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1.什么是语言：语言是人类独有的以言语形式进行表达和理解的一种音义结合符号系统，是客观世界与人的主观条件相结合的产物。
1.语言是一种系统；1.是人类独有的，主要包括人类的口头语言和书面语言；3.是一种音义结合体；4.其表现形式是言语；5.语言用于交际的方式是通过言语进行表达和理解；5.是客观世界与人的主观条件相结合的产物。
2.语言的三个性质：语言是人类最重要的交际工具、语言是思维工作、语言是一种符号系统。
前两个性质是语言的功能，后一个性质是语言的结构特点。
3. 如何理解语言的全民性？语言是特殊的社会现象，具有全民性，它与社会相互依存，是人们交流思想、进行交际的工具。
没有语言，就无法形成人类社会。
语言具有全民性可以从三个方面理解：其一，语言没有阶级性。
作为人们交际工具的语言，不是为一个阶级服务，而是一视同仁地为整个社会，为社会各阶级服务。
其二，语言不同于思想。
在阶级社会中，人们的思想是有阶级性的；而语言是没有阶级性的。
其三，语言不同于客观事物。
语言所代表的客观事物（如“国家”、“军队”等）、语言所代表的感情（如“正义”、“邪恶”等）是有阶级性的，但代表这些事物或感情的词是没有阶级性的。
因为不同阶级的人对这些词都有共同的理解。
4. 什么是语言学？语言学就是研究语言的科学，或对语言的科学研究。
以人类语言作为研究对象，讨论它的性质、起源和结构原理的成为普通语言学。
以某一具体语言（如汉英、英语等）为研究大学的成为XX语语言学，如汉英语言学、英语语言学，等等。
具体语言是研究是普通语言学的基础，因为语言的共性结构原理都是从具体的语言的研究中总结出来的。
语言学作为一门独立的科学诞生的很晚，至今也不过二百多年的历史。
5.言学的对象和任务对象：以语言为研究对象的一门学科。
任务：研究语言的性质、结构、分类、发展等这些语言方面的理性知识。
6.语言的定义特征？也叫语言的本质特征，是指那些把人类语言与其他动物“语言”区分开来的定义特征。
《语言学导论》(练习题及答案)语言学导论练题及答案1. 什么是语言学？语言学是研究语言的科学。
它涉及语言的结构、演化、语音、语法、语义、语用等方面的研究。
2. 语言学的主要分支有哪些？- 语音学：研究语音的产生、传播和感知。
- 语法学：研究语言的规则和结构。
- 语义学：研究语言意义的构成和理解。
- 语用学：研究语言在特定情境下的使用和交际功能。
- 社会语言学：研究语言与社会的关系。
3. 什么是语言的结构？语言的结构是指语言中各个层次（如语音、词汇、句子等）的组织方式和规则。
4. 语音学研究的是什么？语音学研究语音的产生、传播和感知。
它关注语音的音素、音位、音节以及音系等方面。
5. 语法学研究的是什么？语法学研究语言的规则和结构。
它涉及句子的构成和分析，包括词类、短语、句法关系等。
6. 语义学研究的是什么？语义学研究语言意义的构成和理解。
它关注词汇、句子和篇章层面的语义关系和意义表达。
7. 语用学研究的是什么？语用学研究语言在特定情境下的使用和交际功能。
它关注言语行为、话语策略和交际意图等。
8. 社会语言学研究的是什么？社会语言学研究语言与社会的关系。
它探讨语言在不同社会群体中的变化、语言的地位和使用情境等。
9. 语言学在日常生活中的应用有哪些？- 语言教育：帮助人们研究和教授语言。
- 语音技术：开发语音识别和合成等技术。
- 翻译和口译：促进不同语言之间的交流和理解。
- 语言规范：制定语法规则、文字标准等。
- 语义分析：帮助机器理解和处理自然语言。
10. 语言学为理解人类语言能力提供了哪些洞见？语言学研究揭示了语言是人类认知和交流的基本工具，提供了对语言产生、理解、学习和变化的深入认识。
《语言学导论》中文笔记语言学导论中文笔记(完整)什么是语言学?- 语言学是研究语言的科学- 研究语言的性质、结构和功能- 研究语言的发展、变化和使用语言学的分支1. 语音学: 研究语音的产生、传播和认知2. 词汇学: 研究单词的构成、意义和使用3. 句法学: 研究句子的结构和语法规则4. 语义学: 研究词语和句子的意义5. 语用学: 研究语言在特定情境中的使用方式语言的特点1. 语言是人类特有的沟通工具2. 语言具有拟态性，即能通过语言表达事物的形状、动作等特征3. 语言具有符号性，即语言中的单词和语法符号代表着特定的意义4. 语言是可以研究和教授的，通过语言能够传递文化和知识语言的功能1. 意指功能: 通过语言表达思想、情感和意图2. 表示功能: 通过语言描述和描绘事物、现象和过程3. 交际功能: 通过语言实现沟通和交流4. 记忆功能: 通过语言记录和传递信息5. 心理功能: 通过语言影响和塑造个体的心理活动语言与文化- 语言是文化的一部分，反映了社会和文化的价值观和观念- 不同的语言体现了不同的文化方式和思维方式- 语言的变化和发展与文化的变迁和演变相互关联语言的变化和发展- 语言是动态的，不断发展和变化- 语言变化的原因包括：社会文化变迁、语言接触和语言演化- 语言变化常常由语言使用者的创新和共同接受推动语言的使用- 语言使用涉及语言使用者的语法知识、语境理解和交际目的- 语言的使用方式受到社会、文化、地域等因素的影响- 语言的使用也受到个体因素和语言使用者之间的关系影响以上是《语言学导论》的简要笔记，介绍了语言学的定义、分支、特点、功能、与文化关系、变化和使用等方面的内容。
对于进一步学习语言学的人来说，这份笔记能够提供一个全面的概览，并为深入研究打下基础。
语言学导论教学设计1. 导论语言学作为一门学科，它对人类的了解是深刻而广泛的。
学生通过语言学导论，可以了解语言的本质和语言学研究的各个领域。
本文将详细介绍语言学导论课程的教学设计。
2. 教学目标通过学习语言学导论，使得学生能够掌握语言的基本概念和研究方法，具有批判思维和分析问题的能力，并能在现实生活中对语言现象进行分析和解释。
3. 教学内容3.1. 语言的基本概念•语言的定义•语言的结构•语言的功能3.2. 语言的起源和演化•语言的起源•人类语言的演化•语言的多样性与共性3.3. 语言技能和语言运用•语音、语法、词汇、语用和话语分析•语言变化和语言演变3.4. 语言学研究的方法与研究范式•语言学的研究方法•语言学研究的各个领域•研究范式的比较分析4. 教学方法4.1. 课堂讲解采用讲述的方式进行教学，让学生听取教师在学科理论和实践方面的经验。
4.2. 课堂讨论引导学生分析语言学现象，与教师和其它同学讨论自己的理解和观点。
鼓励学生就关键问题发表自己的看法，让课堂更加多元化。
4.3. 小组讨论将学生分成小组，在小组内讨论自己的疑问和观点，与小组内的同学分享自己的想法和学习成果。
4.4. 项目研究由学生自己或小组开展一个项目研究，例如设计一个语言分析的项目，或者是介绍某一语言学领域的研究成果。
4.5. 作业鼓励学生自主学习，将课程中所学习的知识进行整合，并撰写思考性论文、书评或介绍某一领域的研究成果。
