goddism. Tiu(the god of war, Tuesday), Woden(heaven, Wednesday),Thor(storms, Thursday),Freya(peace, Friday)●Pope Gregory I sent St. Augustine to convert the English to Christianity. With the help of the king of Kent, hebecame the first Archbishop of Canterbury.●The A-S nominated local officials: sheriffs.●Open-field farming system: 3 big fields+commons. This system is the basis of the English agrarian civilizationand subsistence farming.●Witan: the A-S created the Witan (a group of wise man) to advice the king, the Witan was the forerunner of thepresent-day Privy Council.●Alfred the Great: the father of the British Navy & his writings were the beginning of prose literature. Made atreaty with Danes----Dane law.●Viking invasions: in the 8th, 9th, 10th centuries A.D. V ikings from North Europe, brought a new wave ofinvasion and colonization which produced lasting influence on parts of Briton.●Canute: Witan chose the Danish leader, as king of England. he included England part of a Scandinavianempire(inc luded Norway and Denmark)●Edward the Confessor: built Westminster Abbey.The Norman Conquest (1066)●William the Conqueror: the first Anglo-Norman king of England.●Battle of Hastings: ?Influence of the Norman Conquest●Feudalism: the nobles got fief, from the sovereign. But they were obliged to pay certain dues and armed manaccording to their estates to the king. They (known as barons or the king's tenants=in -chief, made up the upper landed class. They give fiefs to sub-vassals (known as lesser nobles, knights, and free man).They should take oaths of loyalty to the king directly as well as to their immediate overlords.●William built the Tower of London as a military fortress. He replaced the Witan with the Great Council thatwas composed of his tenants-in-chief.●Domesday Book: in order to have a reliable record of all lands and discover how much his tenants-in-chiefcould be called upon to pay by way of taxes, William sent his clerks to make investigations. These clerks finally compiled a property record known as Domesday Book in 1085.this book stated the extent, value, population, and ownership of the land.Section two：The Great Charter and Beginning of ParliamentHenry II 'Reforms●William died and left his Normandy to Robert, England to William Rufus, all his money to Henry. William IIwas killed when hunting, Henry I succeeded him.●Henry I had no male heir, his nephew Henry II became the founder of the Plantagenet dynasty金雀花王朝.●The new king strengthened the Great Council. Chancellor is the chief number, in charge of the administrativeand judicial system. The present day Lord Chancellor is his successor.●Administrative reform：Replaced the traditional land tax based on hides with a new tax based on annual rentsand chatells.●Judicial reform: divided the country into 6 circuits. Itinerant judges focused their attention on baron’s propertyand abuse of privileges. Decisions made by a circuit court was regarded as a precedent judgment, becoming the basis of the Common Law习惯法.✓the Common Law is a judge-made or case-made law based on the various of local customs of the A-S, it was common to the whole people as distinct from law governing only a little community;✓Lead to the founding of the jury system, (the juries were chosen from among local freeman to help circuit judges from London. Function: bring accusation against malefactors and swear to the innocence of the accused, the judge gave verdict at first but gradually the jury was empowered to give verdict. Principle: no free man should be punished without a just trial by his peers.✓It replaced the primitive English trials----by ordeals or battles. Abolished the benefit of clergy.●Thomas Becket: the king’s chief secretary. In 1162, Henry made him the Archbishop of Canterbury, hoping hewould assist him in church reforming. But Thomas was against the king, and finally he was killed by the King.After his death, he was put upon the list of English saints as a martyr to the church.●Geoffrey Chaucer wrote “The Canterbury Tales”(24 tales)King John●Many people believed that Robin Hood, a legendary outlaw, was a contemporary of John.●In fear of the Pope suspend public services, John promised to send a yearly tribute to him; John became avassal of the Pope.The great charter 大宪章P93●In 1215, the insurgent nobles met the king at Runnymede, and forced his to sign: the Great Charter (the MagnaCarta), the most important documents in English history.Beginning of Parliament●After John died, his 9 years old boy Henry III was put on the throne.