第一章：A word can be defined as a fundamental unit of speech and a minimum free form; with a unity of sound and meaning, capable of performing a given syntactic function The development of English Vocabulary.
①Old English (OE) (449-1100)OE is chracterized by the frequent use of compounds. Some OE compounds involving alliteration have survived in Modern English.About 85% of OE words are no longer in use.②Middle English (1100-1500)ME is characterized by the strong influence of French following the Norman Conquest in 1066.（law and governmental administration）③Modern English (1500-the present)
The rapid growth of present-day English vocabulary and its causes：A. marked progress of science and technology （software, hardware）B.socio-economic, political and cultural changes（credit card, fringe benefit, pressure cooker）C. influence of other cultures and languages（maotai, sputnik）classification of English words according to different criteria 1. By origin：native words and loan words。Native words(Anglo-Saxon origin of OE) Loan words(borrowed from other language) features of basic word stock:1.National character2.Stability3.Word-forming ability4.Ability to form collocations. 2.By level of usage(1)Common words: stylistically neutral, appropriate in both formal and informal writing and speech(2)Literary words:chiefly used in writing, especially in books written in a more elevated style, in official documents, or in formal speeches .A. archaic words: They are sometimes employed in poetry, business letters, legal documents, religious speeches, and proses.B.poetical words（the deep (the sea), slumber (sleep) maiden( girl), etc.）(3) colloquial words：mainly used in spoken English, or in informal writing.(4) slang words（kick the bucket, top-notch teachers, buzz( telephone call)(5) technical words（psychoanalysis, interlanguage, discovery, assault and coversation）3. By notion Function words: determiners, conjunctions, prepositions, auxiliaries.Content words: nouns, main verbs, adjectives, adverbs.
第二章：The morpheme is the smallest meaningful linguistic unit of language, not divisible or analyzable into smaller forms.
The classification of morpheme：1.free and bound morphemes： A free morpheme is one that can be uttered alone with meaning. It can exist on its own without a bound morpheme. A bound morpheme cannot stand by itself as a complete utterance. It must appear with at least one other morpheme.2. roots and affixes 1) roots: A root is the basic unchangeable part of a word, and it conveys the main lexical meaning of the word. A. free roots：In English, many roots are free morphemes. B. bound roots：Quite a number of roots derived from foreign sources, especially from
Greek and Latin.2) affixes A. inflectional affixes: plurality, tense, comparative or superlative degree. B. derivational affixes (prefixes and suffixes)
第三章：1. Derivation(1)prefixes：Prefixes can be classified into the following categories by their meaning.A. 表“方式”的前缀（mis.co.mal）B. 表“态度”的前缀(anti.counter.pro.re) C. 表“程度”的前缀(super.under.over)D. 表“时间”的前缀(pre.post.ex.pre)E. 表“地点”的前缀(inter.trans.super.over.sub)F. 表“否定”的前缀(un.in)G. 表“大小”的前缀(mini.maxi)(2)suffixes(1) -ee:加于动词后，表示受事者或施事者(2) -eer: 由其构成的名词有时含有贬义，表达作者或说话人对某人的蔑视态度(3）-er: 由其构成的新词在现代英语中显得生动活泼，带有浓厚的口语色彩(4) -ism(5) -wise: (in terms of, so far as... is concerned)在......方面，就......来说
2.Conversion is a word-formation process whereby a word of a certain word-class is shift into a word of another word-class without the addition of an affix. It is also called zero –derivation. Types of conversion 1.①N to V conversion A. to put in/on N 把.......放入.......使.......处于.......
B. to give N, to provide with N 给予，提供
C. to deprive of N 去掉
D. to ......with N 用......来做
E. to be/act as N with respect to 像......那样
F. to make/change... into N 使......成为......，把.......改变为......
G. to send/go by N
H. to spend the period of time denoted by N②Adj to https://www.doczj.com/doc/aa15188573.html,ually this type of verb means "to make/become...adj.”Some adjectives can only be converted into transitive verbs. ③adv. to V（to up. To down）④conjunction to V（to but）2. ①V to N这一类词常与动词have, take, give, make 等词搭配使用形成一个短语2)表示行动的结果（a find, a catch, a cough, etc. ）3) 原动词表示一种行动或行为，转化为名词后表示行为的主体，如：（a bore, a cheat, a sneak, a coach, a good kick）②A to N(1) Partial conversionA. 表示一种类的概念，指具有某种特点的一类人，不指个别人。
