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关于英国历史的作文英语80词左右全文共3篇示例，供读者参考篇1The history of Britain is a long and complex story filled with conquests, conflicts, and cultural developments.Britain has been inhabited by humans for at least 800,000 years, with evidence of early humans dating back to the Paleolithic era. The island was originally home to Celtic tribes, who were eventually conquered by the Romans in the first century AD. The Roman occupation of Britain lasted for nearly 400 years, during which time the island became an important outpost of the Roman Empire.After the Roman withdrawal in the early fifth century, Britain was invaded by a series of Germanic tribes, including the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes. The arrival of these tribes marked the beginning of the Anglo-Saxon period in British history, which lasted until the Norman Conquest in 1066.The Norman Conquest saw William the Conqueror, Duke of Normandy, defeat the Anglo-Saxon King Harold II at the Battle of Hastings and establish Norman rule over England. Thesubsequent Norman dynasty brought many changes to English society, including the introduction of feudalism, the building of castles, and the development of English as the dominant language.Over the centuries, Britain expanded its influence through colonization and conquest, becoming a global superpower by the 19th century. The British Empire spanned continents and played a major role in shaping the modern world through its trade, governance, and culture.In more recent history, Britain has faced challenges such as two World Wars, decolonization, and the rise of nationalism. Today, Britain is a diverse and multicultural country, with a rich history that continues to shape its identity and influence its place in the world.Overall, the history of Britain is a story of resilience, adaptation, and transformation, with numerous individuals and events shaping the nation's destiny over the centuries.篇2The history of the United Kingdom dates back to ancient times, with the country being home to various civilizations and tribes. The Roman conquest of Britain in 43 AD laid thefoundations for a new era in British history. The Anglo-Saxon and Viking invasions in the 5th and 9th centuries brought about significant changes to the cultural landscape of Britain.The Norman Conquest of 1066 saw the emergence of a new ruling class in England, with the Normans bringing their own language and customs. The medieval period in England was marked by the Hundred Years' War, the Black Death, and the War of the Roses. The Tudor dynasty, which ruled from 1485 to 1603, saw the establishment of Protestantism in England and the beginning of the British Empire.The Stuart period, which lasted from 1603 to 1714, saw the English Civil War and the Glorious Revolution. The Act of Union in 1707 saw the formation of the Kingdom of Great Britain, uniting England and Scotland under a single monarch. The Industrial Revolution of the 18th and 19th centuries transformed Britain into a global economic power.The 20th century saw the rise and fall of the British Empire, as well as the country's involvement in two world wars. The post-war period brought about major social and political changes in Britain, including the establishment of the National Health Service and the decolonization of the Empire.Today, the United Kingdom is a diverse and multicultural country, with a rich history that continues to shape its identity. From the ancient Romans to the modern-day monarchy, British history is a complex tapestry of events and people that have shaped the country into what it is today.篇3The history of Britain is a long and fascinating one, spanning thousands of years. From its early inhabitants, the Celts, to the invasion of the Romans, the Anglo-Saxons, and the Vikings, the history of Britain is a tapestry of different cultures and influences.One of the most significant events in British history is the Norman Conquest in 1066, when William the Conqueror defeated King Harold at the Battle of Hastings. This event marked the beginning of the Norman era in Britain and led to the construction of many famous castles and cathedrals.The medieval period saw the rise of the Plantagenet and Tudor dynasties, with famous rulers such as Richard the Lionheart, King John, Henry VIII, and Elizabeth I. The Tudor era is often considered a golden age in British history, with the expansion of the British Empire and the flourishing of arts and literature.The Industrial Revolution in the 18th and 19th centuries transformed Britain into a major industrial power, leading to rapid urbanization and social changes. The Victorian era, named after Queen Victoria, saw the height of British power and influence, with the British Empire covering a quarter of the world's land area.The 20th century brought two devastating world wars, which had a profound impact on British society and politics. Thepost-war period saw the decline of the British Empire and the rise of a welfare state, with the creation of the National Health Service and other social reforms.Today, Britain remains a vibrant and diverse society, with a rich cultural heritage and a strong tradition of democracy and tolerance. The history of Britain continues to shape the present and the future, as the country grapples with the challenges of the modern world while cherishing its past.。
逝去的“日不落”帝国——英国史读后感如果每一个国家的历史写下来都是一篇宏伟的著作的话，那么英国的历史应该是这一篇篇著作中的一颗明珠。
看完了阎照祥先生写的《英国史》感触很深，他用简明的历史语言把英国的历史从史前写到了近代，给我们展示了一个一个帝国的成长过程。
在书中阎照祥先生用精炼的文字给我们展现了英国从新石器时代到辉煌的伊丽莎白时代,从史前历史的野蛮落后到引导世界近代工业进程工业革命的先进,阎照祥先生用大量的史料和照片记述了英国这个国家从中世纪不被欧洲大陆认可的“小国家”到一个称霸世界的“日不落帝国”的艰辛行程。
阎照祥先生是国内研究历史的专家和先行者,作为从事研究英国历史的专家,他兼任中国英国史学会副会长,并书写了《英国政党政治史》、《英国政治制度史》、《英国贵族史》和《英国史》等学术专著。
在书中,严先生用时间轴线把英国的历史进行串联，并根据历史的时代把英国的历史分为了十二个阶段。
第一阶段是讲英国如何从史前时代斯旺斯孔布人到布立吞人,从一个原始社会被罗马人改造成一个原始社会并最终成为罗马的一个行省的过程，在这个过程中罗马人把英国人在军事、经济、政治、文化、宗教等各个领域进行了改造,并最终把英国由一个陆外文明逐步融合入了欧洲大陆文明；第二个阶段讲述了英国的前期民族融合以及其封建君主制形成的过程，其中讲述了北欧民族入侵的血腥和七国时代的惨烈,最终英国的民族定型,并最终形成了自己独立的王国。
