Terms: 1. lexicology 2. morpheme 3. root 4. derivational affixes 5. affixes 6. compounding 7. blending 8. conversion 9. back formation 10. synonymy 11. homonymy 12. hyponymy Questions: 1. Explain the relationship between sound and meaning with examples. There is no logical relationship between sound and meaning as the symbolic connection between them is arbitrary and conventional. E.g. “woman” means “Frau” in German, “Femme” in French and “Funv” in Chinese. On the other hand, the same sound /rait/ can mean right, rite and write, though denoting different things, yet have the same sound. 2. Illustrate four types of antonyms with examples. 3. What are allomorphs? Please list the allomorphes of the morpheme{plural} in English. The different morphological or phonetic forms of a morpheme are allomorphs of the morpheme. The noun plural morpheme {plural} in English has a numer of allomorphs, such as [-s] in cats, [-z] in bags, [-iz] in fishes, [-ai] in mice, [-n] in oxen, [-i:] in geese and so on. 4. As language changes over time, the meaning of a word may deviate from its original denotation. Discuss the major types of semantic changes. Major types of semantic changes are semantic broadening, semantic narrowing and semantic shift. Semantic broadening refers to the process in which the meaning of a word becomes more general or inclusive than its historically earlier denotation. Take the word “holiday”for example, the orlder meaning was a “holy day”. Today everyone enjoys a holiday, regardless of religious background. Semantic narrowing is a process in which the meaning of a word becomes less gneral or inclusive than its historically earlier meaning. For example. “wife”used to mean “any woman”, but now it only means “a married female”. Semantic shift is a process of semantic change in which a word loses its former meaning and acquires a new, sometimes related, meaning. For example, the word silly meant “happy”in Old English, and naive in Middle English, but “foolish”in Modern Engilsh. 5. Illustrate four types of synonyms with examples.
Chapter 1 LEXICOLOGY: Lexicology is the science of words, which is concerned with the study of vocabulary of a given language. It deals with words, the origin, development, history, structure, meaning and application. In short, it is the study of the signification and application of words. Chapter 2 1.The history of English language History of English language can be divided into Old English(450AD-1150AD), Middle English (1150AD-1500AD), and Modern English (1500AD-present). 2.Classification of English words English words can be divided into different groups in terms of the origin, the level of usage and the notion. By origin Native words (Anglo-Saxon/ old English) Loan words (borrowed) By level of usage: 5 categories Standard/ popular word/ common words Literary words Colloquial words Slang words Technical words By notion Content words: They have the independent lexical meaning, e.g. noun, verb, adjective, adverb. Function words: They are determiners, conjunctions, prepositions, auxiliaries, and grammatical signals, functional makers. Pick up the slang words and explain. 1.Father said nix to our plan, so we couldn’t go to the museum. (nothing, no) 2.When the buck leads, the world suffers. (money, dollars) 3.He says he’ll be a great writer but that’s a lot of boloney; he’ll never be. (nonsense) 4.I’ll clobber you if you don’t do what you’re told, said the angry father. (beat sb. repeatedly) 5.I think I’m just a hick at heart. (a foolish person from the country) 6.He thought his idea was wonderful, but in fact, it was complete rot. (nonsense) Chapter 3 Compounding: refers to the faculty and device of language to form new words by combining or putting together old words, e.g. schoolboy. Derivation: derivation is "Used to form new words, as with happi-ness and un-happy from happy, or determination from determine. Conversion: the creation of word from an existing word without any change in form, e.g. the adjective clean becomes the verb clean.