B. 以-s, -sh, -se, -ch结尾表示民族概念的形容词转化为名词，与定冠词连用，指整个民族
C.表示抽象概念，指具有某种特点的东西
D.最高级形容词转化为名词，其中一些词用在固定词组或英语习语词组中。
E. 过去分词构成的形容词转化为名词。这类词前面加定冠词，不指一般人，而指特定的人。(2) Complete conversion
3. N to A. 英语中的名词可以直接用作定语修饰另一个名词，既不需要加形容词词尾，也不需要任何格的变化，这样的定语就是名词定语.
3. Compounding or composition is a word-formation process consisting of joining two or more words to form a new unit, a compound word. Classification of compounds 1. Noun compounds(1)a+n（hard disk, easy chair, deadline) (2) n+n（mousemat, Dream Team, information highway, etc.)（3) adv+n（after-effect, overburden）(4) gerund+n（chewing gum, reading lamp）
(5）present participle+n（ruling class, floating bridge(6) v+n（swearword, driveway）(7) n+v（nightfall, toothpick, watersupply, snowfall）(8) v+adv(show-off, put-off)(9）adv+v(downfall, upset, upstart) 2. adjective compounds (1) 由状语转化而成的复合形容词（an off-the cuff opinion(临时想起的一点意见）(2）短语动词（a stand-up collar (竖领）(3）动词不定式（take-home pay(扣除税后的实得工资）a cross-border raid(越界袭击）(4）定语从句压缩（a difficult-to-operate machine）3. verb compounds
第四章：Acronymy: Initialism词首字母缩略词and Acronyms首字母缩略词Initialisms(首字母缩略词）Initialism is a type of shortening, using the first letters of words to form a proper name a technical term, or a phrase.（BBC(British Broadcasting Corporation), VIP(Very Important Person)
Three types of initialisms1.The letters represent full words: （CIA=Central Intelligence Agency ofthe U.S）2.The letters represent elements in a compound or just part of a word:（ID=Identification(card)3. A letter represents the complete form of the first word, while the second word is in full form.(V-Day=Victory Day) Acronyms :are words formed from the initial letters of the name of an organization or a scientific term, etc.(SAM=surface-to-air missile SALT=Strategic Arms Limitation Talks) Rapid growth of acronyms and initialisms :space-saving and time-saving devices
Clipping: 1. Back clippings:(ad=advertisement;
gas=gasoline )2.Front clippings:(chute=parachute;)3.Front and back clippings:（flu=influenza;fridge=refrigerator） 4. Phrase clippings:（pub=public house;pop= popular music）
Blending is a process of word-formation in which a new word is formed by combining the meanings and sounds of two words, one of which is not in it full form or both of which are not in their full forms.1. First part of the first word+the last part of the second word:（botel (boat+hotel):汽艇游客旅馆）2. First part of the first word+ First part of the second word:（psywar (psychological+warfare):心理战）3. Whole form of the first word +last part part of the second word:（viedophone (viedo+telephone))4. First part of the first word+ Whole form of the second word:（helipad (helicopter +pad)
从文体色彩来看，拼缀词可分为以下三大类：1.俚语或临时语2.科技用语3. 报刊用语
Back-formation is a term used to refer to a type of word-formation by which a shorter word is coined by the deletion of a supposed affix from a longer form already present in the language. Words From Proper Names From names of people From names of places From
trdemarks From literature
第五章：Word Meaning and Semantic Features
1. Conventionality and Motivation 1.1 Conventionality归略法：Most English words are conventioal, arbitrary symbols; consequently, there is no intrinsic relation between the sound-symbol and its sense.1.2 Motivation有理据的：Motivation refers to the connection between word-symbol and its sense.①Phonetic motivation: Words motivated phonetically are called echoic words or onomatopoeic words,whose pronounciation suggests the meaning.They show a close relationship of sound to sense.（miaow of a cat; roar of a lion; quack of a duck）②Morphological motivation:When a word is morphologically motivated, a direct connection can be observed between the morphemic structure of the word and its meaning. （anticancer, kilometer, etc.）③Semantic motivation:
It refers to motivation based on semantic factors. It is a kind of mental association.
隐喻：在20世纪的绝大部分的时间里，隐喻被认为是语义演变的主要因素。相似性是构成隐喻的基础，是词义得以演变的依据the eye of a needle(针眼）the eye of a potato(土豆的芽眼）相似性包括外观相似、功能相似、褒贬相似、心理相似等。
隐喻的分类（1）结构隐喻：一个概念通过隐喻的方式系统地用另一个概念表达出来，两个概念具有结构上的相似性（2）方位隐喻：方位隐喻是指参照空间方位而构建的一系列隐喻概念。（3）本体隐喻：用关于物体的概念或概念结构来认识和理解我们的经验，如可将抽象的概念喻说成具体的物体，可使后者的有关特征映射到前者上去。（4）容器隐喻：将本体（不是容器的事物，如大地、视野、事件、行动、状态、心境等）视为一种容器（5）拟人隐喻：将事体视为具有人性。
转喻：转喻基于邻近联想突显性（salience)一件事情、一个物体或一个概念有很多属性，而人的认知往往更多地注意到其最突出、最容易记忆和理解的属性，即突显属性。语境依赖性
2.Main types of word meaning 2.1 grammatical meaning语法意义指词中表示语法概念或关系的那部分意义，如词的词性、名词的单复数、动词的时态。
2.2Lexical meaning①denotative meaning/conceptual meaning/cognitive meaningIt is the central factor in linguistic communication.The denotative meaning of a word is its definition given in a dictionary. It is that aspect of lexical meaning which makes communication possible.②Connotative meaning refers to the emotional association which a word or a phrase suggests in one’s mind ③Compared with conceptual meaning, connotative meaning is peripheral, and relatively unstable, that is, it may vary according to culture, historical period, and the experience of the individual. 2.3 Social or stylistic meaning：One of the consequences of the way in which English has developed over the past
1,500 years has been the emergence of different styles. This has been partly due to the influx of new words from other languages such as Latin and French and partly to the variety of social needs which English has had to fulfill. 2.4. Affective meaning2.5. Reflexive meaning：R eflexive meaning is the meaning which arises in cases of multiple conceptual meanings, when one sense of a word forms part of our response to another sense.
2.6.collocative meaning：The associations a word gets because of the meanings of words which tend to occur in its linguistic context are called collocative meanings. 2.7.Thematic meaning i：mainly a matter of choice between alternative grammatical constructions.
3.文化差异：文化差异往往和不可译性联系起来，主要表现在带有文化含义的语项翻译上。英汉两种语言所体现出来的文化异同表现在多个方面，但主要集中在概念意义和联想意义上，可粗略归类为等额对应、差额对应和文化空缺。
(1)等额对应，是指甲文化语境下的某一表达形式在另一语言文化背景下能找到现成的表达形式。（入乡随俗When in Rome, do as the Romans do）(2)差额对应指英汉两种语言都拥有某一文化概念，但两种概念在文化语义层面并不完全对应。(母亲望子成龙The mother longs to see her son become a dragon.)
