Chapter 6 Meaning 语义学

路漫漫其修远兮，吾将上下而求索- 百度文库Linguistics' notes第一周Chapter 1 Introduction .1. Definition of language*Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.●Language is a system.●Language is arbitrary.●Language is vocal.●Language is human-specific.2.Design features of language●Arbitrariness 任意性●Productivity 多产性●Duality 双重性●Displacement 移位性●Cultural transmission 文化传播性3.Functions of language(Halliday)●The ideational 概念功能to organize language user's experience of the word.●The interpersonal 人际功能to establish/maintain social relationship.●The textual 语篇功能to organize texts in a coherent and appropriate way.第二周1. Definition of linguistics*Linguistics studies not any particular language, but it studies languages in general.----general linguistics.Scientific study of language.2. The branches of linguistics●Phonetics语音学--the study of how speech sounds are produced and classified@研究发音，自然属性，无序的语音●Phonology音系学--the study of how sounds form systems and functions to convey meaning@研究音间联系，注重功能，有序的语音●Morphology形态学、词法--the study of the form off words@涉及词语的内部组织，研究词语的最小单位-语素●Syntax句法学--the study of how words and phrases are combined to form sentences@研究如何组词成句，形成、理解正确的句子●Semantics语义学--the study of meaning(in abstraction)@研究词语的意义如何在语音中编码●Pragmatics语用学--the study of meaning in context of use@特定情景中的特定话语的理解和运用●Historical linguistics历史语言学--the study of language change.●Sociolinguistics社会语言学--the study of language with reference to society●Psycholinguistics心理语言学--the study of language with reference to the working ofthe mind.●Applied linguistics应用语言学--the study of applying linguistic findings to the solutionof practical problems.@广义-实践，狭义-教学研究3.Some important distinctions in linguistics1)Prescriptive vs. DescriptivePrescriptive规定式--to aims to lay down rules for "correct and standard" verbal behaviour.@做规定Descriptive描写式--to describe and analyze the language people actually use.@写现象Modern linguistics is mostly descriptive.2）Synchronic vs. DiachronicSynchronic共时--the description of a language at some point of time in history.@语言在特定时间点上的研究Diachronic历时--the description of a language as it changes through time.@语言随时间演变的研究Modern linguistics is mainly synchronic.3)Speech vs. WritingModern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, written language as secondary.●Linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing;●the amount of information, speech is more than writing;●the learning of mother tongue, speech first,writing later.4)Langue and ParoleTheir distinction was made by the Swiss linguist F. De Saussure.Langue语言--the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.@抽象的。

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Chapter one Introduction1。

1什么是语言学1。

1.1定义语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language。

1。

1。

2The scope of linguistics语言学分支必考P2普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics。

The study of sounds， which are used in linguistic communication, is called phonetics。

（语音学）The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology. （音位学）The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words are called morphology。

（形态学)The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax （句法学)The study of meaning in language is called semantics。

1. Semantics(语义学)Semantics is the study of meaning of the linguistic units, words and sentences in particular. (语义学是对语言单位，尤其是词和句子的意义的研究。

)2. Meanings of “meaning”1). Meaning:Meaning refers to what a language expresses about the world we live in or any possible or imaginary world.（意义是指语言所表达的关于现实世界或者想象中的世界的想法。

）2). Connotation: （内涵）Connotation means the properties of the entity a word denotes.(内涵指的是一个词所指称的实体的特征。

)3). Denotation: （外延）Denotation involves the relationship between a linguistic unit and the non-linguistic entity to which it refers. Thus it is equivalent to referential meaning. (外延涉及语言单位与非语言实体之间的关系。

在这个意义上，它跟指称意义是一样的。

)3. The difference between meaning, concept, connotation, and denotationMeaning refers to the association of language symbols with the real world. There are many types of meaning according to different approaches.Concept is the impression of objects in people’s mind.Connotation is the implied meaning, similar to implication.Denotation, like sense, is not directly related with objects, but makes the abstract assumption of the real world.4. The referential theory1). DefinitionThe theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to, or stands for, is known as the referential theory.(把词语意义跟它所指称或代表的事物联系起来的理论，叫做指称理论)2). The semantic triangle （语义三角）Ogden and Richards presented the classic “Semantic Triangle” as manifested in the following diagram。

C h a p t e r1I n t r o d u c t i o n绪论what is linguistics?定义 definitionLinguistics is generally defined as scientific study of language.语言学的研究范畴 the scope of linguisticsa. The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics.把语言作为一个整体而进行的全面的语言学研究一般称为普通语言学。

b. The study of sounds used in linguistic communication led to the establishment of a branch oflinguistics called phonetics.语音学How speech sounds are produced and classified.c. how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication.how sounds form systems and function to convey meaning. phonology音位学/ 音系学交际中语音的组合规律及传达意义的方式d. The study of the way in which these symbols are arranged to form words has constituted the branchof study called morphology.形态学how morphemes are combined to form words.这些符号通过排列组合而成构成语词，对于这种排列组合方式的研究构成了语言学研究的另一个分支，如对形态学的研究。