和父亲是一丘之貉●Simon de Montfort, the king’s brother in law, was the defender of the Great Charter. But king refused to acceptthe Provisions of Oxford was finally put into prison. In 1265,.each county sent two knights, and each town tworepresentatives to join the meeting at Westminster,(the earliest English parliament)●Edward I succeeded, conquered Wales, gave his new-born son the title Prince of Wales, a title held by the heirto the throne ever since.Section 3: decline of feudalism of EnglandThe hundred years’ war (1337—1453)●This war refers to the war between France and England, and ended in victory for the French, leading toexpulsion of English from France. The reason of the war: territorial and economic disputes.（direct course:Edward 3 claimed his succession to French throne, but being denied）●Joan of Arc圣女贞德: A national heroine in French history during the hundred year's war. She leaded peasantssuccessfully to drive the English out of France.●The war sped up the decline of feudalism. Gunpowder is a blow to the knights, who are pillars of feudal orderand the “flower of feudalism”.●The Black Death: It is a modern name given to the deadly bubonic plague, an epidemic disease spread throughEurope in the fourteenth century particularly in 1348-1349. It came without warning, and without any cure. In England, it killed almost half of the total population, causing far-reaching economic consequences. (change serfdom农奴身份to paid labour)●The government issued a Statute of Labour, saying it is a crime for peasants to ask more wages. Otherwise,they will be branded with the letter“F” on their forehead.The peasant uprising (1381)●The government imposed a flat rate poll tax to fund the hundred years’ war. Wat Tyler led the rebels. Theuprising dealt a telling blow to villeinage隶农制. A whole new class of yeomen farmers 自耕农emerged, paving the way for the development of capitalism.The wars of the Roses (1455-1485)●The wars of Roses ：After the Hundred Y ear's War, in order to decide who would rule England, a war brokeout between the House of Lancaster （won）and the House of Y ork, which were symbolized by the red and white roses respectively. The war lasted from 1455 to 1485. In nature it was a war between the commercial-minded gentry in the south and the backward landowners in the north and west. It is usually regarded as the end of English Middle Ages and the beginning of the modern world history.Section 4:the Tudor Monarchy and the Rising BourgeoisieThe new monarchy●Henry VII is the founder of the Tudor Monarchy, served as the transitional stage from feudalism to capitalismin English history.●American was discovered.Henry VIII and reform of the church●Henry VIII: the quintessential Renaissance sovereign famous for founding the Church of England.●Martin Luther desired the reform of the church.●The reform of the church coincided with the Renaissance. The immediate course was Henry VIII’s divorcecase.●Henry didn’t want to alter theology in any way. What he did was only to get rid of Papal interferences inEngland’s internal affairs.●Henry VIII was followed by Edward VI, switching to Protestant theology and his drastic reform has beencalled “the Reformation” in English history.●Bloody Mary: Mary was Henry VIII’s daughter and she was a Catholic. After she became Queen, about 300Protestants were burnt as heretics, for they held Protestant views. As a result, people call her "Bloody Mary". Elizabeth 1(1533-1603)●Externally, Elizabeth successfully played off against each other two great Catholic powers, France and Spain.●Establish charter companies, such as East India Company.●The Spanish king Philip finally made war with Armada (the Invincible Fleet).Elizabeth was regarded as thefoundation-layer of the British Empire.●Elizabeth Age refers to the English golden age.Section five: the English civil war(Bourgeois Revolution)Background of Revolution●Enclosures and the peasant uprising created a new working class, proletariat.●James 6 of Scotland was welcomed to the throne as James 1.this marks the major step to the unification of the two kingdoms.James 1(1603-1625) and the parliament●James said:"no bishop, no king", relations between the Puritans and the king deteriorated.●The Catholics were also opposed to the king for his staunch support of the Church of England. The night bonfire festival is celebrated on November 5, with fireworks and bonfire on which Guy Fawkes was burnt in effigy to remember the day Gunpowder Plot of 1605,reminding the English people the danger of Catholic restoration.