4.英汉文化差异的表现(1)动物的联想意义(狗急跳墙A cornered beast will do something desperate)(2)颜色的联想意义(红包red envelope红娘matchmaker)
第六章：1.Polysemy：When a word has two or more meanings that are related conceptually or historically, it is said to be polysemous or polysemic.Polysemy is also an essential feature of language’s
economy and efficiency. 1.1Two approaches to polysemy：One is diachronic, the other is synchronic. 1.2 Processes leading to polysemy A. Concatenation B.Radiation
2.语境是帮助译者确定多义词词义的最有效的途径。我们在此主要探讨两种语境，即话题语境和搭配语境在翻译实践中确定多义词词义的作用。1.话题语境：话题指话语所涉及的主题或内容common一词在法律领域与其他词搭配完全丧失了“普通的；共有的”等含义。（common assurance 物权证书）2.搭配语境：搭配语境指的是句子成分内部词与词的搭配使用
3. Homonymy. Types of homonyms:①Perfect homonyms: words identical in sound and spelling but different in meaning.②Homophones: words identical in sound but different in spelling and meaning. ③Homographs: words identical in spelling but different in sound and meaning.
4. The stylistic value of polysemy and homonymy :Context plays a very important role in the hearer’s interpretation of words of these two types.Polysemic and homonymous words are stylistically useful to achieve humour or irony, or to heighten dramatic effect.
第七章：1. Synonymy：There are also words that sound different but have the same meaning. Such words are called synonyms, and the sense relation of “sameness of meaning” is called synonymy. Two kinds of synonyms①Complete (perfect) synonyms：are very rare. Examples are spirants and fricatives in phonetics, word-formation and word-building in lexicology.
②Relative synonyms：differ from complete synonyms in the following respects:(1) In degree of a given quality or in (2) In affective and stylistic meaning(3) In collocation and distribution
2.Antonymy：Words that are opposite in meaning are often called antonyms. And the oppositeness of meaning is called antonymy.Types of Antonyms（1）Contraries(相对性反义词) Contraries display a type of semantic contrast, illustrated by such pairs as rich and poor, heavy and light, etc.2. Complementaries (Contradictories)(互补反义词) Complementaries represent a type of binary semantic contrast. In a complementary pair the contrast between the two terms is absolute, that is they are in such a relationship that “ the assertion of one of the items implies the denial of the other: an entity can not be both at once.”
3. Conversives (反向或逆反反义词)
Antonyms classified on the basis of morphological structure1. Root antonyms：Words like love-hate, up-down are root antonyms for they are words with different roots.2. Derivational antonyms：Words with the same roots having negative affixes. Some relevant points about antonyms 1. Marked and unmarked members：
Antonyms often do not have equal status with respect to markedness. In certain pairs of gradable antonyms, one word is marked and the other unmarked.
2. Some words without antonyms
3. Different antonyms under different circumstances：1) Different circumstances give rise to different antonyms:2) Different contexts bring about different antonyms 3)Some words with different collocations have different antonyms
4. Lexical antonyms vs. syntactic negation：Lexical antonymy is often stronger than syntactic negation (using not).
Hyponymy：We know that the English words red, white, blue, etc. are “colour” terms, that is, they have the feature indicating a category to which they all belong.
Semantic(Lexical) field s
第八章：Two types of context 1.Linguistic context语言语境(1) Lexical context refers to the lexical items combined with a given polysemous word.(2) Grammatical context.In grammatical context, the syntactic structure of the context determines various individual meanings of a polysemous word
(3) Verbal context.The verbal context, in its broad sense, may cover an entire passage, or even an entire book, and in some cases even the entire social or cultural setting.
2.Extra-linguistic context (Context of situation)非语言语境(1) The actual speech situation in which a word occurs(2) The entire cultural background against which a word, or an utterance or a speech event has to be set.
The vital role of context in determination of word meaning 1. Eliminating ambiguities：Ambiguity refers to a word, phrase, sentence or a group of sentences with more than one possible interpretation or meaning 2. Conveying emotional overtone3. Indicating referents and the range of the meaning of a word1.