语言学常用术语英汉对照表语言学常用术语英汉对照表Ｃhapter 1 Inｔｒodｕｃtion to Ling ｕistics语言学简介1、anthropoｌogical lingｕistics 人类语言学2、applied linguisｔics应用语言学3、arbitｒａrｉness任意性4、petence 语言能力５、putational ｌinguisｔics计算机语言学６、cultural tｒａnｓmｉssion 文化传递性7、dｅscrｉpｔivｅ(grammar) 描写(语法)８、dｅsｃriptive fｕｎctｉon描写功能9、deｓiｇn feａtuｒes识别特征１0、diａｃhronic linguistｉcs历时语言学11、dｕａlｉty二重性12、dｉｓplacｅment不受时空限制得特征13、emotive fuｎｃtiｏn表情功能１４、exｐrｅｓsivｅfuncｔioｎ表达功能1５、geneｒal linguisｉｔcs 普通语言学16、ｉdｅaｔioｎａl funｃtion概念功能1７、iｎtｅrｐｅｒｓoｎａl funｃtiｏn人际功能18、lanｇuｅ语言１9、ｌinguistiｃs [lｉ?'gwｉstｉks] 语言学２0、morphｏlｏgy 形态学２１、mａthemａtical lingｕistｉcs 数理语言学22、ｍetaliｎguistｉc fuｎcｔion23、neｕrologｉcaｌliｎｇｕｉsｔics 神经语言学24、ｐhonetｉcｓ语音学25、pｈonolｏgy 音系学2６、pragmaｔics 语用学2７、prｅscriptiｖｅ(grａmｍａｒ）规定(语法) 2８、ｐsychｏlｉnguｉsｔicｓ心理语言学２9、paｒole言语3０、ｐerformance语言运用31、pｒodｕctivｉty能产性32、pｏetic funｃtioｎ诗学功能3３、phatic mｕniｏn 交感性谈话34、reｆerentｉal fｕncｔion所指功能35、semanｔiｃs语义学3６、ｓｏciａl functiｏｎ社会功能37、socio-ｌiｎguistics 社会语言学３８、synchｒoniｃlingｕistiｃs共时语言学39、syntax句法学40、textｕal funcｔiｏn语篇功能41、Tｒaｄiｔional Gｒamｍar传统语法Chapｔer 2 Phoｎｏlｏｇy 音系学1、ａcouｓtｉcｐhonｅtics声学语音学2、ａrticｕlatｏｒy pｈonetｉｃs发音语音学３、affricate破擦音4、aｌlｏpｈonｅ音位变体5、aｌveolａr齿龈音6、aｕditoｒy pｈonetｉｃs听觉语音学7、ａsｐｉｒaｔiｏn送气８、assｉmｉlatioｎrules同化现象9、bａck vowel后元音１0、ｂilabｉal双唇音1１、broad tranｓcriptiｏn宽式音标１2、central voweｌ中元音13、clｏse vowel闭元音14、ｐlemeｎtaｒｙdｉstriｂｕtioｎ互补分布15、ｄｅlｅtｉon rｕles省略规则16、deｎtaｌ齿音17、diｐhthｏnｇ双元音１8、friｃative摩擦音1９、ｆront vowｅl前元音２0、gliｄe滑音21、glｏｔtal声门音22、hard palate硬腭２３、InteｒnａtionａlＰhonetｉcs Ａｌpｈabｅt国际音标24、intoｎation语调２5、labｉｏdenｔaｌ唇齿音26、liquid流音２7、mａnner oｆartｉｃｕｌａｔｉon发音方式28、ｍinｉmal pａir 最小对立体2９、mｉｎｉmaｌseｔ最小对立组３0、mｏnｏpｈtｈong单元音３1、narｒow trａnscription严式音标32、nasaｌ鼻音3３、nａsaｌcaｖity鼻腔3４、open ｖｏｗｅl开元音35、oral caｖｉty口腔３6、ｐalatal硬腭37、ｐｈａryngeaｌcａvity咽腔3８、plaｃe of artｉcｕlatiｏｎ发音部位39、phoｎｅ因素4０、phｏnｅｍe音素41、phｏnemic ｃoｎtｒast音位对立42、rounded vowel元唇元音43、seｍi－ｃlose vowel半闭元音4４、semi－ｏpenｖoｗel半开元音45、ｓｅquｅｎtial ｒuｌes序列规则４６、segment切分成分4７、ｓegmenｔation切分４8、soft paｌate软腭49、stop塞音50、stｒesｓ重音51、suprasegｍentａｌfeaｔuｒes超切分特征5２、teeth riｄgｅ齿龈5３、ｔoｎe声调5４、unrounｄed ｖoｗeｌ非圆唇元音５5、uｖuｌa小舌56、veｌaｒ软腭音５7、vｅｌｕｍ软腭58、ｖoicｉnｇ浊音化Ｃhａpter 3 Ｍoｒpｈology 形态学１、affiｘ词缀2、allomorpｈ语素变体3、ｂasｅ词基4、bound morphｅmｅ黏着语素5、ｌexｉcｏｎ词汇6、closed clａｓsｗoｒｄs封闭词类7、pound ｗords 合成词８、derivａtion派生;派生过程9、ｄerivationａl morphｅm派生语素１０、free moｒpｈeｍe自由语素11、inｆlectiｏnalｍorphemｅ屈折语素12、infinitｉｖe markｅr不定式标记１３、morph形素14、moｒpｈoｌｏgical rｕｌes形态规则15、open clasｓwｏrdｓ开放词类1６、root词根１7、sｔeｍ词干Chapter 4Synｔax 句法学１、ａuｘiliary助动词2、caｔegory范畴3、plement补足语;补充成分4、pｌｅment clause补足分句5、ｃｏordｉnaｔioｎruｌe并列规则6、cｏordinａｔe struｃtｕre并列结构7、deep stｒuctｕre深层结构8、deterｍiｎer限定词９、head中心词1０、head movemｅnt中心词移位11、insertion插入１2、inverｓｉon倒装1３、ｍajoｒlexiｃal categｏries主要词汇范畴14、matrｉx clａuse主句15、minor lｅxiｃａl categories次要词汇范畴16、phrase stｒuｃturｅ短语结构1７、mｏｄifier修饰成分18、ｑｕalifier后置修饰成分19、ｓpecifiｅr标志语20、sｕbcategoｒizａtion次范畴化21、surfaｃe struｃture表层结构２2、sｙnｔactic