●Many puritans refused to conform the King James V ersion, so they became "nonconformists", in 1620,201 nonconformists sailed from Plymouth in a ship named Mayflower. They were called Pilgrims.●James 1 believed "Divine Right of Kings", dissolved the parliament for 7 years. He was called the wisest fool. Charles 1●He followed a pro-Catholic ism policy.(In Elizabethan times, puritans were popular)●The puritans were noted for simple dress, high moral standards, demand of equality, and egalitarian [i,ɡæli'tεəriən]attitudes.The civil wars●The puritans made up the most revolutionary section. So the Bourgeois Revolution was also known as the Puritan Revolution.●The left wing of the revolutionary forces found a leader: Oliver Cromwell.●Oliver Cromwell was one of the commanders of the New Model Army which defeated the royalists in the English Civil War. After the execution of King Charles I in 1649, Cromwell dominated the short-lived Commonwealth of England, conquered Ireland and Scotland, and ruled as Lord Protector from 1653 until his death in 1658.●"Roundhead" was the nickname given to the supporters of Parliament during the English Civil War. Also known as Parliamentarians, they fought against King Charles I who claimed absolute power and the divine right of kings.●The civil war is the beginning of modern world history.Restoration●Charles II put an end to the Republic. They took over Manhattan Island from Dutch and named it New Y ork.●His brother James 2 succeeded, reviving Catholicism.●Glorious Revolution of 1688 also called the White Revolution, because it caused no bloodshed. It was the overthrow of King James II of England in 1688 by a union of Parliamentarians . Finally, William III (Jamea’2 son in law)and Mary ascended the English throne.●W and M childless. Mary’s sister succeeded. Scots accepted the Act of Union, in1707, Great Britain was born.Hanover dynasty.Section six: the industrial revolution and the chartist movementBackground of industrial revolution●The new class managed to accomplish “primitive accumulation of capital” through plunder and exploitation. It plundered America and Africa through colonization and the notorious triangular trade.●James watt made the steam engine practiced for industrial use.●Enclosure movement: to make a profit by selling grain, landowners began to replace the small“open fields” with hedge-divided large fields. (A new system of crop rotation was introduced.) Under enclosure, such land is fenced (enclosed) and deeded or entitled to one or more owners. Tenants were driven off their lands.●Farmer George.Effects of the industrial revolution (1750-1850)●The workshop of the world.●As a result, class contradiction between the capitalists and the proletariat, or capital and labour, became the major problem.●The forests of chimneys turned Birmingham to “Black C ountry”●The transition from an agrarian civilization to industrial civilization was criticized by Luddites.●Theory: social Darwinism (Origin of Species---natural selection) and Malthusianism and Adam Smith (laissez-fair).The chartist movement (1836-1848,3times)●The chartist movement Was a mass movement of working class to fight for equal political and social rights.●Document: the People’s Charter人民宪章，drawn by London Workingmen’s Association.●Two groups: moral force chartists and physical force chartists.Queen Victoria (“the grandmother of Europe”, suffered hemophilia ) “The Polite Society”●The V ictoria Age: a time of industrial, political, and military progress within the United Kingdom. The 63-year reign of Victoria was the longest of any monarch in British history. She was official head of state not only of the United Kingdom but also the British Empire, which included Canada, Australia, India, New Zealand, and large parts of Africa.●In 1840,the Opium War against China.●The trade union act of 1871 legalized the trade unions, ------- set up Labor Representation Committee (LRC) ----------- it changed this name to Labor Party.。