在这个时期英国的政治制度和经济在缓慢中前进,其中的贤人议会制度和郡区制深深的影响了后来的英国,还有文学和史学也取得了有限的发展;第三阶段讲述了安茹时期,英国在这个期间被诺曼征服,并逐步进入了封建制度,国家的政治制度改革取得重大成果，设立了大议会制度并与国王约翰签订了《大宪章》,骑士制度也进入了黄金时期,国家的版图页初步奠定,这个时期的国家经济遭受战乱和天灾的影响,人民生活受到了很大的影响,封建社会对底层人民的盘剥加深；第四阶段,讲述了英国的封建制度鼎盛时期，这个时期的贵族阶层的形成和骑士制度的发展，并伴随着政治制度的改革和商业的发展出现了城镇自治和行会的形成，并确立了三级议会制度，在经济方面农业庄园和新农业三圃制的发展，城镇人口增加,商业盛行,由于与欧洲大陆的联系加深,基督教会开始影响英国的各个方面,宗教建筑和教学建筑得到了发展，并出现了早期的大学教育，奠定了英国科学的发展根基；第五阶段，主要讲述了英国在百年战争期间的社会情况,这个时期由于国家的动乱和黑死病的流行给国家带来了深远的灾难,庄园经济解体，出现了资本主义萌芽，政治方面进行了议会改革,确立了两院制议会，经济方面民族文学兴起;第六阶段讲述了英国近代史的开端多铎王朝时期,这个时期资本主义出现长足发展，商业迅速成长封建制度减弱，出现圈地运动，经济的发展使得这个时期的英国开始外贸经济和拓展海外殖民地，并与当时的“无敌舰队”西班牙进行了贸易海战，国王加强了君主专制，为获得更大的权利开始进行宗教改革与欧洲教会分裂，这个时期政治学、哲学、文学都获得了长足的发展，沐浴在欧洲文艺复兴的氛围中；第七阶段主要讲述了英国的革命时代,讲述了１6世纪进行的资产阶级革命，由于斯图特亚王朝的封建专制统治严重阻碍资本主义发展,阶级矛盾激化,迫使资产阶级需要确立自己的地位，最终爆发革命建立共和国，并于1689年与国王签订《权利法案》使英国确立了君主立宪制的资产阶级专政，英国资产阶级革命后，出现了长期的政治稳定的局面，为资本主义的顺利发展创造了良好的环境,这个时期资本主义发展加强，皇家学会和自然科学得到了发展,牛顿力学三大定律确立,奠定了近代科学的根基；第八阶段讲述了工业革命前的英国，这个时期的资本主义迅速发展,君主立宪制后资产阶级为自己参与政治扫清了道路,逐步形成了寡头经济，并伴随着工业的发展需要大量的工人,催生了黑奴贸易和圈地运动,国外贸易增加一倍海运业增长两倍,文学得到了发展,绘画和艺术灿烂持续，并出现了以散文和小说为主的新文学；第九阶段，蒸汽机为代表的机械动力使用使得工业发展迅速,使得英国进入资本主义工业社会，但是资本主义经济的先进与政治体制的落后形成对比,因此资产阶级改革了议会,国外殖民地版图扩大,使得英国有充足的原材料基地进行贸易扩张，军事上与法国拿破仑爆发战争并取得了胜利,文化事业上政治经济学发展，浪漫主义诗歌出现;第十阶段自由主义时代讲述了英国的资本主义发展到最繁荣的阶段,人们称之谓资本主义的“黄金时代”时期资产阶级对自由的渴望,由于工业资本主义的发展，英国工业资产阶级的力量日益强大,政治改革拓展并改革了文官制度,出现了保守党和自由党执政执政,他们主张自由贸易论,经济上废除了《谷物法》工人待遇提高，城镇化水平提高，城镇居民占人口70%以上，领土上海外殖民地继续扩展，与中国清朝发生了“鸦片战争”并取得胜利，国内出现了爱尔兰独立问题，文化事业上领先世界各国，自然科学和科技发明居世界之首,并出现了现实主义文学,另外由于资产阶级自由化的泛滥,出现了“维多利亚风尚”；第十一阶段,讲述了英国在第一次世界大战和第二次世界大战期间因为战争造成的衰落,这个时期英国由于作为战争的直接参与方，付出了巨大的人力和物力，造成了经济的衰退被美国赶超，并最终丧失世界领导者地位；最后一个阶段讲述了英国在两次世界大战后的发展，虽然获得了经济的复苏,但是英国作为世界政治体制模板、经济体制范本的时代已经过去,在战后国际新格局下，美国和苏联成为新的世界性超级大国，英国只能居于二等国家地位，英国国外的殖民地纷纷脱离了英国统治而独立，“日不落帝国”就此没落。
一篇关于英国历史的英语作文80词全文共10篇示例，供读者参考篇1Once upon a time, there was a country called England. England is a really old country with a lot of history. Let me tell you all about it!First of all, England has a really long history. It all started way back in the Stone Age when cavemen were living there. They built Stonehenge, which is a big circle of stones that nobody really knows the purpose of.Then, the Romans came to England. They built cool things like Hadrian's Wall and brought new ideas like baths and roads. But then the Roman Empire fell apart and the Anglo-Saxons took over. They were warriors who liked to fight a lot.After that, the Vikings invaded England. They were fierce warriors who sailed across the sea in big ships. But eventually, they settled down and became part of the country.In 1066, a big battle called the Battle of Hastings took place. The Normans, led by William the Conqueror, defeated theAnglo-Saxons and William became the king of England. This was a really important event in English history.Over the years, England became a powerful kingdom. It had kings and queens like Henry VIII and Queen Elizabeth I who did a lot of important things. They built beautiful castles, explored new lands, and fought wars with other countries.England also went through a lot of changes. The Industrial Revolution started in England and changed the way people lived and worked. Factories were built, cities grew bigger, and new inventions were made.In the 20th century, England went through two world wars. It was a difficult time, but the people of England were strong and brave. They worked together to rebuild their country and make it better than ever.Today, England is a modern country with a rich history. It's known for its famous landmarks like Big Ben and the Tower of London, its delicious food like fish and chips, and its traditions like tea time.I love learning about the history of England. It's so interesting to see how the country has changed over the years. I can't wait to learn even more about it!篇2Hello everyone! Today I'm going to tell you all about the history of England. England has a really long history, with lots of kings and queens ruling over the country.In the olden days, there were lots of battles between different kingdoms in England. One of the most famous battles was the Battle of Hastings in 1066. This battle was fought between King Harold II of England and William the Conqueror, who was from Normandy in France. William won the battle and became the first Norman king of England.After that, there were lots of different kings and queens who ruled England. Some of them were really famous, like King Henry VIII who had six wives, and Queen Elizabeth I who defeated the Spanish Armada.In the 17th century, there was a big civil war in England between the Royalists who supported the king, and the Parliamentarians who wanted more power. In the end, the Parliamentarians won and King Charles I was executed.In the 18th and 19th centuries, England became a really powerful country. The British Empire spanned the globe, with colonies all over the world. England was at the forefront of theIndustrial Revolution, with lots of inventions and new technologies.In the 20th century, England was involved in two World Wars. After the wars, the British Empire started to break up and many countries gained their independence.Today, England is part of the United Kingdom along with Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland. It has a rich history and a lot of famous landmarks like Big Ben, Buckingham Palace, and Stonehenge. England may be a small country, but it has a big place in history!篇3Once upon a time, there was a country called England. England is a super cool country with a long, long history. Let me tell you all about it!First of all, England used to have kings and queens ruling the country. They lived in big, fancy castles and wore fancy clothes. One of the most famous kings was King Henry VIII. He had six wives and he even chopped off some of their heads! Crazy, right?Then there was Queen Elizabeth I. She was a super powerful queen and she defeated the Spanish Armada. She also liked to wear lots of fancy dresses and jewelry. Go, Queen Elizabeth!England also had a famous battle called the Battle of Hastings. It was between the Normans and the Saxons. The Normans, led by William the Conqueror, won the battle and became kings of England. That's how the Norman Conquest happened!In the 1600s, there was a big civil war in England. It was between the King and Parliament. The Parliament won and they chopped off the King's head! Poor King Charles I.England also had a really cool scientist named Isaac Newton. He discovered gravity when an apple fell on his head. How cool is that?And let's not forget about the British Empire. It was the biggest empire in the world and England had colonies all over the globe. They ruled countries like India, Canada, and Australia. But eventually, those countries gained their independence.Today, England is a modern country with a cool queen called Queen Elizabeth II. The history of England is super interestingand has shaped the country into what it is today. I love learning about all the cool stories from England's past!