category句法范畴２３、trace语迹2４、trａnｓfoｒｍation转换Chapｔeｒ５Seｍａnｔiｃｓ语义学1、antonｙmy反义现象2、ａrgumenｔ谓元；变元3、behａｖiorism行为主义4、co－hypoｎym并列下义词5、colloｃationaｌｓynｏｎym搭配同义词6、ｐlｅmenｔａrｙaｎtoｎyｍ互补反义词7、ｐletｅhｏmｏnｙm完全同形异义词8、pｏｎentiａl analyｓｉs成分分析9、coｎceptualist ｖｉew概念论１０、ｃonｔexｔuａlism语境主义11、ｃontradiｔioｎ自相矛盾得说法1２、ｄｉalectal syｎｏｎym方言同义词1３、emoｔｉｖe ｍｅaｎing情感意义１4、entailｍeｎt蕴含15、eｖａluatｉve mｅaninｇ评价意义1６、graｄable antonym层级反义词１７、homogrａph同形异义词１8、ｈoｍonyｍy同音同形异义关系19、homophonｅ同音异义词20、ｈｙpｏnｙm下义词21、hｙｐonymｙ下义关系22、inｃoｎsｉsteｎcy自相矛盾２3、ｐolｙｓemy多义关系２４、polysymous word多义词25、ｐresuｐｐｏsitｉoｎ预设26、predicatｉｏn anａlysis述谓分析27、predicａtｅ谓词28、nａminｇtheｏry命名论２9、nｏ－plａce preｄicaitoｎ空位述谓解耦股３０、one－ｐlacｅprediｃａtiｏn一位述谓结构31、referencｅ（所指）语义32、referｅnt所指物;所指对象3３、ｒｅlａtiｏｎal opｐosｉｔe关系反义词34、semantic trｉanｇle语义三角35、sense意义３６、sｔyｌｉstic syｎonym语体同义词37、suｐｅｒorｄｉnatｅ上坐标词3８、sｙmboｌ符号3９、ｓynonyｍ同义词40、synonymy同义关系4１、ｔwo-plaｃe prｅdiｃaiton二位述谓结构42、tｈree-plａｃe predｉｃaｔion三位述谓结构Chaｐteｒ6 Prａgmａtics语用学１、mｉｓｓives承诺类２、CｏｏpｅrativeＰrinciple合作原则3、cｏnstatives述事话语４、conｔexｔ语境5、cｏnventioｎａl impｌicaturｅ规约含义６、ｄecｌaｒationｓ宣告类７、direｃｔives指令类8、ｅxpressｉves表情类9、ｉllocｕtｉoｎarｙacｔ言外功能10、illｏcｕｔiｏnary ｐoiｎt言外之得1１、impｌicature蕴含；含义;会话含义；言外之意１２、inｄirecｔsｐeech ａｃt间接言语行为１３、ｌocuｔioｎary act言内行为1４、maxiｍofｒｅlation关系准则1５、mａｘimｏf manner方式准则16、mａxim of quality质准则１7、maｘiｍoｆquantity量准则18、particｕlariｚed cｏｎveｒｓａtiｏｎal ｉmpｌicatuｒe特殊会话含义１9、pｅｒfomatives行事话语20、perｌｏcutiｏnarｙact言后行为21、ｐreｓupｐoｓｉｔiｏｎ前提2２、prｉmaｒｙspeecｈact 主要言语行为23、represenｔatiｖes表述类24、secondary speecｈacｔ次要言语行为25、sentｅnｃe ｍeａniｎg句子意义26、ｓpeｅcｈacｔtheorｙ言语行为理论27、ｕｔterance meanｉng话语意义Chaｐｔｅr 7 LangｕaｇｅChaｎｇe语言变化1、acronｙｍｓ词首字母缩略词2、back-formatiｏn 逆成法3、bleｎdｉng混成法4、borrowｉｎg借词5、cｌipped ｗoｒｄs截略词6、coiｎagｅ创新词7、functionaｌshift功能性变化8、histoｒical ｌinguistics历史语言学９、MｉdｄleＥnｇｌisｈ中世纪英语10、Modern English现代英语1１、mｏrpｈologiｃalｃhange形态变化１２、neｇation rule否定规则13、Ｏｌd Eｎglｉｓh古英语１4、pｈonｏlｏｇical ｃｈaｎｇｅ音位变化15、seｍantic cｈange语义变化16、semａntｉｃshift语义转移17、syntａcｔｉc cｈａngｅ句法变化Cｈapter 8 Languageａｎd socieｔy语言与社会1、bilｉngｕaliｓm双语制2、Bｌack Englｉsｈ黑人英语3、creolｅ克里奥尔语４、diｇloｓsia双语；双言制５、eｔhnｉc dｉalect种族变体６、fｉｅld of ｄｉｓcouｒｓe语场7、gｅndｅr性别8、ｉｄioleｃt个人变体９、mode oｆdｉscourse语式10、mulｔilinguａｌism多语制11、pidｇiｎ洋泾浜语12、rｅgiｏｎaｌｄiａｌect地域方言13、rｅgｉsｔer语域14、sociｏlｅｃt社会变体15、speecｈmunｉtｙ言语社团１６、sｐeｅch vaｒiety言语变体17、ｔeｎor of disｃoｕｒｓe语旨Chａpter ９Laｎｇuage ａnｄcultｕre语言与社会1、ａccｕｌturａtion 同化过程2、amａｌgamation混合3、ａssimｉｌatioｎ同化(现象);同化(作用)4、connoｔａtivｅｍｅaｎing内涵意义５、colｏur words颜色词6、culturaｌoverｌａｐ文化重叠7、culturaｌｉmｐerｉalisｍ文化帝国主义８、denotaｔiｖe meanｉnｇ外延意义9、ｌingｕｉsｔｉc ｒelatiｖity语言相对性１0、ｍeｔａｐhor隐喻1１、Sａｐir-Ｗhorf Hypoｔhesis萨丕尔——沃尔夫假说12、ｓocｉalizatｉｏn社会化13、ｔabｏo禁忌语1４、inｔeｒｃulｔural municaｔioｎ跨文化交际15、linguisｔiｃｉmpｅrialiｓm语言学中得帝国主义16、ｌiｎguｉstｉcｎaｔionaliｓm语言学中得民族主义Chapter 10 Ｌangｕａge aｃquisiｔｉoｎ语言习得1、ａphasｉa失语症2、ｂeｈａviｏrｉst 行为主义者3、caretaｋer ｔalk保姆式语言4、cogniｔivｅｌiｎｇuｉsticｓ认知语言学５、ｃoｎｔeｎt worｄ实词6、Critical ＰｅrioｄＨypotｈｅsis临界期假说7、ｄｙｓｇrａphia书写困难８、dyslexｉa失读症9、ｆeｅdback反馈１０、fuｎｃtion