5. 教学评价除了课堂作业外，为了总结学生对于语言学导论课程的掌握程度和能力提升程度，可以通过两个方式对学生进行评价：•期中考试：主要考察学生对文献、概念、实践知识的理解和掌握程度。
•总结作业：学生可以根据所学知识，撰写一份总结论文，对学习成果进行总结；或者是设计一份语言分析项目，展示出在语言分析方面的实践能力。
6. 结语通过本文所介绍的教学设计，学生可以全面了解语言学导论所包含的各个知识领域，具备语言学分析的能力。
语言学导论期末总结一、引言语言学是研究语言的科学，它的研究对象是语言本身。
通过学习语言学导论课程，我深入了解了语言学的理论基础和研究方法，了解了语言的结构、功能和变化等方面的知识。
在本文中，我将对语言学导论的学习进行总结，并对自己在这门课程中的收获进行分析和反思。
二、语言学的基本概念语言学是研究语言的学科，它研究语言的结构、功能、变化和使用等方面的问题。
语言学的基本概念包括语音学、语法学、语义学和语用学等。
通过学习这些基本概念，我对语言学的研究内容和方法有了更深入的了解。
1. 语音学语音学研究语音的组成和运用规律，包括语音的产生、传播和感知等方面的问题。
在语音学中，声音的特征（如音高、音量和音色等）以及语音的表达方式（如辅音和元音等）都是研究的重点。
通过学习语音学，我了解了声音的产生和相关的声学原理，了解了声音的分类和语音的表达方式。
2. 语法学语法学研究语言的内部结构和规则，包括句子的形成和组织方式等。
在语法学中，常常关注句子的结构和成分，以及句子中的词汇和短语等。
通过学习语法学，我了解了句子的基本结构和常用的句型类型，了解了句子的组成成分和语义关系。
3. 语义学语义学研究语言的意义和表达方式，包括词义和句义等方面的问题。
在语义学中，常常关注词汇的意义和句子的意义，以及其中的逻辑关系和修辞手法等。
通过学习语义学，我了解了词汇的义项和搭配规律，了解了句子的语义结构和关联关系。
4. 语用学语用学研究语言的使用和交际功能，包括语言的言外之意和语境依赖等方面的问题。
在语用学中，常常关注语言的交际和沟通功能，以及语言使用者之间的信息传递和意图表达等。
通过学习语用学，我了解了语用推理和言外之意的表达方式，了解了语言的交际功能和语境的重要性。
三、语言学的研究范式语言学的研究范式包括描述性研究和理论性研究两种类型。
描述性研究是对语言事实的描述和总结，旨在建立语言学的基础知识和研究方法。
理论性研究是对语言问题的解释和分析，旨在建立语言学的理论体系和解释框架。
《语言学导论》教学大纲一、课程基本信息二、课程性质、地位和任务本课程以英语专业高年级学生为主要对象，属英语专业知识课程之一，是选修其他语言学分支课程的先决条件，也是选修其他综合文化素质课程的基础。
三、课程基本要求本课程将为人类语言本质的基本问题提供一些解答，使学生了解人类语言研究的丰富成果，提高其对语言的社会、人文、经济、科技以及个人修养等方面重要性的认识，以多种方式让学生体会领悟人类语言是一个极度复杂却仍有规可循的、迷人的心智系统，向学生展示语言学和其他学科如心理学、社会学、哲学等学科间的关系如何日趋密切以致最终逐渐发展成了一门内容浩瀚、涉及面广的交叉科学。
在对语言和语言使用的方方面面进行科学、系统的分析探讨过程中，着意培养学生的语言意识和研究兴趣，使其善于对语言现象进行观察和思考，提高语言使用和研究能力，发展以概念分析为基本的逻辑思维习惯，培养提高科学分析问题的能力和辩证的理性思维，全面提高素质。
具体而言，通过本课程的学习，学生能初步了解或掌握语言学的基本知识，了解语言的本质、功能和机制，掌握语言的语音、词汇、语法、语义规律，认识语言与社会、文化、思维、认知、语言习得等的关系，学会分析语料，了解如何进行语言学研究，由此为进一步的语言学习或研究奠定基础。
尤其是，通过本课程的学习，学生能了解语言的本质、掌握语言习得、特别是外语的教与学的实质及相关研究的科学成果，领会语言学各个层面的科研进展对外语教学的启示，以便更好地从事英语学习和教学。
四、课程内容及学时分配本课程包括：课程导学、引言、语音学与音位学、形态学、句法学、语义学、语用学、话语分析、社会语言学、文体学、心理语言学、认知语言学和应用语言学等共十三个部分。
各部分内容之间有相对的独立性，又存在有机的联系。
授课时间为一学期共18周，每周授课一次两个学时，共计36个学时。
具体课程内容与学时分配如下（各部分所列详细内容为其要点内容）：第一部分课程导学（Course Guide）,1学时：为何要学语言学？如何学？教学规划第二部分导言（Preliminaries），2学时：语言的定义、语言的本质特征、语言的功能、语言学的性质及研究范围、语言学简史第三部分语音学与音位学（Phonetics and Phonology），3学时：语音学的范围、英语语音的描述与分类、音素、音位学的范围、音位分析、超音位分析第四部分形态学（Morphology），3学时：词的定义、词位、词素、构词法第五部分句法学（Syntax），3学时：句法研究的性质与范围、词类、转换生成语法、功能句法第六部分语义学（Semantics），3学时：语义学研究范围、词义分析、词之间的意义关系、句子与命题、句子意义分析、句之间的意义关系、语义变化机制第七部分语用学（Pragmatics），3学时：语用学研究范围、指示语、预设、言语行为理论、合作原则、会话含意理论、会话分析第八部分话语分析（Discourse analysis），3学时：话语分析研究范围、信息结构、衔接与连贯、话语标记语、多模态语篇分析、批评话语分析第九部分社会语言学（Sociolinguistics），3学时：社会语言学研究范围、语言变体、语言与性别、语码选择、语言规划、社会语言学研究方法第十部分文体学（Stylistics），3学时：研究范围、文体标记、文体分析的语言学方法、实用文体学第十一部分心理语言学（Psycholinguistics），3学时：语言产生、语言理解、语言习得第十二部分认知语言学（Cognitive linguistics），3学时：范畴与范畴化、概念隐喻、概念转喻、意象图式、识解、象似性第十三部分应用语言学（Applied Linguistics），3学时：二语习得、错误分析、中介语、二语教学、语言测试五、课程教材及主要参考资料教材：文旭，《语言学导论》（Linguistics: An Introduction）。
【语言学】语言学是以语言为研究对象的科学。
【“小学”】“小学”是中国传统的语文学，围绕解释和解读先秦典籍来展开研究，从而诞生了分析字形的文字学、研究字音的音韵学、解释字义的训诂学。
因此又被人们称为经学的附庸。
【思维】思维是认识现实世界时的动脑筋的过程，也指动脑筋时进行比较、分析、综合以认识现实的能力。
【符号】符号是由一定的形式构成的表示一定意义的记号或标记，包括形式和意义两个方面，其作用是指称现实现象。
【语言符号】语言符号是由音、义结合构成的，能代表或指称现象。