Suggested ways for the correct comprehension of word meaning 1.The use of an up-to-date and adequate monolingual dictionary2. A good knowledge of the culture of the English-speaking people3.Development of the ability to determine the meaning of a word from its context
第九章：Causes of changes in word meaning Historical cause Social cause Foreign influences Linguistic cause Psychological cause词义演变三动因①客观动因：客观世界每一个引起人们注意的变化都会及时地反映到词义中。②主观动因：语言的使用者是人，人的主观世界如思想观念和心理感情等的变化必然导致词义演变。③语言动因：词义的演变跟语言本身的发展也有关。由于语言接触，出现借词的大量涌入，使原有词的词义发生演变。
Four tendencies in semantic changeRestriction of meaning
(specialization)
1.词义的缩小（specialization or narrowing）指词从原先表达外延较宽的概念缩小到外延较狭窄的概念。（1）从泛指到特指：meat原指“各种食物”，在sweetmeat（甜食）, greenmeat（蔬菜）（2）从抽象到具体：room一词从前的意义是“空间”、“地方”（3）从普通名词到专有名词. prophet(预言者，先知）写成the Prophet时，伊斯兰教徒都知道是指穆罕默德；（4)从一般词语到术语。许多科学术语都来自一般词语。recovery(恢复），
2.Extension of meaning (generalization) 词义的扩大指从原先表达外延较狭窄的概念扩大到外延较宽的概念，其结果是新义大于旧义，旧义包含在新义之中。（1）从特指到泛指
bird (幼鸟-----鸟）（2）从具体到抽象grasp的原义是用手“抓牢，握紧”，指的是具体的动作。（3）从术语到一般词语bullish(股市看涨的)源自股市的“牛市的”、“行情看涨的”（4）从专有名词到普通名词sandwitch(三明治，夹肉面包）来自桑德威奇伯爵四世（the fourth Earl of Sandwitch)。
3.Degeneration of meaning (pejoration)指词从原表示“中性义或褒义”转为表示“贬义”。
4. Elevation of meaning (amelioration)从表示“贬义或中性的意义”转为表示“褒义”。
Iconicity （象似性）The idea that language is fundamentally arbitrary, and that there is no resemblance between the signs of language and the thoughts they stand for, is one of the oldest commonly held views in linguistic thought. 1.Iconicity of order 顺序象似性2. Iconicity of distance 距离象似性
3.Iconicity of complexity复杂象似性
4.Iconnicity of Markedness(标记象似性)
第十章：English Idioms 1.习语的本质是概念性的。2）习语意义有认知机制。Language is a system—elements in it are not arranged and combined randomly, but according to some rules and principles. https://www.doczj.com/doc/aa15188573.html,nguage is arbitrary—means that the sound image or the form of a word and the meaning or concept the word stands for bear no intrinsic https://www.doczj.com/doc/aa15188573.html,nguage is vocal—the primary medium for all language is sound. https://www.doczj.com/doc/aa15188573.html,nguage is used for human communication—it is human-specific, very different from systems of animal communication. Functions of language The primary function of language is to transmit information and to convey commands, feelings and emotions. That is, language is a tool of communication. 1. Phatic function/communion：Language is used to establish an atmosphere or maintain social contact between the speaker and hearer. https://www.doczj.com/doc/aa15188573.html,rmative function：Language is used to tell something, to give information, or to reason things out. 3. Interrogative function：Language is used to ask for information from others.
4.Expressive function (emotive function)：Language is used to reveal the speaker’s attitudes and feelings.
5.Evocative function：Language
is used to create certain feelings in the hearers.6.Performative function：Language is used to do things or to perform acts.7. metalingual function：It means that we can use language to talk language itself.
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Chapter 9 Changes in Word Meaning 9.1 Causes of Changes in Word Meaning 9.2 Four Tendencies in Semantic Change 9.3 Semantic Development or Change Resulting from the Figurative Use of Words Definition: Change of meaning refers to the alteration of the meaning of existing words, as well as the addition of new meaning to established words. 9.1 Causes of Changes in Word Meaning A.Historical cause 历史原因 It often happens that though a word retains its original form ,its meaning has changed because the object which it denotes has changed . *Changes of meaning because of increased knowledge of the object described are common in the history of science. Eg. pencil ==is from a Latin word meaning “a little tail” or “a fine brush”, like our Chinese “pen”毛笔.Later, when it was made of wood and graphite ,it was still called a “pencil”. atom ==It was borrowed though Latin and French from Greek arouos,invisible. Thus atom meant originally “an particle too small to be divided”. This meaning is now out-of-date, because scientist have found out that atom can be split.