篇4Once upon a time, there was a country called England. England is a small country in Europe with a long and interesting history.Long, long ago, before there were cars or planes or even smartphones, England was ruled by kings and queens. The most famous of all the kings and queens was Queen Elizabeth I. She ruled England for a long time and was known as the Virgin Queen because she never got married. Queen Elizabeth I was a very powerful and wise ruler who made England a strong and prosperous country.But not all the kings and queens of England were good. Some were very mean and greedy, like King Henry VIII. He had six wives and he even had two of them executed! King Henry VIII was also the king who started the Church of England because he wanted to get a divorce from his first wife.In the 17th century, England had a civil war between the supporters of the king and the supporters of Parliament. The king was eventually defeated and executed. This was a veryimportant event in English history because it marked the end of absolute monarchy in England.In the 18th and 19th centuries, England became a powerful empire with colonies all over the world. The Industrial Revolution began in England, leading to great advances in technology and industry. England became the "workshop of the world" and its factories produced goods that were shipped all over the globe.In the 20th century, England fought in two World Wars and emerged as a victor. The British Empire began to decline and many of its colonies gained independence. Today, England is a modern and multicultural country with a rich history that is still remembered and celebrated. And that, my friends, is the story of England.篇5Once upon a time, there was a country called England. It is a very old country with a long history. Let me tell you all about it!England is a small island in the north-west of Europe. It has a lot of green fields, beautiful castles, and even a big clock called Big Ben in its capital city, London. But do you know how England became the way it is today?A long time ago, England was ruled by kings and queens. One of the most famous kings was King Henry VIII. He had six wives, can you believe it? And he even started his own church, the Church of England, just so he could divorce his first wife!But there were also times of great sadness in England's history. The Black Death was a terrible disease that killed many people in the Middle Ages. And there was a big fire in London in 1666 that destroyed a lot of the city.In the 18th and 19th centuries, England became very powerful. It had a big empire that stretched all over the world. The Industrial Revolution started in England, bringing new inventions like the steam engine and changing the way people lived and worked.In the 20th century, England went through two world wars. Many brave soldiers fought to protect their country and its freedom. And today, England is a modern and diverse country with people from all over the world living there.So that's the story of England, a country with a rich and fascinating history. I hope you enjoyed learning all about it!篇6Hey guys, today I want to tell you all about the history of England! It's super cool and full of kings, queens, battles, and even some dragons (just kidding about the dragons, but that would be awesome, right?).So, England has been around for like, forever. The Romans invaded and built a lot of stuff, like Hadrian's Wall, which was to keep out those pesky Northern invaders. Then, the Anglo-Saxons and the Vikings showed up and fought over who would be in charge.But then, in 1066, everything changed! William the Conqueror, from France, invaded England and became the first Norman king. He built castles all over the place and made sure everyone knew he was in charge. And that's how the Norman kings ruled for a long time.Then, in the 1500s, King Henry VIII showed up and had a bunch of wives (like, seriously, six wives!). He wanted a son to be king, so he kept getting married and divorced until he finally got one (poor wives).After that, England had some big battles with France (the Hundred Years' War), and then the English Civil War where they chopped off the king's head (yikes!). But eventually, thingssettled down and England became a powerful empire with colonies all over the world.And now, England is known for fish and chips, Big Ben, the Queen, and of course, Harry Potter! So cool, right? England's history is amazing and full of drama, just like a movie. I can't wait to learn more about it!篇7Once upon a time, there was a country called England. England is a really old country with a lot of history. Let me tell you all about it!A long time ago, in the year 1066, there was a big battle called the Battle of Hastings. It was between two kings, King Harold and Duke William. Duke William won the battle and became King of England. He was also known as William the Conqueror. After that, England had a new king and a new royal family called the Normans.In the 14th century, there was a terrible disease called the Black Death. It was a really scary disease that spread quickly and killed a lot of people. It was a difficult time for England, but they managed to recover and become stronger.In the 16th century, there was a queen called Queen Elizabeth I. She was a powerful queen who ruled England for a long time. She defeated the Spanish Armada and made England a strong and powerful country.In the 17th century, there was a civil war in England between the Royalists and the Parliamentarians. The Parliamentarians won and King Charles I was executed. This was a difficult time for England, but they eventually became a constitutional monarchy with a king or queen as the head of state.In the 19th century, England became a powerful empire with colonies all around the world. They were known as the British Empire and they had a lot of influence in world affairs.In the 20th century, England was involved in two World Wars. They fought bravely and helped to defeat the enemies. After the wars, England went through a lot of changes and became a modern country with a strong economy and a diverse society.So, that's a brief history of England. It's a country with a lot of stories and adventures. I hope you enjoyed learning about it!篇8Hi everyone! Today I want to talk to you about the history of England. England is a country in Europe and it has a really long and cool history.So, a long time ago, England was ruled by kings and queens. One of the most famous kings was King Henry VIII. He had six wives and he started the Church of England because he wanted to get a divorce from his first wife. He was a bit of a crazy king, but he did some cool things too.Then, there was Queen Elizabeth I. She was a really powerful queen and she defeated the Spanish Armada. She was called the Virgin Queen because she never got married. She was a smart queen and she did a lot of good things for England.After that, England had a civil war between the Cavaliers and the Roundheads. The Roundheads were led by Oliver Cromwell and they won the war. Cromwell became the leader of England, but he was a bit of a dictator. After he died, the monarchy was restored and King Charles II became king.In the 19th century, England became really powerful and had an empire that stretched all over the world. They had colonies in India, Africa, and Australia. Queen Victoria was the queen at that time and she ruled for a really long time.In the 20th century, England was involved in two world wars. They fought with the Allies in World War I and World War II. After the wars, England became a lot more modern and they have a lot of cool things like the Beatles and Harry Potter.So, that's a brief history of England. It's a really interesting country with a lot of cool stories. I hope you learned something new today!