“音”是语言符号的物质表现形式，“义”是语言符号的内容，只有音和义结合才能指称现实现象，构成语言的符号。
【征候】征候是事物本质的特征，它代表着事物，可以让我们通过它来推知事物。
【组合规则】构成线性序列的语言成分之间的结构关系，就是说，语言符号的单位互相组合为一个更大单位的规则。
【聚合规则】在同一个结构位置上不同结构单位的替换规则。
【音标】记录音素的标写符号。
【国际音标】国际语音协会指定的一套记音符号，是用来记录各民族语言的语音的。
国际音标符合“一个音素一个符号，一个符号一个音素”的原则。
【音位学】音位学是在了解语音的物理、生理特性的基础上从语言的社会功能的角度对语音的研究。
【音素】音素是人类语言从音质角度划分出来的最小的语音单位。
【清音、浊音】清音、浊音是语音中的发音特点。
辅音的发音体是阻碍气流的发音部位，但有时声带也参与发音。
发音时声带颤动的辅音叫浊辅音，不颤动的叫清辅音。
【音质音位】以音素为材料，从音质的角度分析的音位，叫做音质音位。
【非音质音位】有区别词的语音形式作用的音高、音重、音长叫做非音质音位。
【调位】有区别词的语音形式作用的音高变化，叫做调位。
【重位/势位】能区别词的语音形式的重音叫做重位或势位。
【时位】能区别词的语音形式的元音的长短叫时位。
【音位变体】处于互补关系中的各个音素被看成是同一个音位在不同位置上的代表，是同一个音位的不同的变异形式，我们把它们叫做音位变体。
教育语言学张京鱼专题概述：Educational linguistics, as the name suggests, involves two disciplines: education and linguistics. Educational linguistics is concerned with the study of language in teaching and learning. It has interests in the nature of the linguistic system and its role in learning, as well as in what kinds of knowledge about language should be taught. It highlights areas of linguistics that are most relevant to teachers.In our case,it is the teaching and learning of English as a second or foreign language inprimary or secondary schools in China. In other words, the target language isEnglish but working language in Chinese schools is Chinese, the mother tongueor the first language (L1) for both students and most teachers, if not all.Since our students learn English as a second language (L2) when they havealready mastered their L1 Chinese, their knowledge about Chinese plays a rolein their English learning. This role could be positive or negative. Tobecome a better teachers, English teachers need to know both English andChinese well.学习策略：视频讲解、协作学习、问题解决、讨论交流等。
◆学习目标：了解教育语言学这个学科，课程整体目标◆知晓教师课堂语言与教学效果的关系◆通晓课堂互动中教师的角色：交际者&教育者◆熟悉语言的基本单位◆提问与找出答案◆学习重点：语言学与教育的关系，努力使自己成为一个通晓语言内在规律和语言使用规律对的英语教师专题一教育语言学导论Educational Linguistics: an understanding of language fosters betterteachers1.1 Educational LinguisticsEducational linguistics, as the name suggests, involves twodisciplines: education and linguistics. Educationallinguistics is concerned with the study of language in teaching and learning.It has interests in the nature of the linguistic system and its role inlearning, as well as in what kinds of knowledge about language should betaught. It highlights areas of linguistics that aremost relevant to teachers.In our case, it is the teaching and learning of English as a secondor foreign language in primary or secondary schools in China. In other words,the target language is English but working language in Chinese schools isChinese, the mother tongue or the first language (L1) for both students andmost teachers, if not all. Since our students learn English as a secondlanguage (L2) when they have already mastered their L1 Chinese, their knowledgeabout Chinese plays arole in their English learning. This role could bepositive or negative. To become a better teachers, English teachers need toknow both English and Chinese well.1.1.1Course ObjectivesTo encourage