eleｍent起功能作用成分1１、ｈｅaring impaｉｒment听力受损1２、innaｔist语法天生主义者１3、iｎterａctiｏnist互动主义者1４、LanguａgｅＡcquｉsｉｔiｏn Ｄｅviｃe语言习得机制15、lexicaｌcontrasｔ词汇对比16、mentａl retａrdation智障1７、mothｅreｓe保姆式语言18、over－extｅnsiｏn过度扩展19、ｐｒototｙpe theorｙ原型理论2０、recast修正性重复２1、stｕtterｉng口吃22、ｔeleｇｒaphｉc speecｈ电报式言语23、under-extensｉon扩展不足2４、Uｎｉｖeｒｓａl Grammar普遍语法Ｃhapter 1１Ｓecond ｌanguagｅacquiｓitｉon第二语言习得１、affｅct/ｓocial ｓtratｅgieｓ社会策略2、ａgｅｏｆacqｕiｓｉtion习得年龄3、cognｉｔivｅstｒaｔegｉｅs认知策略4、pｒehｅnsiblｅｉnｐｕt可理解性输入5、Consｔrａstive Aｎaｌｙsis对比分析6、cｒosｓ-aｓsociatioｎ互相联想7、Erｒor Aｎａlysiｓ错误分析8、foｒｅｉｇn laｎguage外语9、foreｉgner talk外国人谈话1０、ｆossiliｚａtion语言石化(现象)１1、Input Hｙｐothesiｓ输入假说12、ｉnstrumental moｔiｖatｉｏｎ工具动机１3、intａke 纳入14、inteｇratｉvｅmoｔivation综合动机15、inteｒference干扰１6、iｎterlaｎguａｇｅ中介语17、ｉｎterlinguａl ｅｒｒors语际错误;受母语影响得错误18、Ｉntraｌiｎguａl eｒror语内错误1９、ｉｎtrinsic motivaｔion内在动机２0、ｉnｔｕiｔion知觉;语感２1、learｎeｒｌaｎｇｕage学习者语言22、learｎing ｓtrategieｓ学习策略23、languａge aｐtitude语言能力２4、lanｇｕａgeｔransｆｅｒ语言迁移2５、meｔacogｎitiｖe strａtｅｇｉes元认知策略26、mｏtivatｉon动机２7、moｄifｉed iｎput修改后得输入２８、ｍodifiｅd ｉntｅｒaction变化性得互动2９、negatｉve traｎsfer消极迁移;负迁移３0、ｏveｒgeneralizaｔion概括过头31、personaｌitｙ人格;性格;个性3２、positｉve transfer积极迁移；正迁移33、ｒｅｓｕlｔaｔｉｖｅmoｔivation结果动机34、secoｎｄlanguage第二语言35、seconｄlanguage acｑｕiｓiｔioｎ第二语言习得36、teacher talk教师谈话37、target languａge目标语Ｃｈａpter 12Language and tｈe brain 语言与大脑１、aｃquired dysgrapｈia习得性书写障碍2、ａcqｕiｒｅd dｙｓｌexｉa习得性失读症3、angular gyrｕｓ隅骨4、auｔopsy stｕdies尸检研究5、braｉn stｅｍ脑干6、Ｂroｃa’s aphasia布罗卡失语症7、Ｂrｏca’s area布罗卡区8、ｂｏttom-ｕp prｏcｅssinｇ自下而上处理过程ｃerｅbruｍ大脑9、ｃentral ｓulcus中央沟10、ｃerebｅllｕm小脑脑向背侧突出得一个较大得部分,尤与肌肉得共济运动与维持身体平衡有关11、cerebrａl hemisｐhere大脑半球12、cohort modｅl交股模型１3、pｕtarized Ａxial Tomograｐhｙ计算机化轴向层面X射线摄影法1４、corpus(语言)素材15、ｃｏｒpｕｓcａｌlosuｍ胼胝体1６、cｏrｔex大脑皮层17、dｅep dｙslexiａ深层诵读困难18、Diｃhotｉc lｉsｔeniｎg studiｅs双耳分听实验19、eｖeｎt－ｒelaｔed potentｉａl ｅxperiｍent2０、eye movｅｍenｔｅxpｅriment眼动实验21、fissure裂缝;裂隙22、flueｎt apｈasia流利性失语症２3、frontａl lobｅ额叶(大脑半球得前部,其下部位于颅前窝,后界中央沟24、Funcｔiｏnal MＲI功能磁共振成像25、garden path sentence花园路径句26、global ａpｈasia整体性失语症２7、gyruｓ回2８、hieｒａｒｃhiｃal strｕｃtｕre层级结构29、late closure ｐrincｉpｌe后封闭原则;晚封闭原则30、lateral fisｓurｅ侧脑裂31、lａｔｅrａliｚａtiｏn侧化32、leｓion损害33、lexｉcaｌdｅciｓion词汇判断;词汇确定法3４、lｏbes叶,身体器官得由表面得沟裂分出得部分３５、lｏngiｔuｄinaｌfissurｅ纵裂36、MagnetｉｃResonａｎce Iｍａｇing磁共振成像37、neｕｒon神经细胞,神经元3８、mｉnimaｌａｔｔachment priｎｃiｐle最低限度结合原则３９、modｕle模块；组块40、non－flueｎt ａpｈasiａ失语症４1、oｃcipｉtal lobe枕叶大脑半球得后叶,呈三面得锥形, 与前方得顶叶与下方得颞叶没有明显得界限４2、ｐａrietal ｌobe顶叶Pｏsitron emiｓsｉon Toｍｏｇｒa ｐhy正电子发射X射线层析照相术;计算机辅助正电子发射断层扫描技术43、phoｌogicaｌdyｓｌeｘｉa拼音性失读症４4、primiｎg启动45、primiｎg eｆｆeｃt启动效应46、ｐｒiming eｘpeｒiment启动实验４7、right eaｒadvantａgｅ右耳优势;右耳听力强48、ｓelｅctional restｒictｉoｎ选择限制49、sentencｅａｍbiguiｔy句子歧义５０、“Sｏdｉｕm Ａmyｓtaｌ“Ｔest阿米妥纳实验Spoone ｒiｓｍ斯本内现象51、spliｔbrain ｓtudｉｅs裂脑研究52、sｕｌｃｕs沟53、suｒface dyｓlexia浅层诵读困难54、syntａｃtic pａrｓer句法处理器55、tｅｍpoｒａｌlobe颞叶56、ｔimed-ｒeａding ｅxｐeｒiment限时阅读实验57、top-dｏｗn ｐrocｅsｓinｇ自上而下处理过程58、Werniｃke’s apｈａsia韦尼克失语症。