Compounding is a process of word formation by which two independent words are put together to make one word. The word formed in this way is called compound Blending is a process of word formation by which a word is created by combining parts of other words. Words formed in this way are called blends. From morphological viewpoints, there are four types of blending: Acronymy is the process of forming new words by joining the initial letters of names of social and political organizations or special noun phrases and technical terms. Words formed in this way are called initialisms or acronyms, depending on the pronunciation of the words. Initialisms are words formed by the initial letters of words and pronounced as lettersEEC: European Economic Community Acronyms are words formed by the initial letters of words and pronounced as words:OPEC: Organisation of Petroleum Export Countries According to Leonard Bloomfield’s point of view, a word is a minimum free form, that is to say, the smallest form that may appear in isolation. There are two types of linguistic forms: one is the bound form, the other is the free form. A bound form is one which cannot occur on its own as a separate word, e.g. the various affixes: de-, -tion, -ize, etc. A free form is one which can occur as a separate word. For example, the word lovely contains the free form love and the suffix –ly. The suffix –ly in the word lovely, of course, i s not a free for m, because it cannot stand by itself. So we call it a bound form. A word is a minimum free form The morpheme can be considered as the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words. 1)Morphemes are commonly classified into two forms according to their character: one is free form, and the other is bound form. 2)Free morphemes自由词素are morphemes which can occur as separate words. That is to say, a free morpheme can stand alone as a word. 3)Bound morphemes粘着词素are morphemes which cannot stand alone as words. They are mainly affixes. That is to say, a bound morpheme is one that must appear with at least one other morpheme, bound or free in a word. 4)2) Morphemes may be classified into two categories according to their lexical and grammatical relationships: 5)lexical morphemes and grammatical morphemesLexical morphemes are morphemes used for the construction of new words as in compound words Grammatical morphemes are morphemes used to express grammatical relationships between a word and its context, such as plurality or past tense There are three types of words according to morphology:Simple words,Compound words,Complex words Conversion Conversion is a main type of word-formation assigning the base to a different word
心理学名词解释集 【认知】是指人们获得知识或应用知识的过程，或信息加工的过程。这是人最基本的心理过程。它包括感觉、知觉、记忆、想象、思维和语言等。人脑接受外界输入的信息，经过头脑的加工处理，转换成内在的心理活动，再进而支配人的行为，这个过程就是信息加工的过程，也就是认知过程。 【艾森克的“三因素模型”】艾森克的“三因素模型”是人格的现代特质理论。其主要观点有：三因素包括外倾性，表现为内外倾的差异；神经质，表现为情绪稳定性的差异；精神质，表现为孤独、冷酷、敌视、怪异等偏于负面的人格特质。四层次由下到上依次为“特殊反应水平”，日常观察到的反应，属于误差因子；“习惯反应水平”，是由反复进行的日常反应形成的，属于特殊因子；“特质层”，由习惯反应形成，属于群因子；“类型层”，由特质构成，属于一般因子。各种人格特质可用一个人格维度图表示。 【场依存性】所谓场，就是环境，心理学家把外界环境描述为一个场，简单说场依存性是指一个人独立性的程度。美国心理学家赫尔曼?威特金（Herman?Witkin）认为有些人知觉时较多地受他所看到的环境信息的影响，有些人则较多地受身体内部线索的影响。他把个体较多地依赖自己所处的周围环境的外在参照，以环境的刺激交往中定义知识、信息称作场依存性。 【爬梯实验】美国心理学家格塞尔认为：先天的成熟和后天的学习是决定儿童心理发展的两个基本因素，在这两个因素中，他更强调成熟的作用。他让双生子中的一个从生后48周起每天爬十分钟楼梯，连续6周；而让另一个从生后53周起作同样的爬梯训练。后者在两周以后爬楼梯的水平就赶上前者。格塞尔认为，这一实验充分说明成熟有更重要的作用。 【感觉编码】我们的神经系统不能直接加工外界输入的物理能量和化学能量，这些能量必须经过感官的换能作用，才能转化为神经系统能够接受的神经能或神经冲动。这个过程就是我们说得感觉编码。 ［内隐记忆］是不能进入心灵意识，但可以在行为上表现出来的记忆．其中最重要的一种内隐记忆是程序性记忆，也即＂如何做＂这一类程序或技能知识．另一种内隐记忆出现与＂启动效应＂的研究之中，即：前面接触的相同或类似信息，促进某个具体信息的加工． 【表象】指当事物不在面前时，人们在头脑中出现的关于事物的形象。它具有直观性、概括性和可操作性。 【语言】是一种社会现象。是人类通过高度结构化的声音组合，通过书写符号、手势等构成的一种符号系统，同时又是一种运用这种符号系统来交流的行为。 【图示】是知识的心理组织形式。它说明了一组信息在头脑中最一般的排列或可以预期的排列方式。 【语言表征】是语言材料所负载的信息在头脑中的存在方式。 【动机】是由一种目标或对象所引导、激发和维持的个体活动的内在心理或内在动力。动机是一种心理过程，而不是心理活动的结果。 【驱力】是指个体由生理需要所引起的一种紧张状态，它能激发和驱动个体行为以满足需要，消除紧张，从而恢复机体的平衡状态。 【诱因】是指能满足个体需要的刺激物，它具有激发和诱使个体朝向目标的作用。 【意识】是有意识的支配调节行为，通过克服困难，以实现预定目标的心理过程。 【意识行动】受意识支配的行动。 【冲突】由于在意识行动中人们常常具有两个以上的目标，而这些目标不可能同时实现，因而引起拉意识行动中的目标冲突或动机斗争。 【挫折】指个体的意志行为受到无法克服的干扰或阻碍，预定目标不能实现是所产生的一种紧张状态和情绪反应，也就是俗话说的碰钉子。 默许心向反应 acquiescence response set 在问卷调查中，被试没有看清题目而不假思索的作出“是”的反应倾向。 适应 adaption 在一系列连续的刺激后神经反应性的降低。 上瘾 addiction 依赖药物，当停止服药时，会导致症状复发。 后像 afterimages 当视觉刺激消失后仍残留的视感觉。 注意 attention 通常指从大量刺激中选择某一刺激进行进一步加工。 