you to reevaluate your own beliefs and attitudes aboutlanguage.To make you aware of the complexity of language and able toarticulate this awareness.To make you aware of some of the similarities and difference betweenEnglish and Chinese.To expose you to the “core” sub-fields of linguistics (phonology,morphology, syntax, and semantics).To enable you to teach English in a more systematic and effectiveway.Education and LinguisticsMany teachers recognised that “educational failure isprimarily linguisticfailure”1.2 LinguisticSciences and Language TeachingHalliday, McIntosh &Strevens (1964) in their The LinguisticSciences and Language Teaching (1964). (223-251) identified three types oflanguage teaching:“prescriptive” (referring to practices that prescribed preferredexpressions, such as I did, rather than I done);“descriptive” (referring to methods of describing language much as alinguist does) and“productive” (involving students in using the resource oftheir language in powerful ways).Of the three, Hallidayet al concluded, it was prescriptiveteaching that predominated, while too little work was devoted in schools todescriptive or productive teaching.1.3Classroom talkStudent (excitedly): Miz Jones, you rememberthat show you tole us about? Well,me and my momma’nem—Teacher (interrupting with a “warm” smile):Bernadette,start again. I’m sorry, but I can’t understand you.Student (confused): Well, it was that show,me and my momma—Teacher (interrupting again, still with that “warm” smile):Sorry, I still can’t understand you.(Student, now silent, even more confused than ever, looks at floor,says nothing.)Teacher: Now Bernadette, first of all, it’s Mrs.Jones, not MizJones. And you know it was an exhibit, not a show.Now, haven’t I explained to the class over and over again that you always putyourself last when you are talking about a group of people and yourself doingsomething? So, therefore, you should say what?Student: My momma and me—Teacher (exasperated): No! My mother and I.Now start again, this time right.Student: Aw, that’sokay, it wasn’t nothin. (Smitherman,1977, pp. 217-218)What can we learn from this classroom interaction?1.3.1 Teachers as CommunicatorsClearly, communication with students is essential in effectiveteaching. To communicate successfully, teachers must know how to structuretheir own language output for maximum clarity and have strategies forunderstanding what students are saying. Since understanding student talk is keyto analysis of what students know, how they understand, and what teaching moveswould be useful.In as diverse a society as that of USA, teachers must be prepared towork with children from many different cultural, social, and linguisticbackgrounds. Studies of discourse patterns in American Indian (Philips, 1993),Native Hawaiian (Boggs, 1972), Puerto Rican (Zentella, 1997), and AfricanAmerican (Heath, 1983) homes and communities have shown that the speechpatterns that children bring to school from