Exercises for the test of linguisticsThere are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that best complete the statement.Chapter 1 Introduction1.The study of language as a whole is often called ________ linguistics.A.particularB.generalC.ordinaryD.generative2.Traditional grammar regards the ________ form of language as primary, not thespoken form.A. oralB. writtenC. writingD. vocal3. The description of a language at some point in time is a ________ study.A. synchronic 限于一时的B. diachronic 历时的C. historicalD. comparative4.According to F. de Saussure, ________ refers to the abstract linguistic systemshared by all the members of a speech community.A.paroleB.performancengue 语言nguage5. Language is arbitrary in that there is no logical connection between meanings and________.A. wordsB. soundsC. objectsD. ideas6. Which of the following isn‟t the design features of human language?A. arbitrarinessB. performanceC. dualityD. displacement7. The core of linguistics excludes ________.A. semantics n.语义学B. morphology 形态学C. phonetics 语音(学)D. psycholinguistics 语言心理学Chapter 2 Phonology语音体系1.________ is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world‟s languages.A.PhonologyB.PhoneticsC.MorphologyD.Phonemics2.Acoustic phoneticians try to describe the ________ properties of the stream ofsounds which a speaker issues.A.oralB.mentalC.physicalD.recorded3.The sounds produced without the vocal cords vibrating are ________ sounds.A.V oicelessB.voiced ,浊音的C.vowelD.consonantal 辅音的,4.[p] is a voiceless bilabial双唇音的________.A.affricateB.fricativeC.stopD.liquid5.________ aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns andhow these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.A.LinguisticsB.PhoneticsC.Phonology音位学D.Articulatory phonetics6. A ________ is not a sound; it is a collection of distinctive phonetic features.A.phonemeB.phoneC.soundD.speech7.The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phoneticenvironments are called the ________ of that phoneme.A.phonesB.soundsC.phonemesD.allophones8.________ is a typical tone language.A.EnglishB.ChineseC.FrenchD.American EnglishChapter 3 Morphology形态学1.Morphology refers to the ________ of words.A.scienceB.formC.historyD.system2.The smallest meaningful unit of language is ________.A.morpheme词素B.phoneC.phonemeD.allomorpheme3.The word “boyish” contains two ________.A.phonemesB.morphsC.morphemesD.allomorphs4.________ morphemes are those that cannot be used independently but have to becombined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.A.FreeB.BoundC.RootD.Affix5.Morphemes that represent “tense”, “number”, “gender”, “case”and so forth arecalled ________ morphemes.A.inflectionalB.independentC.freeD.derivational6.________ modify the meaning of the stem, but usually do not change the part ofspeech of the original word.A.Prefixes前缀B.Suffixes后缀C.RootsD.Affixes 词缀7.In English “-ise” and “-tion” are called ________.A.prefixesB.suffixesC.infixes中缀D.free morphemes8.There are rules that govern which affix can be added to what type of ________ toform a new word.A.rootB.affixC.stemD.word9.The words such as “lab” and “doc” are ________.A.formed by blendingB.acronyms首字母缩略词C.coined by back-formation .逆构词逆构法D.clipped words省略词,截短词(省略开首或末尾部分,如flu代表influenza)10.The compound word “running dog” should be pronounced ________, when itmeans “a person who follows others blindly”.A.running …dogB.…running ,dog重音在running上，次重音在dog上C.…running …dogD.,running …dogChapter 4 Syntax句法1.Syntax is the study of the interrelationships between elements of sentencestructure and of the rules governing the way words are ________ to form sentences in a language.A.analyzedB.examinedC.linkedD.arranged2.________ lexical categories are open categories in the sense that new words areconstantly added.A.Minor Minor lexical categories are closed categoriesB.MajorC.AllD.None of the above3.NP and ________ are essential components of a sentence.A.VPB.PPC.APD.CP4.The two clauses in a ________ sentence are structurally equal parts of thesentence.A.simplepleteplexD.coordinate 并列句5.The embedded clause内嵌句in a complex sentence is normally called ________clause.A.a subordinate从句B. a mainC. a matrixD.a major6.Transformational grammar is a type of grammar first proposed by ________ inthe mid-1950s.A.SaussureB.BloomfieldC.ChomskyD.Halliday7.The rules that group words and phrases to form grammatical sentences are called________ rules.A.lexicalB.structuralC.coordinatebinational8.________ can generate an infinite number of sentences.A.Phrase structure rules 短语结构规则B.Movement rulesC.Syntactic rulesD.None of the aboveChapter 5 Semantics语义学1.Semantics can be defined as the study of ________.A.wordsB.meaningmunicationD.context2.Sense relates to the complex system of relationships that hold between thelinguistic elements themselves (mostly words); it is concerned with _________ relations.A.extra-linguisticB.intra-linguisticC.non-linguisticD.multi-linguistic3.Reference deals with the relationship between the linguistic elements (words,sentences, etc) and the ________ of experience.A.extra-linguisticB.intra-linguisticC.non-linguisticD.multi-linguistic4.Two words that are opposite in meaning are called ________.A.Synonyms 同义词B.Homonyms n.同形同音异义词C.Antonyms 反义词D.homophones同音异义词5.The pair of words “wide / narrow” are called ________.A.gradable oppositesplementary antonymsC.co-hyponymsD.relational opposites6.What is the meaning relationship between the two words “flower/ rose”?A.Polysemy 多义关系B.Synonymy 同义关系C.Hyponymy 上下义关系D.Antonymy 反义关系7.The words “railway” and “railroad” are ________.A.emotive synonymsB.dialectal synonymsC.stylistic synonymsD.collocational synonyms8.The same word may have more than one meaning, which is called ________.A.synonymyB.homonymyC.hyponymyD.polysemy9.The pair of words “lend” and “borrow” are ________.A.gradable antonymsB.relational oppositesplementary antonymsD.none of the above10.The way to analyze sentence meaning is called ________ analysis.ponentialB.predicationC.syntacticD.logicalChapter 6 Pragmatics 语用学1.Linguists found that it would be impossible to give an adequate description ofmeaning if ________ of language use was left unconsidered.A.brevity简洁B.context语境C.accuracy 准确(性)D.none of the above2.If a sentence is regarded as what people actually utter in the course ofcommunication, it becomes ________.A.a sentenceB.an actC. a unitD.an utterance 话语3.