唤醒 arousal 生理上的觉醒阶段，它包括交感神经系统的激活和身体的活动准备。 供选假设 alternative hypothesis 观察者开始提出的假设，通常认为变量间有差异或相关。 虚无假设 null hypothesis 观察者提出的要放弃的假设，通常认为变量间无差异或不相关。 分析内省 analytical introspection 一种自我报告的方法，被试主要报告他们的个人经验的特定方面。 语法缺失 agrammatism 由于脑损伤而导致造句困难、遗漏重要词语和词尾的症状。 称名失能症 anomia 由脑损伤而导致对物体和物体图片无法命名的病症。 游动效应 autokinetic effect 一种知觉错觉，静止的光点看起来会动的现象。 自动加工 automatic process 加工过程非常快，无须心理能量，不受意识控制，不能避免的加工。 自主神经系统（ANS） autonomic nervous system 神经系统中控制身体内活动（如心跳）的部分，它通过肌肉和腺体起作用。 行为遗传学 behaviour genetics 关于遗传对行为影响的研究，以研究双生子和领养子为主。 行为疗法 behaviour therapy 以行为主义理论为基础的临床治疗方法。 患者中心疗法 client-centred therapy 由罗杰斯发展的心理治疗方法，此方法多采用鼓励的方法以促进患者的个人发展。 认知疗法 cognitive therapy 以改变非理性思想和信念为基础的临床治疗方法。 领悟疗法 insight-oriented therapies 强调治疗着重于患者对自己问题本质的了解。 心理动力学 psychodynamic 包括所有强调无意识冲突和早期经历的治疗方法。 行为顺从 behavioural compliance 尽管态度或信念与别人不一致，但仍屈从于别人的行为方式。
张韵斐著《现代英语词汇学概论》——解析 第一部分Chapter Ⅰ 英语词汇的概论(A general survey of English vocabulary) Bloomfield 1933 中对词的定义是，每个单词都是最小的自由词。然而这个定义不够全面，存在着缺陷。首先，不是所有的单词都可以独立出现，如the ，a ，my 这些单词单独出现则没有具体意义。另外，Bloomfield的定义侧重在于语法（syntax）却没有涉及到词的意义。随着词汇学的发展跟完善。人们给词下了较为完整的定义。“词，今指语言组织中的基础单位，能独立运用，具有声音、意义和语法功能。”（《辞海》1984（上）375页，上海辞书出版社） 一种语言中所有的单词汇集起来便构成了该语言的词库。纵观英语的发展历史，我们可以知道，大多数的英语词汇都是外来词，它从拉丁语，法语和希腊语等语言中汲取词汇，不断的扩充自己，为己所用。特别是第二次世界大战之后，英语词汇得到了空前的发展。现代英语词汇快速发展的原因主要有四方面。一是科学技术的快速发展，二是社会经济的全球化，三是英语国家的政治和文化变化，最后是其他文化和语言对英语的强烈影响。 英语词汇是由各种不同类型的单词组成，而这些单词有着不同的分类标准。根据词的起源可以分为本族语和外来语；根据使用水平可以分为普通词汇，文学词汇。口头词汇，俚语以及科学术语。基础语库的基本特征是具有民族特征，稳定性，构词的能力和搭配能力。 第二部分Chapter Ⅱ到Chapter Ⅳ 英语词汇的形态结构和词的构词(Morphological structure of English words and word-formation ) (一) 词素（Morphemes） 单词是有词素（morphemes）构成的。词素即英语语言中有意义的最小单位，同时具有声音和意义。单词可以有一个或一个以上的词素组成。如：nation 是一个词素，national有nation+al 两个词素。词素跟音素（phoneme）不同，词素必须同时具备声音和意义两方面，而音素只需要发出声音即可。如k 和u 只是音素，因为它们没有什么具体含义。而a 和i 分别存在于单词tame 和time 中是音素，但当a是定冠词和i表示第一人称时它们则是词素。词素并不等同于音节（syllable ），因为音节并没有什么具体含义。如单词dis·a·gree·a·ble有五个音节却只有三个语素（dis + agree + able ）。词素有不同的形式，同一语素的不同形式即语素变体。 词素可以分为自由词素（free morphemes）和黏着词素（bound morphemes）。自由词素可以单独成为单词，而黏着词素则必须要依附于其他的词素，如-ly , -ness。 词素又可以分为词根和词缀。词根是单词中表示含义的成分，可以是自由或者黏着词素。词缀只能是黏着词素，它又可以分为屈折词缀（inflectional affixes）和派生词缀（derivational affixes ）。屈折词缀跟语法有关，派生词缀又可以分为前缀跟后缀，这都是构成新单词的重要元素。从词素的层面来说，词可以分类为简单词，复杂词以及合成词。词素在词的构成中取到非常重要的作用，因为构词的二大过程----合成和附加都涉及到了词素，前者是词素的联合，后者是黏着词素附加到自由词素上。 (二) 词的构成（word-formation） 1/5页 有很多种途径可以构成词汇，大的方面主要有合成法（compounding），派生法(derivation)和转换法(conversion)三种，小的方面主要有八个过程，分别是首字母法(acronym)，混合法(blending)，截短法(clipping)，专有名词(word from proper names)，逆构法(back-formation)，复制法(reduplication)，新古典法(neo-classical famation)以及混杂法(miscellaneous)。
Introduction 绪论 0.1 The nature and Domain of English lexicology 英语词汇学的定义及研究范围 Lexicology is a branch of linguistics, inquiring into the origins and meanings of words. 词汇学是语言学的一个分支，研究词汇的起源和意义。 English lexicology aims at investigating and studying the morphological structures of English words and word equivalents, their semantic structures, relations, historical development, formation and usages. 英语词汇学研究英语词汇的形态结构、词的对应及其语义结构、词义关系、词的历史演变、词的构成及词的用法等。 English lexicology is a theoretically-oriented course. 英语词汇学是一门理论性课程。 It is chiefly concerned with the basic theories of words in general and of English words in particular. 该课程主要论述词汇学的基本理论，特别是英语词汇的理论知识。 However, it is a practical course as well, for in the discussion, we shall inevitably deal with copious stocks of words and idioms, and study a great many usage examples. 但是，英语词汇学也是一门实践性课程，在该书的论述中，我们将遇到大量的词汇和习语，学习大量词汇用法实例。 Naturally, there will be a large quantity of practice involved. 当然，同时还要接触到大量的词汇练习。 0.2 Its Relation to Other Disciplines 英语词汇学与其它学科的关系 English lexicology itself is a subbranch of linguistics. 英语词汇学是语言学的一个分支。 But it embraces other academic disciplines, such as morphology, semantics, etymology, stylistics, lexicography. 但它却与其他学科相关，如形态学、语义学、词源学、文体学和词典学等。 Each of them has been established as a discipline in its own right. 而这些学科都各成一门学科。 Morphology is the branch of grammar which studies the structure or forms of words, primarily through the use of morpheme construct. 形态学是语法学的一个分支，主要通过运用词素（形位）结构研究词的结构或形式。 This is one of the major concerns of lexicology, for we shall discuss the inflections of words and word-formation and examine how morphemes are combined to form words and words to form sentences. 