their homes can be quite differentfrom the ones that are valued at school. These speech patterns are nonethelessessential to functioning effectively in their home communities.Acquiring the academic discourse patterns of school is an importantpart of the educational development of all students, but it is neithernecessary nor desirable to promote it at the expense of the language patternschildren already have. In fact, Mrs. Jon es’ pedagogical approach to languagedevelopment is more likely to SOUR children like Bernadette to the wholeexperience of schooling than it is to instruct them.Your students are learning English as a second language, andunderstanding the course of second language acquisition (including such mattersas what sorts of mistakes they are likely to make and how muchprogress can beexpected in a unit of time) helps teachers communicate with them moreeffectively.Even advanced speakers of English as a second language may useconversational patterns or narrative organization that differ from those of themainstream. Understanding how their language use might differ from that of thenative European-American English speaker is crucial for effective teaching.Study questi on: How should teachers cope with students’ mistakes orerrors?1.3.2 Teachers as EducatorsTeachers are responsible for selecting educational materials andactivities at the right level and of the right type for all of the children intheir classes. This requires a reasonable basis for assessment of studentaccomplishments and the capacity to distinguish between imperfect knowledge ofEnglish and cognitive obstacles to learning. In order to teach effectively,teachers need to know which language problems will resolve themselves with timeand which need attention and intervention. In other words, they need to know agreat deal about language development.What should classroom teachers know about Language?English teachers would benefit from better, more intensive, and morecoherent preparation in educational linguistics.1.4 What arethe basic units of language?Teachers need to know that spoken language is composed of units ofdifferent sizes – sounds (called phonemes if they function to signal differentmeanings in the language), morphemes (sequences of sounds that form thesmallest units of meaning in a language), words (consisting of one or moremorphemes), phrases (one or more words), sentences, and discourses.Crucial to an understanding of how language works is the ideaof“arbitrariness”. Sequences of sounds have no meaning by themselves – it is onlyby convention that meanings are attached to sound. In another language asequence of sounds that is meaningful in English may mean nothing at all, orsomething quite different.Arbitrariness (form and meaning duality)Except onomatopoeic words such as cuckoo, crash, wow wow, etc.