篇9Hey guys, do you want to know about the history of England? Let me tell you all about it!England has a super long history that goes way back to ancient times. It all started with the Celts, who lived in England over 2,000 years ago. Then came the Romans, with Julius Caesar leading the charge in 55 BC. The Romans built roads, walls, and even the city of Londinium (which is now London!).After the Romans, the Anglo-Saxons arrived in England from Germany in the 5th century. They brought their own language and culture, and eventually united the different kingdoms into one country. Then came the Vikings – fierce warriors from Scandinavia who invaded England in the 8th century.In 1066, things got really interesting when William the Conqueror, a Norman duke from France, invaded England and became the first Norman king. This event forever changed the course of English history and introduced feudalism to the country.Fast forward to the Tudor era, with famous monarchs like Henry VIII and Elizabeth I ruling England. The Tudors were followed by the Stuarts, who had some pretty crazy stories of their own (like the English Civil War!).And of course, we can't forget about the Industrial Revolution, which transformed England into a major world power. The British Empire expanded across the globe, bringing wealth and influence to the country.Today, England is a modern nation with a rich history that is still celebrated and remembered. So next time you visit England, remember to check out some of its famous historical sites – you won't be disappointed!篇10Hello everyone! Today I'm going to tell you all about the history of England. England is a really cool place with a lot of interesting stories from the past.A long time ago, England was ruled by kings and queens. One of the most famous kings was King Henry VIII. He had lots of wives and even started his own church just so he could get a divorce! Can you believe that?Another important event in English history is the English Civil War. It was a big fight between the king and Parliament over who should have more power. In the end, the king lost his head! Literally, they cut it off!England also had a really big empire. They had colonies all over the world, including India and America. The British Empire was really powerful and had a lot of influence on other countries.One of the most famous English people is William Shakespeare. He was a playwright and wrote lots of famous plays like Romeo and Juliet and Hamlet. He was like the Beyonce of his time!In more recent history, England was involved in both World Wars. They fought against Germany and helped to defeat the bad guys. England is a really important country in the world and has a lot of history to learn about.I hope you enjoyed learning a bit about England's history. It's really interesting and there are so many cool stories to discover. Thanks for reading!。
英国通过第一、二轮勃兴崛起为一个世界性的大国并最终攫取了海洋霸权，通过第三轮勃兴英国的霸主国地位得到了进一步的巩固和增强。
英国是通过其优越的地缘位置、制度领域的创新所导致的生产力的巨大发展、根据机会所制定的合理政策而崛起为一个世界性大国的。
虽然时代背景发生了巨大的变化，但是英国的崛起对当今寻求崛起的国家仍然具有重要的借鉴意义。
以下是英国崛起历史小论文，欢迎阅读。
英国从一个在I5世纪并不为欧陆国家所重视的岛国逐步发展成为在19和20世纪大部分时问里其统治范围覆盖了非洲南部广大地区、南亚、东南亚、太平洋大部分地区皮北美和加勒比海地区的庞大帝国。
这个帝国控制的区域范围相当于其国土面积的近40倍，人口达到了3亿多。
英国从一个位于北人两洋上的岛国崛起为一个庞大的殖民帝国是通过与西班牙、荷兰、法国争夺海上霸权三个阶段逐步实现的。
英国是在相继击败西班牙、荷兰、法国之后才真正荣登世界霸主的宝座的。
地理大发现对国际政治所造成的一个重要后果是使欧洲经济中心逐渐从地中海沿岸转移到人西洋西北沿岸诸国，这些国家包括了伊比利亚半岛上的葡萄牙、西班牙，欧陆大国法国，波罗的海沿岸的荷兰与隔英吉利海峡与欧洲大陆相望的英国，同时在某种程度上还有斯堪的那维亚国家。
英国通过第一、二轮勃兴崛起为一个世界性的大国并最终攫取了海洋霸权﹐通过第三轮勃兴英国的霸主国地位得到了进一步的巩固和增强。
(一）第一轮勃兴（1588——1674年)这里把英国第一轮勃兴的起始时间界定为1588年是从英西海战以西班牙失败而告终这一在国际关系中具有重要影响的历史事件这一角度来分析的.英国的地缘政治条件和伴随着地理大发现而开始的国际性的海外贸易和拓殖决定了英国的崛起是一种海洋战略的崛起,而这不可避免的会与处于海上霸权地位的西班牙殖民帝国产生矛盾。
1588年，两班牙国王腓力﹒世派遗了一支由130多艘舰船组成的“无敌舰队”进攻英国,其结果是英国凭借着巧妙的战术和先进的技术取得了这次战争的胜利。
帝国迈出的巨大步伐——英国工业革命英国是工业革命最早的国家，是第一个全球金融资本的中心，他的发展与崛起令人叹为观止，是第一个真正意义上的世界超级大国，“日不落帝国”和“世界工厂”这两个称谓可以概括为英国最伟大的成就。
英国国土面积24.41万平方公里，是由不列颠岛（包括英格兰、苏格兰、威尔士）以及爱尔兰岛东北部的北爱尔兰和周围5500个小岛（海外领地）组成。
主要的矿产资源有煤、铁、石油和天然气，并不算很丰富。
那是什么将英国从一个岛国变成欧洲强国，最终成为世界霸主的呢？答案显而易见——工业革命。
发源于英国而后波及欧美主要国家的第一次工业革命，具有划时代的历史意义，对人类社会的演进产生了空前深刻、巨大的影响。
它为新生的资本主义制度奠定了坚实的物质基础，促使欧美诸国先后实现工业化，由农业国变成工业国。
它为英国提供了历史机遇，利用工业化先发优势，确立了“世界工厂”的地位。
工业革命给人类带来了进步和幸福，同时也使人类面临新的矛盾和挑战。
而马克思曾经说过：资本主义在它不到100年的时间里创造的生产力远远超过了以前几个世纪的总和。
严格来说，工业革命不能算上是真正的革命，它没有推翻任何的政权或阶级，只是属于社会、科技方面的急剧进步和发展。
革命背景：那么，这一次工业革命是如何产生的呢？首先，政治上，17 世纪的英国资产阶级革命，推翻了英国的封建专制制度，建立了资产阶级和土地贵族联盟为基础的君主立宪制度，从而成为世界上第一个确立资产阶级政治统治的国家。
资产阶级利用国家政权加速推行发展资本主义的政策和措施，促进了工业革命各种前提条件的迅速形成；思想上，亚当斯密在《国富论》提出的最著名的观点就是：看不见的手，也就是今天经济学家常常讲的市场供求规律。
他认为在市场经济中，个体间的自然交易会创造出高效的资源分配模式，并有利于促进市场经济，创造出更高水平的收入。
根据这个理论，亚当•斯密提出了一个影响深远的对外贸易战略。
所以，经济上，随着君主立宪制的与资本主义制度的建立，英国加速了圈地运动，殖民地掠夺与奴隶贸易，给英国带来了巨额的货币资本，从而为工业革命累积了财力上的准备。
关于英国历史的英语作文高中全文共3篇示例，供读者参考篇1The history of the United Kingdom is long and complex, spanning over thousands of years and encompassing numerous political and societal changes. From the ancient Celtic tribes to the modern-day British Empire, the UK has seen its fair share of triumphs and tribulations throughout history.The first known inhabitants of the British Isles were the ancient Celtic tribes, who settled in the region around 500 BC. These tribes, such as the Britons, Picts, and Gaels, each had their own distinct cultures and languages, but they were united by a shared animosity towards the invading Roman Empire.The Romans first invaded Britain in 43 AD, beginning a centuries-long occupation that would leave a lasting impact on the region. The Romans introduced new technologies, laws, and infrastructure to Britain, but their rule was also marked by conflict and resistance from the native tribes.After the fall of the Roman Empire in the 5th century, Britain was invaded by a series of Germanic tribes, including the Angles,Saxons, and Jutes. These tribes eventually formed the Kingdom of England, which would go on to become a dominant political and cultural force in the region.In the 9th century, the Vikings began raiding and settling in parts of Britain, leading to the creation of the Danelaw in the north and east of the country. However, the Vikings were eventually defeated by the Anglo-Saxons, leading to the unification of the various kingdoms of England under King Alfred the Great.The Norman Conquest of 1066 saw William the Conqueror invade and conquer England, bringing with him a new system of feudalism and a Norman-French aristocracy. The Normans also introduced new architectural styles, such as castles and cathedrals, that would shape the landscape of England for centuries to come.Over the next few centuries, England