姓名：HaoSummary一、The period of ancient Greece1、Thales:○1Nature is rational○2Water is the basis of everything2、Anaximander:○1the world I terms of opposites3、Pythagoras:○1the entire natural world with numbers4、Heraclitus:○1change as the only unchanging reality in the universe○2opposites are inherently connected5、Parmenides:○1everything was the same○2human reasoning could discover the hidden universal truth which was disguised by the façade of change6、Democritus:○1everything in the universe obeys the laws of necessity○2nothing actually changes○3the atomic theory○4Nature consisted of an unlimited number and variety ofatoms .When a plant or animal died,its atoms disperse and could be used again in new bodies.○5his view of the world is mechanistic7、Socrates:○1strongly disagreed with the Sophists○2some norms are universally valid and absolute○3a rationalist who had unshakable faith in human reason○4distinguished between two types of knowledge: innate or a priori knowledge and empirical or not learned through the physical senses. A priori , or prior to birth , each person has Virtue which is not learned through the physical senses. Empirical or a posteriori knowledge is learned through the physical senses.8、Plato:○1everything in the material world dies , decomposed and disintegrates. ○2there were a limited number of forms○3true , absolute and eternal knowledge must be a priori, or innate within human beings.○4Idealism○5Understanding the world of ideas leads to understanding the ultimate cause of the physical world.○6He used earlier philosophical contributions to develop his Idealism into a comprehensive system which became a pillar of western thinking.9、Aristotle:○1the highest reality was gained through the physical senses○2nothing exists in consciousness that has not first been experienced through the senses.○3specific objects represented an ideal form○4His motto was “Matter over Mind”.○5man has the innate ability to reason○6Since man had reasoning ability ,he could organize physical experiences into categories.○7Reality consisted of “substance”, what objects are made of , and “form”, each object’s specific characteristic or what it can do.○8the modern explanation that moisture in the clouds cool and condense into raindrops which fall to the earth by the force of gravity○9developed four causes for why events occur in the natural world10founded the science of logic○11the earth was the center of universe○二、The Middle Ages1、St. Augustine:○1(influences by Plato’s Idealism) man has a body and a soul; all human history is a struggle between the materialistic and the spiritual worlds.2、St. Thomas Aquinas:○1He believed that he could demonstrate the existence of God , basedon both innate reason and faith.三、The Renaissance1、Nicholaus Copernicus: the Polish astronomer2、Galileo Galilei: the Italian scientist and mathematician3、Johann Kepler: the German astronomer; demonstrated that the world was only a small part of an infinite universe.4、Isaac Newton: laws of motion explained all visible motions.5、Francis Bacon: wrote the first description of the modern scientific method : constructing a hypothesis; conducting an experiment to test the hypothesis; and reaching conclusions based on the experiment.6、Thomas Hobbes: His harsh description of the materialistic, selfish society is very different from either Plato’s Republic or Christianity’s idealism.7、Rene Descartes:○1reason was the only path to knowledge○2agreed with thinkers who relied on mathematics, he used logic to reason through complex problems in other fields knowledge○3the human body is a perfect machine, following natural laws○4his dualism separated mind and matter into two great , mutually exclusive and mutually exhaustive divisions of the universe.○5“I think ; therefore , I am”○6He has been called the father of modern Rationalism and the father of modern western philosophy.8、John Locke:the modern father of Empiricism○1ideas come from sense experiences and are processed in the mind through thinking. He combined thinking, reasoning, believing and doubting into a single concept which he named “reflection”.○2the blank mind○3Locke asked his next question, “Is the world really the way a person perceives it?”His answer was both “Yes” and “No”.○4He advocated the equality of the sexes; the separation of powers within a government; and the natural rights of man.○5ideas come from the mind’s reflection on physical world9、David Hume:the most important Empiricist of his age.○1He was skeptical about all we claim to know.○2He argued that people have two types of perception: impressions and ideas. Based on sense experience, impressions are original and immediate.○3He opposed all ideas and appearances that could not be traced to sense perceptions, including religious knowledge.○4Hume’s philosophy broke the final link between medieval faith and contemporary knowledge.○5He agreed with Locke that a child has no preconceived opinions. Achild perceives the world as it is, based on his experiences.○6analysis of the law of causation(means that everything that happens has a cause).○7He argued that both thunder and lightening are the results of a third event, electric discharge. The laws of nature are what we expect, rather than what is reasonable.