________ act theory is an important theory in the pragmatic study of language.A.SpeakingB.SpeechC.SoundD.Spoken4.One of the contributions Searle has made is his classification of ________ acts.A.locutionaryB.illocutionaryC.perlocutionaryD.speech5.Of the three speech act, linguistics are most interested in the ________.A.locutionary actB.perlocutionary actC.illocutionary act 语言外表现行为D.none of the above6.Most of the violation of the maxims of the CP give rise to ________.A.utterance meaningB.speech act theoryC.conversational implicaturesD.all of the above7.The significance of Grice‟s CP lies in that it explains how it is possible for thespeaker to convey ________ is literally said.A.more thanB.less thanC.the same asD.none of the aboveChapter 7 Language Change1.We may use the term ________ instead of historical linguistics as a way ofreferring to the approach which studies language change over various period of time and at various historical stages.A.diachronic linguisticsB.synchronic linguisticsC.sociolinguisticsD.psycholinguistics2.An important set of extensive sound changes affecting vowels, known as the GreatV owel Shift, occurred at the end of the ________.A.Old English periodB.Middle English periodC.Modern English periodD.Middle ages3.The most widely-spread morphological changes in the historical development ofEnglish are the loss and addition of ________.A.prefixesB.suffixesC.affixesD.case markings4.The most dramatic morphological loss concerns the loss of ________.A.gender markingsB.case markingsC.tense markingsD.both A and B5.The most vigorous and on-going change in the historical development of alanguage is the change in its ________.A.soundB.vocabularyC.morphological systemD.syntax6.The most obvious way in which Modern English differs lexically from OldEnglish is in the number of borrowed words from other languages, particular from ________.tinB.FrenchC.GreekD.German7.Chinese, the most popular language of the world, belongs to the ________ family.A.Indo-EuropeanB.Sino-TibetanC.AustronesianD.AfroasiaticChapter 8 Language and Society1.The goal of ________ is to explore the nature of language variation and languageuse among a variety of speech communities and different social situations.A.psycholinguisticsB.sociolinguisticsC.historical linguisticsD.general linguistics2.The situation in which two or more languages are used side by side is referred toas ________.A.diglossia 双语双语制B.bilingualism 双语现象C.pidginizationD.blending3. A linguistic ________ refers to a word or expression that is prohibited by the“polite” society from general use.A.slangB.euphemism 委婉语C.jargon 行话; 黑话; 隐语,行业术语D.taboo禁忌4. A ________ is a mild, indirect or less offensive word or expression substitutedwhen a speaker or writer fears more direct wording might be harsh, unpleasantly direct, or offensive.A.linguistic tabooB.euphemismC.address termD.pidgin5.In normal situations, ________ speakers tend to use more prestigious forms thantheir ________ counterparts with the same social background.A.female; maleB.male; femaleC.old; youngD.young; old6.In general, language characteristic of ________ register is more often used in thewritten form than in the spoken form.rmalB.formalC.neutralD.none of the above7.It is ________ for individuals to be a perfect user of two languages in a full rangeof situations.monB.rareC.impossibleD.none of the aboveChapter 9 Language and Brain1.________ deals with how language is acquired, understood, and produced.A.Sociolinguistics社会语言学B.Psycholinguistics语言心理学C.Neurolinguistics神经语言学D.Anthropological linguistics 人类语言学2.The left hemisphere of human brain is responsible for the functions of ________.nguage and speechB.calculationC.analytic reasoning and associative thoughtD.all of the above3.________ refers to the localization of cognitive and perceptual functions in aparticular hemisphere of the brain.nguage lateralizationB.Brain lateralization大脑的侧化C.Right ear advantageD.None of the above4.The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis is about ________.nguage and thoughtnguage and translationC.grammatical structureD.second language acquisition5.Linguistic ________ is the brain‟s neurological specialization for language.A.determinism决定论B.relativism相对论petenceteralization(尤指脑部的)偏侧性,偏侧优势,偏利6.The ________ age for the acquisition of the first language coincides with theperiod of brain lateralization.A.youngB.oldC.criticalD.flexibleChapter 10 Language Acquisition1.The study of language development over a period of time is generally termed as________.A.appliedB.diachronicparativeD.synchronic2.In general, language acquisition refers to children‟s development of their________ language of the community in which a child has been brought up.A.firstB.secondC.thirdD.foreign3.________ is defined as a conscious process of accumulating knowledge of asecond language usually obtained in school setting.A.AcquisitionB.LearningC.StudyingD.Acquirement4.________ transfer is a process that is more commonly known as interference.A.IntentionalB.PositiveC.NegativeD.Interrogative5.________ was believed to be the major source of difficulties experienced anderrors made by L2 learners.A.TransferB.Positive transferC.Negative transferD.Overgeneralization6.________ approach shows that there are striking similarities in the ways in whichdifferent L2 learners acquire a new language.A.TransferB.InterferenceC.Contrastive AnalysisD.Error Analysis7.During the process of SLA, a learner constructs a series of internal representationsthat comprises the learner‟s interim knowledge of the target language, this is ________.A.interlanguageB.first languageC.second languageD.foreign language8.The optimum age for SLA is ________.A.childhoodB.early teensC.teensD.adulthood9.Which of the following isn‟t a factor that may influence SLA?A.ageB.motivationC.personalityD.sex10.Which stages does the child belong to according to the development of thegrammatical system when we heard his saying like “No heavy,”“No eat,”“He no bite you,” etc.?A.the development of phonologyB.the development of syntax n. 1.句法;句法规则〔分析〕C.the development of morphology n.形态学(尤指动植物形态学或词语形态学)，形态论the development of vocabulary and semantics语义学11。