would expand its influence through conquest and colonization, eventually forming the Kingdom of Great Britain in 1707 with the union of England and Scotland. The British Empire would go on to become the largest empire in history, spanning territories across the globe and shaping the modern world in profound ways.The Industrial Revolution of the 18th and 19th centuries transformed Britain into the world's first industrialized nation, leading to rapid urbanization and social change. The growth of industry also fueled the rise of capitalism and the emergence of a working class, leading to new political movements and ideologies.The 20th century saw Britain navigate two world wars, as well as decolonization and the end of empire. The UK emerged from these challenges as a key player on the world stage, contributing to the establishment of international organizations such as the United Nations and NATO.Today, the United Kingdom remains a diverse and multicultural nation, shaped by its rich history and global influence. From the ancient Celts to the modern-day British monarchy, the UK's history is a testament to the resilience and adaptability of its people. As the world continues to change and evolve, the UK will undoubtedly continue to play a significant role in shaping the future of humanity.篇2Title: A Brief Overview of British HistoryIntroduction:The history of Great Britain is a rich tapestry of conquest, rebellion, and evolution. From its humble beginnings as a Roman outpost to its status as a powerhouse of the modern world, Britain's history is filled with pivotal moments that have shaped the country we know today.Roman Britain:The history of Britain begins with the arrival of the Romans in 43 AD. The Romans established the province of Britannia and built a network of roads and forts across the country. They also introduced Christianity to the native Britons. However, the Romans faced resistance from the Celtic tribes of Britain, most notably the legendary Queen Boudicca, who led a revolt against Roman rule in 60 AD.The Anglo-Saxon Period:After the fall of the Roman Empire in the 5th century, Britain was invaded by Germanic tribes known as the Anglo-Saxons. They established a number of kingdoms, including Wessex, Mercia, and Northumbria. The Anglo-Saxons were pagan, but they were eventually converted to Christianity by missionaries from Rome. The most famous Anglo-Saxon king was Alfred the Great, who defeated the Vikings and united the kingdom of England.The Norman Conquest:In 1066, William the Conqueror, Duke of Normandy, invaded England and defeated the Anglo-Saxon king Harold at the Battle of Hastings. William established a Norman dynasty that ruled England for over 300 years. The Normans built castles and cathedrals, introduced feudalism, and commissioned the Domesday Book, a survey of land ownership in England.The Medieval Period:The Middle Ages in Britain were marked by the English Civil War, the Black Death, and the Hundred Years' War with France. The Plantagenet dynasty ruled England, Wales, and parts of Ireland. The most famous Plantagenet king was Edward III, who claimed the throne of France and established the Order of the Garter. The Wars of the Roses, a series of conflicts between the houses of Lancaster and York, ended with the establishment of the Tudor dynasty by Henry VII in 1485.The Tudor Age:The Tudor period was a time of exploration, religious conflict, and cultural growth. Henry VIII broke with the Roman Catholic Church and established the Church of England. His daughter Elizabeth I defeated the Spanish Armada and presided over agolden age of literature and art. The Tudors also expanded England's overseas empire, with the colonization of Ireland, America, and India.The Stuart Era:The Stuart dynasty succeeded the Tudors in 1603. The reign of James I saw the colonization of Virginia and the Gunpowder Plot. The English Civil War erupted in 1642, pitting the royalists against the parliamentarians. Oliver Cromwell emerged as the leader of the parliamentarians and established a republic known as the Commonwealth. The monarchy was restored in 1660 with the coronation of Charles II.The Industrial Revolution:The 18th and 19th centuries witnessed the Industrial Revolution in Britain. Steam engines, textile mills, and iron foundries transformed the economy of the country. The population of cities like Manchester, Birmingham, and London exploded, leading to widespread poverty and social unrest. The Reform Acts of the 19th century extended suffrage to more people and reformed the electoral system.The Victorian Age:The Victorian era was a time of imperial expansion and moral reform. Queen Victoria ruled over a vast empire that included Canada, Australia, India, and Africa. The British Empire was the largest in history, with colonies on every continent. The Victorians also championed social causes such as education, women's rights, and public health. Charles Darwin's theory of evolution challenged traditional beliefs, while the works of Dickens, Austen, and Brontë revolutionized literature.The Modern Period:The 20th century saw two world wars that profoundly reshaped Britain. The devastation of World War I led to the decline of the British Empire and the rise of the Labour Party. World War II brought the Blitz, the Battle of Britain, and theD-Day landings. After the war, Britain underwent a period of post-war social reform, including the establishment of the National Health Service and the Welfare State. The 21st century has seen the rise of multiculturalism, devolution, and Brexit, as Britain navigates its place in a globalized world.Conclusion:From the Roman conquest to the Brexit referendum, the history of Britain is a story of resilience, innovation, and endurance. The people of Great Britain have faced countlesschallenges over the centuries, but they have always risen to the occasion with courage and determination. As Britain continues to evolve in the 21st century, it is important to remember the lessons of the past and to honor the legacy of those who came before us. Britain's history is a testament to the power of human achievement and the enduring spirit of a proud nation.