○8Hume did recognize the existence of unbreakable and eternal natural laws.○9ideas come from the mind’s reflection on the physical world10、George Berkeley: a religious leader○1knowledgeis based on experience, and material objects only exist in their physical forms.○2ideas come from the mind of a supernatural All-Perceive○3the foundation of all scientific knowledge is sense experience.○4reason is secondary to sense-experience.四、Modern Philosophy:Montesquieu, Voltaire, Rousseau, they wrote about Nature, Rationalism and human rights based on natural law.1、Immanuel Kant:○1He combined elements of both Rationalism and Empiricism into one new comprehensive system to explain how humans know the world.○2He agreed with the Empiricists that knowledge came from sensoryexperiences.○3He agreed with the Rationalists that the mind had a priori knowledge which influenced the interpretation of sensory experiences.○4both space and time are a priori categories imposed on sensory experience by the human mind○5sensory experiences can be true knowledge since the mind’s categories both shape and conform to these experiences.○6God , free choice ,and immortality probably exist, since they are all necessary for mortality to exist.○7believed that the law of causality was one of the a priori categories of the human mind.○8He claimed that humans could only achieve a disagree of probability in determining the cause of a given event.○9Kant believed that all change has cause and that the law of causality was eternal and absolute10humans have a dual nature○11He argued that people must assume the existence of God and○behave morally12“categorical imperative”○13He wrote some words on morality that were still resonate today.○2、Romanticism○1Universal Romanticism○2National Romanticism3、Georg Hegel：○1He did not think eternal truths existed.○2the dialectical process○3 a thought is usually based on previous thoughts○4dialectics五、Modern Philosophical Trends1、Charles Darwin:human beings were members of the animal kingdom2、Albert Einstein:portrayed a universe very differently from the mechanical universe described in Newton’s laws3、Existentialism1) Friedrich Nietzsche: moral action should come from a strong superhero2) Henri Bergson: Reason perceives the material world, but Intuition could perceive the life force which pervades the world.3) Jean-Paul Sartre: man is the only living creature that is conscious of its own existence. Existence takes precedence over all other experiences.4、Positivism1) Ernst Mach: phenomena are neutral, having neither physical nor mental status. He claimed that science should only describe phenomena that could be perceived through the senses.2) Bertrand Russell: He argued that concepts and arguments are constructed of “atomic”, or smallest propositions, that have their roots in the world of experience.3) Whitehead: argued that mathematics can be reducible to pure logic.4) Ludwig Wittgenstein: He developed a theory to explain how language, mind and reality are related. He did not reject the existence of metaphysical qualities. Like Kant, he argued that we cannot know some ideas by direct physical experience. However, unlike Kant, he argued that many problems in philosophy are not problems related to ideas or sensory experience, but to language.5) Noam Chomsky: He view language as an innate product of the mind.6) Jacques Derrida: He argued that language does not refer to the real world at all, but only to other language.5、Pragmatism in The United States1) Charles Peirce: He argued that ideas are clear only when we show which actions establish their meaning. Peirce developed four methods people use to hold onto their beliefs.。

PART TWO The United States of American1.Population, race and ethnic groups 人口和种族1)introduction 概要①the third most populous country in the world,with 255.5 million people.②a nation of immigrants.Immigration accounts for a major source of population growth.Thereare many racial and ethnic groups. Between 80% and 90% of immigration ot the United States now is from Asian and Hispanic counties.The first immigrants in American history came from England and Netherlands. Population movements are common in America.移民是人口增长的一个主要原因。

到目前80%-90%的移民来自亚洲和西班牙语国家。

美国历史上最早的移民来自于英格兰和荷兰。

人口迁徙在美国很普遍。

2)Black people and the Civil Rights Movement①blacks and slaverythe largest of the racial and ethnic minorities in the U.S., which 12.1 per cent of the population; the first blacks were brought to North America as slaves in 1619.美国最大的少数人种是黑人，占人口的12。