房子 house, maison, dom; 手hand, main, rukaWhat’s in a name? That which we call a roseBy any other name would smell as sweet. –ShakespeareQuotePhonemesEach language has an inventory of phonemes that may differ from thatof other languages. Phonemes can be identified by virtue of whether a change insound makes a difference in meaning. Thus, inEnglish ban and van constitutetwo different words, showing that [b] and [v] are different phonemes.Similarly, hit and heat are two different words, showing that theshort vowel sound [I] of hit is different from the long vowel sound [i]of heat.Notice [I]=[i]; [i]=[i:]Shaanxi dialect has one more phoneme /v/ which is lacking inMandarin Chinese (Putonghua), so it is easy for the local people to learnEnglish sound [v]. Compare vest vs west.–袜子; 文学; 物理/武力Many dialects do not distinguish [n] and [l], so those whospeak such dialects may have problems with these two sounds.Night vs light;need vs lead.Sichuan Dialect does not have the sound [∫] , but it seemsthat people whose mother is Sichuan dialect do not have problems with theEnglish phoneme /∫/.1.5Descriptive vs PrescriptiveIn most logics and some languages, double negatives cancel oneanother and produce an affirmative sense; in other languages, doubled negativesintensify the negation. Languages where multiple negatives intensify each otherare said to have negativeconcord. Portuguese, French, Persian, and Spanish are examplesof negative-concord languages, while Latin and German do not havenegative concord. StandardEnglish lacks negative concord, but it was normal in Old English and Middle English, and somemodern dialects do have it (e.g. AfricanAmerican Vernacular English and Cockney), although its usagein English is often stigmatized.Readmore: /topic/double-negative#ixzz26nzJlKXs Languages without negative concord typically have negativepolarity itemsthat are used in place of additional negatives when another negating wordalready occurs. Examples are "ever", "anything" and"anyone" in the sentence "I haven't ever owed anything toanyone" (cf. "Ihaven'tnever owed nothingto no one" in negative-concord dialects of English, and"Nuncadevinada a ninguém"in Portuguese, lit. "Never have I owed nothing to no one"). Note thatnegative polarity can be triggered not only by direct negatives such as"not" or "never", but by words such as "doubt" or"hardly" ("Idoubt he has ever owed anything to anyone" or"He has hardly ever owed anything to anyone").Stylistically, in English, double negatives can sometimes beusedfor understated affirmation (e.g. "I'm not feeling bad" vs. "I'm feelinggood"). The rhetorical term for this is litotes.Litotes 曲言法、间接肯定Mandarin Chinese also employs litotes in alike manner. One common construction is 不得不 (Pinyin: bùdébù, "cannotnot"), which is used to express (or feign) a necessity more regretful andpolite than that expressed by 必须 (bìxū).Compared with "我必须走" (Wǒbìxūzǒu, "I need to go"), "我不得不走" (Wǒbùdébùzǒu)tries to emphasize that the situation is out of the speaker's hands and that hehas no choice in the matter: "Unfortunately, I've got to go".Similarly, "没有人不知道" (Méiyǒurénbùzhīdào, "Th