篇3The History of BritainIntroductionBritain, also known as Great Britain, is a country located in the northwestern part of Europe. It consists of England, Scotland, and Wales, with the United Kingdom including these three regions as well as Northern Ireland. The history of Britain spans over thousands of years, with numerous events and developments shaping the country into what it is today.Prehistoric BritainThe history of Britain can be traced back to the prehistoric era, with evidence of human occupation dating back to around 800,000 years ago. Some of the most famous prehistoric sites in Britain include Stonehenge and Avebury, which are believed tohave been built around 3000 BC. These ancient sites serve as a reminder of the early civilizations that once inhabited the region.Roman BritainOne of the most significant periods in British history is the Roman occupation of Britain, which began in 43 AD. The Romans established settlements and built roads, bridges, and fortifications throughout the country. They also introduced Christianity to Britain, which would later become the dominant religion. The Roman occupation lasted for nearly 400 years, leaving a lasting impact on the culture and society of Britain.The Anglo-Saxon EraAfter the Romans withdrew from Britain in the early 5th century, the country was invaded by Germanic tribes known as the Anglo-Saxons. These tribes established numerous kingdoms, including Wessex, Mercia, and Northumbria. The Anglo-Saxon era was characterized by warfare, political instability, and the spread of Christianity. This period laid the foundation for the emergence of the English language and culture.The Norman ConquestIn 1066, William the Conqueror, Duke of Normandy, invaded England and defeated the Anglo-Saxon king Harold II at theBattle of Hastings. This event marked the beginning of the Norman Conquest, with William establishing himself as the King of England. The Normans introduced feudalism, centralized government, and the Domesday Book, a detailed survey of land ownership in England. The Norman Conquest had a profound impact on the political and social structure of Britain.The Tudor DynastyThe Tudor dynasty, which ruled England from 1485 to 1603, is considered one of the most influential periods in British history. The Tudors were known for their significant achievements in the areas of exploration, literature, and the arts. The reign of Henry VIII saw the break from the Roman Catholic Church and the establishment of the Church of England. Elizabeth I, the last Tudor monarch, oversaw a golden age of culture and prosperity in England.The Industrial RevolutionThe Industrial Revolution, which began in Britain in the late 18th century, transformed the country from an agrarian society to an industrial powerhouse. The invention of the steam engine, the mechanization of textile production, and the development of new technologies revolutionized the economy and society ofBritain. The Industrial Revolution also led to urbanization, social change, and the rise of the working class.The British EmpireDuring the 19th and early 20th centuries, Britain established the largest empire in history, encompassing territories in North America, Africa, Asia, and Oceania. The British Empire played a significant role in shaping the global economy, politics, and culture. The empire also left a lasting legacy on the countries it ruled, influencing their institutions, languages, and traditions.World Wars and Postwar ReconstructionThe 20th century was marked by two devastating world wars that had a profound impact on Britain. World War I and World War II resulted in significant loss of life and destruction, as well as social and economic upheaval. The postwar period saw the rebuilding of Britain, the establishment of the welfare state, and the decolonization of the British Empire. Britain emerged as a welfare state with nationalized industries and an expanded welfare system.Modern BritainToday, Britain is a diverse and multicultural country with a rich history and heritage. The country has made significantcontributions to science, literature, music, and the arts. Britain is also a prominent member of the international community, with strong ties to Europe and the United States. The history of Britain continues to shape its identity and influence its future trajectory.ConclusionThe history of Britain is a tapestry of events, people, and developments that have shaped the country into what it is today. From prehistoric times to the present day, Britain has experienced numerous changes and transformations that have left a lasting impact on its society and culture. By studying the history of Britain, we can gain a deeper understanding of its past and appreciate the legacy that has been passed down through generations.。
abriefhistoryofBritain英国历史简述（精选五篇）第一篇：a brief history of Britain 英国历史简述A Brief History of Britainby Pam BarrettWhen French and British construction workers met beneath the English Channel in 1990, Britain became linked to Continental Europe for the first time in 7,000 years.For it was then, when the last Ice Age ended, that melting ice flooded the low-lying lands, creating the English Channel and the North Sea and turning Britain into an island.This fact of being “set apart” was one of the two seemingly contradictory factors which would affect every aspect of the country’s subsequent history.The other was a genius for absorbing every invader and immigrant, creating a mongrel breed whose energies would establish an empire incorporating a quarter of the population of the planet.Early settlers: Stone Age people arrived, probably from the Iberian peninsula, in around 3000 BC.They lived by farming but left few traces.The most dramatic ancient monument is Stonehenge in Wiltshire, built during the next 1,000 years.How and why it was built was a mystery, but it must have had religious and political significance.The Beaker people, named after their pottery, were next to arrive.But a more importance wave of immigration, in 700 BC, was that of the Celts from eastern and central Europe.The ancestors of the Highland Scots, the Welsh and the Irish, they left behind a rich legacy of intricate and beautiful metalwork.The Romans: British recorded history began when Julius Caesar first crossed the English Channel in 55 BC.Roman rule continued for nearly 400 years, failing to subjugate only Scottish tribes, whose raiding parties were contained by Emperor Hadrian who built adefended wall right across the north of England.Eventually, threatened by barbarians at the gates of Rome, they abandoned Britain, leaving behind them a network of towns, mostly walled, a superb road system, and a new religion, Christianity.The next wave of invaders from central Europe – Angles, Saxons and Jutes – gradually pushed the native Celts west into Wales and north into Scotland.Anglo-Saxon dominance, too, lasted for four centuries, though it did not extend to Scotland, where a separate kingdom was forged by the Picts and the Scots.Although the Anglo-Saxons were a ferocious bunch, constantly squabbling, they laid the foundations of the English state, dividing the country into shires and devising an effective farming system.Their Teutonic religion, worshipping gods such as Woden and Thor, eclipsed Christianity until, at the end of the 6th century, the monk Augustine(once heard to remark “O Lord, make me chaste, but