Chapter 1: Introduction1.Linguistics:语言学It is generally defined as the scientific study of language.( Linguistics studies not any particular language ,but it studies language in general)2.General linguistics:普通语言学The study of language as a whole is called general linguistics.(language is a complicated entity with multiple layers and facets )nguage:Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.4.descriptive (描述性):A linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use.5.prescriptive(规定性): It aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard”　behaviors.i.e. what they should say and what they should not to say.6.synchronic(共时语言学): the description of language at some point of timein hiatory7.diachronic (历时语言学):the description of language as it changes throughtime3) speech（口语）Writing（书面语）These the two media of communication. Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. (speech is prior to writing)ngue(语言): refers to abstract linguistic system shared by all the membersof the speech community.It is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to abideby. Such as: In English sentence must have subject and predicate.9.parole(言语):refers to the realization of langue in actual use.It is concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules. (Saussure )petence(语言能力): the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language11.performance(语言应用):the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. (Chomsky)traditional grammar and modern linguistics1.linguistics is descriptive,while traditional grammar is prescriptive2.modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary,not the writer.3. also in that it does not force languages into a latin-based framework.Functions of language.1.the descriptive function.2. the expressive function3.the social functionChapter 2: Phonology音系学phonetics:the study of the phonic medium of language;it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’ s languages9.The three branches of phonetics(1).Articulatory phonetics (发音语音学) (longest history)(2.)Auditory phonetics（听觉语音学）(3)Acoustic phonetics (声学语音学）2. Speech organs: three important areas⑴Pharyngeal cavity咽腔---- the throat;⑵The oral cavity口腔---- the mouth;⑶Nasal cavity –鼻腔--- the nose.The principle source such modifications is the tongue.The tongue is the most flexible.International Phonetic Alphabet [IPA]:the basic principle of the IPA isusing one letter selected from major European languages to represent onespeech sound.Broad transcription宽式音标. The transcription of speech sounds with lettersymbols only.Narrow transcription窄式音标The transcription of speech sound with letterssymbols and the diacritics.Aspirated and unaspirated1). phonology: 音系学It aims to discover how speech sounds in a language formpatterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguisticcommunication.4. Phone, phoneme, allophoneA phone音素is a phonetic unit or segment.The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication areall phones. Phones do not necessarily distinguish meaning, some do, somedon’t, e.g. [ bI:t ] & [ bIt ], [spIt] & [spIt].A phoneme音位is a phonological unit;it is a unit of distinctive value; an abstract unit, not a particular sound, but it isrepresented by a certain phone in certain phonetic context, e.g. the phoneme/p/ can be represented differently in [pIt], [tIp] and [spIt].Allophones音素变体---- the phones that can represent a phoneme indifferent phonetic environmentssequential rule,⑴Sequential rule(序列规则): rule governing the combination of sounds in aparticular language.⑵Assimilation rule（同化规则）: rule assimilating one sound to another bycopying features of sequential phoneme,thus making the two phones similar.⑶Deletion rule（省略规则）: rule governing the deletion of a sound in acertain phonetic context although it is represented in spelling.6. Suprasegmental features（超切分特征）⑴StressWord stress and sentence stress⑵Tone声调Tones are pitch variations,which are caused by the differing rates of vibrationof the vocal cords.English is not a tone language, but Chinese is.⑶Intonation语调When pitch, stress and length variations are tied to the sentence rather thanto the word, they are collectively known as intonation.English has three types of intonation that are most frequently used:falling tone (matter of fact statement)rising tone (doubts or question)the fall-rise tone (implied message)the frise-fall tone (not frequently used)For instance, “That’s not the book he wants.Chapter 3: Morphology1). Morphology形态学: refers to the the study of the internal structure of wordsand the rules by which words are formed2). Morpheme词素: It is the smallest meaningful unit of language.3). Free morpheme自由词素:a morpheme can be a word by itself.4). Bound morpheme.黏着词素: a morpheme that must be attached to anotherone.5). Allmorphs词素变体:the variant forms of a morphemeChapter 4: SyntaxSyntax句法学: Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies the rules thatgovern the formation of sentences.Word-level categories1,Major lexical categories2. minor lexical categoriesTo determine a word’s categorie,three critera are usually employed1.meaning2.inflection3.distribution.Phrase:syntactic units that are built around a centain word categorycomplementizers words which introduce the sentence complementcomplement clause the sentence introduced by the cmomplementizersD-structure:formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head’ssubcategorization propertiesS-structure:corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence whichresults form appropriate transformation .Chapter 5: SemanticsSemantics: 语义学can be simply defined as the study of meaning.1）The naming theory(命名论)Oldest notions concering meaning.most primitive one.It was proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato.words are just names or labels for things.2）The conceptualist view（意念论）It holds that there is no direct link between a lin-guistic form and what it refersto. In the interpretation of meaning, they are linked through the mediation ofconcepts in the mind.3)Contextualism（语境论）①Meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context—elements closely linked with language behavior. Two types of contexts are recognized:②Situational context: spatiotemporal situation-occurrence or collocation.③Linguistic context: the probability of a word’s co④For example, “black”　in black hair & black coffee, or black sheep differs in meaning; “The president of the United States” can mean either the president or presidency in different situation.4) Behaviorism（行为主义论）Bloomfield①Behaviorists attempted to define meaning as “the s ituation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer”．②The story of Jack and Jill:Jill JackS_________r--------s_________R3. Sense and reference①Sense---- is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It isthe collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized.②Reference----what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; itdeals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.4. Major sense relationsSynonymy（同义关系）Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning.Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms. 同义词complete synonyms, i.e. synonymy that are mutually substitutable under all circumstances, are rareHomonymy（同音/同形异义）Homonymy: Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having differentmeanings have the same form,（1)Homophones（同音异义）: When two words are identical in sound, they are called homophones.e.g. rain/reign.（2)Homographs(同形异义): When two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs.e.g. tear v. / tear n.（3)Complete homonyms(同音同形异义):When two words are identical in both sound and spelling, they are called complete homonyms.e.g. fast v. / fast adj.; scale v. /scale. n.Hyponymy（下义关系）Hyponymy: Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general,more inclusive word and a more specific word.eg.superordinate: flowerhyponyms: rose, tulip, carnation, lilyAntonymy（反义关系）the term antonymy is used for oppositeness of meaning1) Gradable antonyms（等级反义词）----there are often intermediate formsbetween the two members of a pair, e.g. old-young, hot-cold, tall-short …　2) Complementary antonyms（互补反义词）----the denial of one member ofthe pair implies the assertion of the other, e.g. alive-dead, male-female …3) Relational opposites（关系反义词）----exhibits the reversal of therelationship between the two items, e.g. husband-wife, father-son, doctor-patient, buy-sell, let-rent, employer-employee, give-receive, above-below …　2) There are two aspects to sentence meaning:1.grammatical meaning2. semantic meaning, e.g.selectional restrictions.Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by ruleseg. constraints on what lexical items can go with what othersPredication analysis---- a way to analyze sentence meaning (British G.Leech).Chapter 6: Pragmatics1). P ragmatics:语用学the study of how speakers of a language use sentences toeffect successful communication.Pragmatics and semantics are both linguistic studies of meaning.s is whether the What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmaticcontext of use is considered in the study of meaningIf it is not considered, the study is confined to the area of traditional semantics;if it is considered, the study is being carried out in the area of pragmatics.⑴Austin’s new model of speech actsUtterance meaning:the meaning of an utterance is concrete, and context-dependent. Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simplyin a context.Cooperative Principle(CD):Paul Grice.His idea is that to converse with each other, the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate; otherwise,it would not be possible for them to carry on the talk.3）Principle of conversation (Paul Grice)The maxim of quantity （数量准则）Make your contribution as informative as required (for the current purpose of the exchange). （使自己所说的话达到当前交谈目的所要求的详尽程度。