这是词汇学研究的主要内容之一，因为研究词汇就必需讨论的屈折变化和构词法，考察词素如何构成词、词如何构成句子。 Etymology is traditionally used for the study of the origins and history of the form and meaning of words. 词源学研究词的形式和意义的起源及其历史变化。 Modern English is derived from the languages of early Germanic tribes with a fairly small vocabulary. 现代英语源于词汇量颇小的古日尔曼语。 We shall study how this small vocabulary has grown into a huge modern English vocabulary and explain the changes that have taken place in the forms and meanings of words. 我们将研究这门词汇量很小的语言是如何发展成为词汇量庞大的现代英语，并解释英语词汇的形式和意义是如何变化的。 Stylistics is the study of style. 文体学研究文体。 It is concerned with the user’s choices of linguistic elements in a particular context for special effects. 主要对语用者在特定语境中如何选择语言要素（即如何选择用词、句型等）以达到特定的表达效果进行观察研究。 Among the areas of study: lexis, phonology, syntax, graphology, we shall concentrate on lexis, exploring the stylistic values of words. 在文体学所研究的词汇、音系学、句法学和书写法范围中，我们主要研究词汇，探讨词汇的文体价值。Lexicography shares with lexicology the same problems: the form, meaning, origins and usages of words, but they have a pragmatic difference. 词典学和词汇学探讨同样的问题：词汇的形式、意义、词汇的起源及用法，但两者在语用上还有差异。 A lexicographer’s task is to record the language as it is used so as to present the genuine picture of words to the reader, providing authoritative reference, whereas the student of lexicology is to acquire the knowledge and information of lexis so as to increase their lexical awareness and capacity of language use. 词典学家的任务是实录词汇的用法并把词汇用法的真实情形呈现给读者，为其提供权威性的参考；而词汇学家则是研究词汇的知识和信息，以增强读者对词汇的了解和语言的使用能力。 Though English lexicology has a wide coverage of academic areas, our task is definite and consistent. 英语词汇学的研究范围很大，但我们的任务是明确而系统的。 That is to study English words in different aspects and from different angles. 即从不同角度研究英语词汇的各个方面。0.3 Method of Study 英语词汇学的研究方法 There are generally two approaches to the study of words, namely synchronic and diachronic. 一般来说，词汇研究有两种
第一章word 1.Word --- A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic funtion. 第三章formation 1 1. Morpheme --- A morpheme is the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words. 2. Allomorph --- Some morphemes are realized by more than one morph according to their position in a word. Such alternative morphs are know as allomorphs. 3. Free morphemes (Free root) --- They are morphemes which are independent of other morphemes. 4. Bound Morphemes --- They are morphemes which cannot occur as separate words. 5. Bound root --- A bound root is that part of the word that carries the fundamental meaning just like a free root. Unlike a free root, it is a bound form and has to combine with other morphemes to make words. 6. Affixes --- Affixes are forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or function. 7. Inflectional affixes --- Affixes attaches to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are known as inflectional morphemes. 8. Derivational affixes --- Derivational affixes are affixes added to other morphemes to create new words. 9. Prefixes --- Prefixes are affixes that come before the word. 10. Suffixes --- suffixes are affixes that come after the word. 11. Roo t --- A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analysed without total loss of identity. 12. Stem --- a stem can be defined as a form to which affixes of any kind can be added. 第四章formation 2 1. Affixation --- affixation is generally defined as the formation of words by adding word-forming or derivational affixes to stems. 2. Prefixation --- is the formation of new words by adding prefixes to stems. Suffixation--- is the formation of new words by adding suffixes to stems. 3. Compounding（Compositon）-- is the formation of new words by joining two or more stems. 4. Conversion-- is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class. 5. Blending-- is the formation of new words by combined by parts of two words or a word plus a plus a part of another word. 6. Clipping- is the formation of new words by shortening a longer word by cutting a part off the original and using what remain instead.