not yet”)converted the kings and the nobles.Monasteries sprang up, becoming places of learning.Treasures contained in the monasteries were a lure for the Vikings, whose ruthless raids from across the North Sea began in the 9th century.Initially they were defeated at sea by Alfred the Great, founder of the British Navy, but eventually they too were assimilated.Canute, the Danish leader, became king of Britain.The Norman Conquest: Links with Normandy, the part of France settled by the Vikings, were strong, and in 1066 William, Duke of Normandy, claimed the English throne.His triumph at the battle of Hastings decisively changed English history.As W.C.Sellar and R.J.Yeatman put it in their classic humorous history 1066 And All That: “The Norman Conquest was a Good Thing, as from this time onwards England stopped being conquered and thus was able to become top nation.”William parceled out the land to barons in return for their loyalty, and the barons parceled out land in turn to lesser nobles in return for goods and services.At the bottom were the peasants, whose feudal status resembled slavery – hence the potency of the Robin Hood legend, celebrating the Nottingham outlaw who stole from the rich to give to the poor.Although much of the Norman kings’ energies were devoted to protecting their borders, there was a great flowering of Norman culture, producing many erudite historians and scholars.In 1167 Oxford University was founded.Thanks to the influence of William Shakespeare’s history plays, much of the next period of English history is popularly remembered through his view of the shifting alliances of the Plantagenet and Tudor kings who ruled from 1154 to 1547.During this period of conflict and disease –the Black Death alone killed nearly half the population in 1348-49 –the royal succession was by no means assured.Power struggles propelled to the throne those who could command the greatest military backing from the majority of the rival barons, a process vividly illustrated by the Wars of Roses, the tussles between the House of Lancaster and York between 1455 and 1485.Frequent strife with France(including the intermittent Hundred Years’ War from 1337 to 1453)dominated international relationships.Internally, Wales was subjugated by 1288, though Scottish independence was recognized when Robert Bruce defeated English forces at the Battle of Bannockburn in 1314.Britain’s most famous king, Henry VIII, is remembered not only for his six wives(two of whom he had beheaded)but also for bringing about the Reformation, making England a Protestant rather than a Catholic countr y.His quarrel centred on the Pope’s refusal to annul his marriage to Catherine of Aragon, who couldnot oblige him with a male heir.Doctrinal differences aside, however, Henry capitalized on a growing distaste for the church’s excessive privilege and wealt h, and was thus able to get away with seizing enough monastic lands and property to finance his rule.Under Henry, Wales was formally united with England in 1536.The Age of Elizabeth: England entered its Golden Age under Elizabeth I, Henry’s daughter by Ann e Boleyn.The Elizabethan Age has a swashbuckling ring to it: the Virgin Queen and her dashing courtiers;the defeat of the Spanish Armada;Sir Walter Raleigh’s discovery of tobacco in Virginia;Sir Francis Drake’s circumnavigation of the world.Poetry, plays a nd pageantry flourished during her 45-year reign.When Elizabeth, the “Virgin Queen”, died without an heir, the throne passed to James VI of Scotland, who became James I of England, inaugurating the Stuart dynasty and effectively joining together the two kingdoms.The Stuart period was one of conflict between Crown and Parliament.James I, a staunch believer in the Divine Right of Kings, would have preferred no Parliament at all, and Charles I dissolved Parliament and initiated an 11-year period of absolute rule.The upshot was a civil war from 1622 to 1649;Charles lost and was beheaded.A period of republicanism followed, under the rule of Oliver Cromwell, but after his death the monarchy was restored and prospered under Charles II.His brother, who succeeded him as James II, was less circumspect and tried to restore absolute monarchy and the Catholic religion.The newly emerging political parties, growing in confidence, forced him to flee and invited his daughter Mary and her Dutch husband, Prince William of Orang e, to take the throne.This “Glorious Revolution”, although bloodless, was nonetheless a revolution and paved the way for Parliament’s permanent dominance overthe Crown.In 1707 an Act of Union united England and Scotland, although Scotland was allowed to retain its own Church and legislature.Many Scots felt that the union was bulldozed through by English politicians’ intent on improving their international trade prospects, and Scottish pressure to unravel the union is still a political issue.Political pragmatism triumphed again in 1714 when, a reliable Protestant monarch being needed in a hurry, a search through the family tree came up with George I of Hanover in Germany.Although he spoke no English and had little interest in his subjects, he founded a dynasty which was to span 115 years and encompass an expanding empire and an industrial revolution.The age of empire: Despite the loss of its American colonies in 1783, Britain’s trade-driven adventurism was undiminished, giving it control of West Africa and India, Newfoundland and Nova Scotia, some Caribbean island, and Australia and New Zealand.At home, farmers embraced more efficient and profitable methods, which led to the eviction of many peasant farmers who either emigrated to the New World, carrying with them a resentment that would bequeathed to future generations, or left the land to find work in the towns, which rapidly became overcrowded.This combination of landowners with surplus capital to invest and laborers in search of a living was one reason why British became the first country to industrialize.Political stability helped too, as did the security of being an island, natural resources, good trade arrangements and a native genius for inventing things.The Scottish inventor James Watt modified and improved the steam engine in the 1770s, opening the way for the efficient powering of trains, ships and factory machinery.The invention of the Spinning Jenny and the power loom created mass production in textiles.The smelting ofiron with coke, instead of charcoal, hugely increased the production of iron.A massive building program of railways, roads and canals created a new class of industrialist, whose fortunes rivaled those of the aristocracy.But it also created abominable working conditions in mines and factories, conditions which led to the slow and painful development of trade unionism.Political reforms, seized