英美概况PART 1Unit 1 The United KingdomI Overview1 Full name of the country : The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland2 The British Isles(a geographical term)选择地图，写名称3 The4 countries/nations that made up the kingdoma. Englandb. Scotlandc. Walesd. Northern Ireland4 Capital-London5 The Union Flag/the Union Jack 国旗7 The UK’S influence in the worlda The British commonwealth英联邦(名词解释1):Also known as theCommonwealth of Nations,it is an association comprising the United Kingdom and fifty or so former British colonies that are now sovereign states with a common allegiance to the British Crown, including Canada, Australia , India, and many countries in the West Indies and Africa.ⅡPosition and Borders2 Borders: English Channel 南⾯North Sea东⾯Ireland 西⾯Ⅲ Components:组成部分1 EnglandB capital-London ⾸都+⾸府2 Scotlanda 2nd,largest in area and populationb capital-Edinburgh ⾸府3 Walesb capital-Cardiff4 Northern IrelandC Capital-BelfastⅣtopography 三个部分对应1 The highland ZoneP:6 Scotland, Wales and parts of England 2 The lowland Zone P:7 most of EnglandThe South and east of Great Britain V Rivers, Lakes and Coastline 1 ThamesSecond largest bur most important river VI Climate1 maritime 海洋性2 temperate ⽓候温和的3 changeable weatherUnit 2 The peopleI Overview1 Ethnic composition:种族构成A The EnglishB The WelshC The ScottishD The Northern Irish2 LanguageEnglish+ other minor language3 “Britishness”I Ethnic Composition1 The historyA Celtic tribesB RomansC Angles, Saxons and JutesD ScandinaviansE French NormansF Waves of immigrants and refugees ever sinceⅢ Linguistic Composition1 EnglishA The official language of the U.K.B The evolution of EnglishGermanic+ Danish + French + other influencesC The Received PronunciationUnit 4 Governments and PoliticsⅠThe constitution and the Monarchy1 The ConstitutionA No written ConstitutionC characteristics1) Constitutional monarchy 君主⽴宪制VS absolute monarchy2) Parliamentary Sovereignty 议会权⼒⾄上3) Representative democracy 代表民主制4）The rule of law法制ⅡThe Monarchy1 Who is the present monarch? Queen Elizabeth Ⅱ问答题1 P:502 What is the Queen’s role as monarch? What does the phrase“ the monarch is supposed to reign but not rule” mean?1)Head of state 国家⾸领2）Head of the armed forces武装部队3）Head of the Church of England 英国圣公会4）Government duties5) Represents the nation6) Visits other countries*Where does Queen live?Buckingham PalaceIII Parliament-the legislature1 Structure of ParliamentA The crownB The House of Lords (non-elected)C The house of commons (the elected) Real power2 House of Commons-with real powerA 646 MPsB The Prime Minister-⾃动⽣成（The leader of the party with the majority of seats becomes the Prime Minister）C Cabinet内阁D Leader of the Opposition 反对党⾸领E Shadow Cabinet 影⼦内阁（由反对党构成）F Front benchers vs Backbenchers P:45Front benchers: Cabinet or shadow CabinetBackbenchers: All other MPSG The speaker 下议院议长：an MP of either party usually elected at the startof each parliament.3 House of LordB “hereditary peers”世袭贵族vs “life peers”终⾝贵族C Also the highest court-the judicialⅣGovernment1 Central government- the executive⾏政部门A the Prime Minister2) Responsibilities 办公场所：10 Downing Street1) Presiding over the Cabinet2) allocating function among minisers3) meeting with the QueenB The Cabinet2)The principle of collective responsibility集体责任制(名词解释2)：P：47The Cabinet acts unanimously under the principle of collective responsibility,which means that if an important decision is unacceptable to a particular Cabinet member, it is expected that he or she will resign to signify dissent.V Political Parties and Elections1 The political party systemB Two-party systemThe conservative Party VS the Labor PartyC The Contrasting beliefs P:491) The Labour Party believes in the supervision of industry by the government, even distribution of wealth, and equal opportunity for everyone.2) The Conservative Party traditionally supports private enterprise and minimal state regulation and accepts and mixed economy, which involves private ownership of businesses with some government control. Conservatives also tend to believe in a governing class with a natural right and special privileges.Unit9 EducationI Primary and secondary education1 State schools VS Independent schools2 The ”school boards”The governing body of schools3 School organizationA 3 terms1) Autumn2) Spring3) SummerB “class teacher” system⼩学one-teacher responsible all subjects4 School reformsGrammar school（名词解释3）—Originally meant to educate the young in Latin grammar and that of another European language. These schools in modern UK are intended to teach a highly academic curriculum and teach students to deal with abstract concepts.II Higher education1 Universities1) The