ere is not a person whodoesn't know") is a more emphatic way to express "Everyoneknows".Double negatives nearly always resolve to a positive meaning even incolloquial speech, but illogically so can triple negatives as well. Saying"我不相信没人不来"(Wǒbùxiāngxìnméirénbùlái, "I do not believe no one will notcome") should mean "I believe some people will not come" but ismore often understood to mean "I think everyone will come". However,triple and multiple negatives are considered obscure and are typically avoided.The ban on using double negatives to convey emphasis does not applywhen the second negative appears in a separate phrase or clause, as in Iwill not surrender, not today, not ever or He does not seek money, nomore than he seeks fame. Commas must be used to separate the negativephrases or clauses in these examples. The sentence He does not seek money nomore than he seeks fame is unacceptable, whereas the equivalent sentencewith any is perfectly acceptable and requires no comma: He does notseek money any more than he seeks fame.What is a Split Infinitive?An infinitive is split when the verb, which in English will have a‘to’ accompanying it, is not placed next to the actual doing word. So we couldsay ‘I am going to wash my hair with a different shampoo.’ Here the infinitiveis ‘to wash.’ However, if we split the infinitive then the sentence would read,‘I am going to always wash my hair with a different shampoo.’ Here the word‘to’ and the word ‘wash’ have been separated by the word ‘always’, which haseffectively split the infinitive.Within everyday spoken English the infinitive is split so often thatmost people don’t even notice, but within written English and particularly whenwriting business English, it is not best practice. As a golden rule to follow,check thatwhen you use an infinitive, which in English has the ‘to’ attachedto it, that it is next to the verb. An easy way of identifying a verb is todescribe it as a ‘doing’ word. It is the word that conveys what is being done and it is active in the sentence.It is actually quite easy to see if you have split an infinitive through thoroughly proofreading your work after you have finished it, then for addedmeasure, utilising an online punctuation software application so that you canbe absolutely sure that your infinitives are presented as they should be. This is not really something to worry about in spoken English, but due careshould be taken when writing to avoid splitting your infinitives.1.6 Elements of Human LanguagesSound Patterns/n/ vs /?//m/, /n/, /?/ = nasalsSin vs sing, thin vs thingInkSinkSankThinkThankIt’s a pa n cake.I want a pair of sun glasses./k/, /g/, /?/ = velars/?/ is a velar nasal. It is a velar as wellas a nasal./n/ /?/ whenever it appears before a velar.What about “bu n k” and “you ca n go now”?Manifestations of Linguistic Knowledge1.7Questions from Middle Schools TeachersRespectful 与respectable 的区别？中国学生喜欢使用 make/let A become B (adj/n)， become 的滥用。