心理学题库: 心理学：研究人的行为和心理活动规律的科学。 社会心理学：致力与理解人在社会情境中的心理和行为级其本质和起因的一个科学领域。 个体发展心理学：研究个体从出生到衰老的整个过程中的心理发展和变化规律。 发展与教育心理学：个体心理发生与发展以及为了促进个体心理发展的人类学习与教育的实质与规律的科学。 心理健康：基本心理活动的过程内容完整、协调一致（知、情、意、行、人格完整协调，能适应社会） 方法： 观察法：在自然情境中对行为有目的、有计划观察并记录及进行分析，以发现心理活动变化和发展规律的方法。 测验法：特定量表为工具，对心理特征进行间接了解，做出量化结论的研究方法。 实验法：在控制条件下对某种行为或心理现象进行观察的方法。 调查法：就某个问题要求回答自己想法或做法，以此来分析、推测群体的态度和心理特征的研究方法。 问卷法：采用预先拟定好的问题表，由被试自行填写来搜集资料进行研究的方法。 谈话法：根据预先拟定问题向被调查者提出，在面对面一问一答中搜集资料，然后对群体的心理特点级心理状态进行分析和推测。测验法（人格）：在标准化的技术条件下，对受测者的行为和内部心理变化进行探索和鉴别的方法。 横断研究法：在同一时间研究不同年龄组被试的心理发展水平，并对其进行比较。 纵向研究法：对被试进行较长时间追踪研究，对其心理发展进行观察、记录。目的是考察某些心理现象发生的质的变化规律。 群体序列研究法：在同一时间选定不同的被试群体进行研究，然后对各个被试群体进行纵向的跟踪研究。 投射测验：若干个模棱两可的刺激所组成，被试可任加解释，使自己动机、态度。感情及性格等在不知不觉中反应出来。 意识与注意 意识（心理活动）：用感觉、知觉、思维、记忆等心理活动，对内在的身心状态和环境中外在（人、事、物）变化的觉知。 无意识：不能觉察的心理活动和过程。 前意识：意识与无意识之间过度层面。 催眠：似睡眠又实非睡眠的意识恍惚状态。 注意：意识在某一时刻所处状态，表现为对一定对象的指向与集中。 注意的指向性：瞬间意识选择某个对象，而忽略了其余对象。 注意的集中性：意识指向某个对象时，在这这个对象上集中起来。 不随意注意：事先没有目的、也不需要意志努力的注意。 随意注意：有预定目的、需要一定意志努力的注意。 随意后注意：服从当前的任务要求，节省意志的努力。 感觉 感觉：对直接作用与感觉器官的事物的个别属性在脑中的反映。 感受性：人对刺激物的感觉能力。 感觉阈限：感到性大小的基本指标。 绝对感觉阈限：最小可觉察的刺激量。 差别感觉阈限：对两个刺激间最小差异的察觉能力。 知觉 知觉：通过感官得到内部和外部环境的信息，信息经过头脑的加工（整合和解释），产生了对事物的整体认识。 知觉的整体性：在经验基础上把由多种属性构成的事物，知觉为一个统一的整体的特性。 知觉的选择性：知觉时，从复杂刺激环境中将一些有关内容抽出组织成知觉对象，其他部分则留为背景。 知觉的理解性：以过去的知识、经验来解释对象。 知觉的恒常性：感觉不断在变化，知觉稳定不变。 方位知觉：对物体的空间关系和自己的身体在空间所处的位置的知觉。
张韵斐著《现代英语词汇学概论》一书的读后感 摘要语言学 关键词词汇词义语义词的构成 正文 《现代英语词汇学概论》一书共有12章,可以分为四部分.第一部分即ChapterⅠ是英语词汇的概论(A general survey of English vocabulary),第二部分即Chapter Ⅱ到Chapter Ⅳ的英语词汇的形态结构和构词法(Morphological structure of English words and word-formation )，第三部分即ChapterⅤ到ChapterⅨ的词义及其语义关系(Word meaning and sense relations)，第四部分是Chapter Ⅹ到Chapter ⅩⅡ的英语习语，美国英语，英语词典的使用和选择（English idioms,American English , choice and use of English dictionaries ）. 第一部分Chapter Ⅰ 英语词汇的概论(A general survey of English vocabulary) Bloomfield 1933 中对词的定义是，每个单词都是最小的自由词。然而这个定义不够全面，存在着缺陷。首先，不是所有的单词都可以独立出现，如the ，a ，my 这些单词单独出现则没有具体意义。另外，Bloomfield的定义侧重在于语法（syntax）却没有涉及到词的意义。随着词汇学的发展跟完善。人们给词下了较为完整的定义。“词，今指语言组织中的基础单位，能独立运用，具有声音、意义和语法功能。”（《辞海》1984（上）375页，上海辞书出版社） 一种语言中所有的单词汇集起来便构成了该语言的词库。纵观英语的发展历史，我们可以知道，大多数的英语词汇都是外来词，它从拉丁语，法语和希腊语等语言中汲取词汇，不断的扩充自己，为己所用。特别是第二次世界大战之后，英语词汇得到了空前的发展。现代英语词汇快速发展的原因主要有四方面。一是科学技术的快速发展，二是社会经济的全球化，三是英语国家的政治和文化变化，最后是其他文化和语言对英语的强烈影响。 英语词汇是由各种不同类型的单词组成，而这些单词有着不同的分类标准。根据词的起源可以分为本族语和外来语；根据使用水平可以分为普通词汇，文学词汇。口头词汇，俚语以及科学术语。基础语库的基本特征是具有民族特征，稳定性，构词的能力和搭配能力。 第二部分Chapter Ⅱ到Chapter Ⅳ 英语词汇的形态结构和词的构词(Morphological structure of English words and word-formation ) (一)词素（Morphemes） 单词是有词素（morphemes）构成的。词素即英语语言中有意义的最小单位，同时具有声音和意义。单词可以有一个或一个以上的词素组成。如：nation 是一个词素，national有nation+al 两个词素。词素跟音素（phoneme）不同，词素必须同时具备声音和意义两方面，而音素只需要发出声音即可。如k 和u 只是音素，因为它们没有什么具体含义。而a 和i 分别存在于单词tame 和time 中是音素，但当a是定冠词和i表示第一人称时它们则是词素。词素并不等同于音节（syllable ），因为音节并没有什么具体含义。如单词dis·a·gree·a·ble有五个音节却只有三个语素（dis + agree + able ）。词素有不同的形式，同一语素的不同形式即语素变体。 词素可以分为自由词素（free morphemes）和黏着词素（bound morphemes）。自由词素可以单独成
Types of meaning Types of lexical changes 1.Elevation:词义升格 Definition: words rise from humble beginnings to positions of importance Some words early in their history signify something quite low or humble, but change as time goes by to designate something agreeable or pleasant. For example: nice: ignorant---foolish---delightful, pleasant Marshal: a keeper of horses---a high ranking army officer So elevation refers that the meaning of word changes from the neutral/negative to positive. 2.Old English:It refers to the English starting from 450 to 1100 AD. The old English is made up of different sources of languages spoken then –that of Anglo-Saxons, that of Celts, and that of Jutes, with a lot of Latin elements used for common peopl e’s life. 3.Bound morpheme: It is the smallest unit of grammar, a unit which cannot occur as separate words. They have no independent semantic meaning; instead, they have: Attached meaning E.g. un-kind, hope-ful Grammatical meaning E.g. cat-s, slow-ly, walk-ing, call-ed For an exact example, in the word “careful”, care is free morpheme, “-ful” is a bound morpheme. 4.Hyponymy: Hyponymy deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion, or to say, the relationship between general lexical items and specific lexical items. That is to say, when X is a kind of Y, the lower term X is the“hyponym”, and the upper term Y is the “superordinate”. For example, “fiction”is the superordinate of “novel”, “novelette”and “short story”, which are the hyponyms of “fiction”. Knowing the semantic features of the hyponyms and their superordinates can help us achieve vividness, exactness, and concreteness in expression.