ancient universities(12th and 13th Century)①Oxford②Cambridge3 The Open University< Grants degrees< Open to allPART 2 The United States of AmericaUnit 1 The countryⅠOverview1 Size: 4th largest country2 Borders:A Canada(北),Mexico(南)B the Atlantic(东),the Pacific(西)3 States48+2-Alaska, Hawaii 与本国不相邻Washington D.C(Distinct of Columbia) 4 Abundance of geography VS shortage of history 1)What are the original 13 colonies?1 New Hampshire2 Massa chusetts3 Rhode Island4 Connecticut5 New York6 New Jersey7 Pennsylvania8 Delaware10 Virginia11 North Carolina12 South Carolina13 Georgin2)History:around 250 years(1776 onward)ⅡPhysical Features4 topographic regions1) The Interier lowlandThe Mississippi River(p:115):The region is drained by the Mississippi River and its great tributaries, one of the largest navigable river systems in the world. The Mississippi is not merely a useful river;it also serves as a potent geographic symbol-the traditional dividing line in America between ”East” and “West”. 2) The Atlantic& Gulf Coastal Plain墨西哥海岸平原The region where the nation was born3) The Appalachians &their foothills⼭系Eroded&old4) The Cordillera⼭系，⼭脉Young and with varietyIV Cultural Geography1 The Northeast2）WASP valuesWhite Anglo-Saxon Protestant新教教徒3）New Englandb Birthplace of the nation美国东北部2 The SouthA historyPlantation system and caste structure种植园系统3 The MidwestChicago4 The westb Las Vegas, Reno, Salt Lake Cityc San Francisco, Los AngelesUnit 3 The American IdentityI Overview1 Why is the U.S “ a nation of immigrants”?a settled, built and developed by immigrantsb still taking in immigrants1) Definition: Whites descended wholly or directly from or born in Europe2) Ancestries: a British(the largest group)The mainstream culture:WASPBlack/African Americans1862-1950sCivil Rights Movement民权运动（1950s-60s）Martin Luther King3 Latinos/Hispanics:2)The largest ethnic minority group4 Asian Americans1) The second largest racial minority3) The “model minority”:The lowest poverty rate and the highest educational attainment levels median household income and median personal icome.4)The” yellow peril” stereotype: Native Americans/American Indians①The first settlers of the continent问答题3：p:123What does the statement”America is a nation with an abundance of geography, but a shortage of history”mean?Unit4 Political InstitutionⅠThe U.S constitution2）In 1788,Philadelphia 宪法写成，费城ⅡGeneral Principles1 Federalism问答题4：p 164What does federalism mean in American politics?A Division of power between the federal government and the state governmentsB The two levels of governments share certain powersC They can cooperate4 Checks and balances制衡(separation of powers三权分⽴)：1)the Legislative 2)the executive 3)the judiciaryⅢThe American System of Government1)Congress-The LegislativeA Structure①The Senate参议院A:100 SenatorsB:Term:6 yearsC:1/3 elected every 2 years2)The President-the ExecutiveA:T erm:4 yearsB: Major roles:①head of the state②chief executive of the U.S③Chief legislator (veto)④commander-in-chief军事统帅D：Department of the government P:160Departments of State, Treasury, Defence, Judiciary, Interior, Agriculture, Commerce, Labour, Health and Human Resources, Housing and Urban Development, Transportation, Energy, Education, and Land Security. Each department is established by law, and as their names indicate, each is responsible for a specific area.The head of each department is appointed by the President.3)The Federal Judiciary司法The Supreme CourtA: 1 chief justice +8 associate justicesB: Nominated by the President with the approval of the SenateC: T erm: life term终⾝制D：Power of judicial review(p:161名词解释4)：The right to declare laws and actions of the federal state, and local governments unconstitutional.4)Political Parties and Political Elections1 Two-party system①The Democrats VS the Republicans②Difference between 2 parties2 ElectionsC：问答题4：Why the low turnout in general elections?1）One explanation for that is Americans who want to votemust register, that is ,put down their names in aregister before the actual elections take place.2）Another important factor is there are many moreelections in the U.S. at the state and local levels thanthere are in most countries.3）Many of the most important decisions, such as thoseconcerning education, housing and taxes, are madeclose to home, in the state or county.D：Presidential Election: 名词解释5 p:1631 A” electoral votes(power)：such a practice in American elections is called”winner-take all”2 “winner-take all”：These electoral votes are equal to the number of Senators and Representatives each state has in Congress.。