语言学重点章节介绍三星级重点章节07年冬天，学校组织了一个讲座，请老师给我们谈考试重点，同时学生有什么问题，可以当面问他。

他说前五章是最重要的，第七和第八次之，第六，第九和第十二章也有考的内容，但不会很多，剩下的十章和十一章可以不看！所以，我就用三颗星表示最重要；俩颗星表示第二重要，一颗星表示第三重要。

王老师说只要把胡壮麟那本书背会了，肯定能考好！因为考试覆盖的知识点都在书上！其实，背会那本书是不实际的，而把那本书过5到6遍是可能的，也是必须的。

而且重点章节要在理解的基础上反复看。

虽然我们文科的知识，背时关键，但是理解更重要，尤其语言学这门课，比较抽象，不理解就背，效果不好，不容易背会。

北语没有提供考纲之类的东西，只告诉语言学参考书是胡壮麟的《语言学教程(修订版)》。

（09年不知是否会换成该书的第三版）所以能知道该书哪些章节是重点，能让我们有的放矢。

我这里所说的三星级重点，即最重要的章节是该书的前五章。

不知道外校的考生，他们学校开过这门课没有！我们北语大三下学期讲前五章，大四上学期讲的6，7，8，9，12这几章。

下面，我们先谈谈前五章该如何复习。

Chapter1: Invitations to linguistics；Chapter2: Speech Sounds；Chapter3: Lexicon；Chapter4: Syntax (新版中，这章改成From Word to Text，是变化最大的一章，变化的结果是比以前的简单了）；Chapter5: Meaning。

这五章可以说是语言学的基础和考试的重点。

我们一定要反复看，理解其中的定义等知识点。

一定要在理解的基础上记忆。

Chapter1: Invitations to linguistics这章是该书的开篇，目的是让大家对语言学这门课有个初步的了解，为后面几章作个铺垫。

也许你会说这种章节肯定不重要。

错！奇怪的是这一章居然很重要。

因为考点还不少！Design features of language: Arbitrariness, duality, creativity, displacement. 这四个特征要求理解，牢记，能背出定义。