elsewhere in Europe by revolution, came gradually in Britain.Parliamentary seats were distributed more fairly among the growing new towns, but voting was still based on property ownership and universal suffrage didn’t come until 1918(and even then was scarcely universal since it excluded women under 30).The problem that dominated parliamentary debate during this period was the intractable Irish Question.The resentment over centuries of British rule in Ireland bubbled to the surface after the potato famines of the mid-1840s, when about 20 percent of Ireland’s population died of starvation and more than a million people emigrated to escape a similar fate.Demands for Irish independence grew but they were demands which many English politicians, conscious of the security problems of having an independent and possibly none-too-friendly neighbor to their west, were reluctant to grant.As with today’s IRA campai gn, the debate had a backdrop of violence.T oday, however, the Victorian Age is remembered as a time of exuberant self-confidence, symbolized by the building in London of the Crystal Palace to showcase Britain’s industrial and technical achievements in the Great Exhibition of 1851.But many of London’s inhabitants might well have wondered when they would benefit from all these accomplishments.For them, the squalor and crime which Charles Dickens portrayed so evocatively in his novels were all too real.Working-class lifeimproved considerably during the last quarter of the 19th century.Many homes had gas lighting and streets were cleaned by the new municipal councils.A new police force contained crime.The music hall provided inexpensive entertainment in towns.Bicycles became a common method of transport, and a trip by train to seaside resorts was for many a highlight of summer.In London, trains in the world’s first underground railway began puffing their way through smoke-filled tunnels between Paddington and Farrington in 1863.Art and drama flourished.By the time of Queen Victoria’s Diamond Jubilee in 1897, the country was feeling quite pleased with itself.Britannia ruled the waves, and anything seemed possible.The 20th century: But all good things come to an end.The Boer War of 1900 ended in victory for the British in South Africa but damaged its international reputation.France, Germany and America were becoming powerful competitors for world markets.The newly united German state was flexing its military muscles.The Edwardian era of the early 20th century, seemingly an idyllic time, was built on shifting sands.Dragged into World War I by a complex web of international alliances, Britain faced unimaginable carnage in which more than a million of its young men died.Social unrest at the end of the war, though less devastating than in the defeated Germany, gave more power to women(who had shouldered a heavy burden while the men were at war)and led to a General Strike by dissatisfied workers in 1926.The Irish Question was partly answered with the creation of an independent Irish free State, but six Protestant-dominated counties in the north stayed under UK rule – a time bomb which exploded in 1969.The shock waves from the 1929 New York Stock Market crash plunged Britain into depression, throwing millionsout of work, especially in the industrial areas of northern England, south Wales and Clydeside in Scotland.The monarchy was rocked by crisis in 1936 when Edward VIII, who had just become king, decided to marry the twice-divorced Mrs Wallis Simpson.His family, the church and the government opposed the match, forcing him to abdicate.His brother, a reluctant George VI, restored the monarchy’s popularity, not least through the support which he and his wife Elizabeth(later the Queen Mother)gave to their subjects during the German air raids of World War II.Although Britain’s island status saved it from invasion, this war involved civilians in an unprecedented way.Cities like Coventry were devastated by bombing and the Blitz radically changed the face of London for the first time since the Great Fire of 1666.Many children were sent to live in the countryside.Most social inequalities were set aside during the war and, when peace returned in 1945, voters turned to the Labour party in hope that it could develop an even greater egalitarianism.It laid the basis of a welfare state, providing free medical care for everyone as well as financial help for the old, the sick and the unemployed.But the war had left Britain broke.While Germany and Japan rebuilt their industries almost from scratch, helped by international aid, Britain was left to patch together a severely damaged economy.It could no longer sustain an empire, and gradually its colonies became independent.Many former subjects, especially from the Caribbean and the Indian sub-continent, settled in Britain, raising fears of racial conflict that, despite some serious tensions, were never(quite)fulfilled.As the austere 1950s gave way to the ’60s, things started to look up.New universities were built, a motorway network launched, and a reinvigorated culture promoted by a group of writersdubbed “the angry young men”.Much of the explosion of new talent came from the north of England: actors like Albert Finney, playwrights like Alan Sillitoe, and pop groups galore, led by the Beatles.The swinging Sixties, powered by a newly affluent youth, had arrived.Britain’s heavy industry might be in trouble, but in fashion and pop music it led the world.The good times died in the 1970s as inflation and unemployment soared and labour unrest led to endless strikes.Joining the European Community in 1973 seemed to produce few obvious economic benefits and revenues from North Sea oil were quickly spent rather than invested.Margaret Thatcher came to power in 1979 promising tough new policies.Her popularity quickly faded, but was revived in 1982 by the Falklands War when an invading Argentinean force was beaten off the South Atlantic islands, remnants of the old empire.Although she went on to win two further elections convincingly, by 1990 her popularity, always firmer abroad than at home, was so shaky that her party, fearing that she would not win them the next election, replaced her with a less combative leader, John Major.He duly won the 1992 election, but a reinvigorated Labour Party under T ony Blair won in 1997.The overall problems did not change, though.The economy remained weak, distrust of the European Community did not abate, nationalism simmered in Wales and Scotland, the conflict in Northern Ireland dra gged on, and the Royal Family’s private life continued to obsess the tabloid press.It was business as usual, in fact – which, in a country obsessed by continuity, was immensely reassuring.第二篇：材料学的历史简述姓名：何莞晨学号：2014012075材料学的历史简述1.按材料划分的时代生活离不开材料，人类的一切生产活动所需的工具都建立在合适的材料的基础上。