1。词汇学是以语言中的词和词汇作为研究对象的一门学科。 2。词的意义的体现，则有事物、思维和语言结构三者。因而词的基本分类，则有客体、特征、状态和代替之别。据此研究，一在抓词的理据；二在抓词的变化，考察哪些意义变化引起哪些形式变化和哪些形式变化引起哪些意义变化。即通过词的结构分析，串连语音、形态、语义的内在联系和词义系统相符的名词，确定词与词间的语源关系，从而寻求词根及其衍化轨迹。现代词汇学的研究，不能再墨守传统训访学的方式和方法。既要由上而下地从经籍递推到大众口语，又要根据大众的词汇逆溯到它们最初的来源。这样，对词形结构的分析，词义发展的识别和语音衍化的探讨，才能有所创获。 3。对于某一发展阶段上的语言体系的描写和研究又叫共时的或静态的研究；对于语言体系及其各个组成部分在历史上的发展变化的研究又叫历时的或演化的研究。“共时性”(synchronie)和“历时 性” (diachronie)这两个概念是瑞士语言学家索绪尔(Ferdinand de Saussurel857—1913)在他的《普通语言学教程》里首先提出来的。索绪尔对“共时”和“历时”的解释是，“有关我们这门科学的静态方面的一切都是共时的，涉及演他的一切都是历时的”“共时和历时分别指一种语言状态和一种演化情况。”汉译本《普通语言学教程》，商务印书馆，1980，页119. （P2） 4。个别语言词汇学又可以分为历史词汇学和描写词汇学。前者研究语言的词汇在历史过程中的发展，后者研究在历史发展的某一阶段(一般是指现阶段)语言的词汇系统的状况和特点。自然，二者也是相互为用，不可以截然划分开来的。（P2） 5。若是研究一个民族的古代历久那就更加用得着词汇学(特别是历史词汇学)的知识。正如当代语言学家丰克 (Wilfred Funk)在《词的来源和它们的传奇故事》(Word Origin and Their Romantic Stories，1950)中所说，“词汇也象个小窗户，通过它可以熟悉一个民族的过去。”有时候在缺乏其他史料的情况下，语言材料(主要是词汇材料)就成了研究古代历史上某一个问题的重要依据甚至是唯一依据。（P7） 6。把语言材料应用于古代历史的研，在西方创始于德国语言学家雅各·格林(Jakob Grimml785—1863)。他的著名论点是：“我们的语言也就是我们的历史。”（J。Grimm：《K1einere Schriften》 (小品集)第1册，1864，页290.转引自阿巴耶夫：《语言史和民族史》，《民族问题译丛》1957年第12期，页13。）（P7） 7。分别来说历史词汇学的知识能够帮助解决古代民族史上如下三方面的问题：1)民族起源，即一个民族的起源和形成过程如何，它跟哪些别的民族有亲属关系；2)民族文化历史，即一个民族在各个历史阶段上的文化水平及其主要特点如何；3)民族间互相交往和影响，即一个民族在历史上跟哪些别的民族发生过关系，它受到过它们哪些影响，又对它们有过哪些影响。 解决头一个问题主要依靠基本词汇的材料，而解决后两个问题就还要利用一般词汇的捞料，因为一个民族的物质生活和精神生活的特点及变化都会在语言的词汇中留下它们的痕迹。（P8） 8。总括词的语言外部联系和语言内部联系两个方面，就可以看出一种语言的词汇是在历史上形成并不断发展的社会现象，它本身构成一个完整的体系；词和词之间、词和语言的其他要素之间以及词和客观现实之间都存在着不可分割的多种多样的联系。P14
名词解释 1．土壤：发育于地球陆地表面能生长绿色植物的疏松多孔的结构表层。其基本特性是具有肥力。 2．土壤肥力：是土壤的基本属性和质的特征，是土壤从营养条件和环境条件方面，供应和协调植物生长的能力。土壤肥力是土壤物理、化学和生物学性质的综合反映。3．土壤剖面：由成土作用形成的层次成为土层（土壤发生层），而完整的垂直土层序列称为土壤剖面。 4．土壤生产力：土壤肥力因素的各种性质和土壤的自然、人为环境条件构成了土壤生产力。 5．自然肥力：是指土壤在自然因子即五大成土因素（气候、生物、母质、地形和年龄）的综合作用下发育而来的肥力，它是自然成土过程的产物。 6．人为肥力：耕作熟化过程中发育而来的肥力，是在耕作、施肥、灌溉及其它技术措施等人为因素影响作用下所产生的结果。 7．有效肥力：在农业实践中，由于土壤性质、环境条件和技术水平的限制，只有其中一部分在当季表现出来，产生经济效益，这一部分肥力叫有效肥力。 8．潜在肥力：在农业实践中，由于土壤性质、环境条件和技术水平的限制，而没有直接反映出来的肥力叫做潜在肥力。 9．土壤圈：是地球表层系统中处于四大圈层（气、水、生物、岩石）交界面上最富有生命活力的土壤连续体或覆盖层。 10．土壤生态系统：是以土壤为研究核心的生态系统，可分为研究土壤生物的生态系统和研究土壤性状与环境关系的土壤生态系统两类。 11．矿物：指天然产生于地壳中具有一定化学组成，物理性质和内在结构的物体，是组成岩石的基本单位。 12．风化作用：是指岩石、矿物在外界因素和内部因素的共同作用下，逐渐发生崩裂和分解的过程，包括物理风化作用、化学风化作用和生物风化作用。 13．土壤母质：岩石矿物的风化产物，又称土母质。 14．土壤原生矿物：是指那些经过不同程度的物理风化，未改变化学组成和结晶结构的原始成岩矿物。 15．土壤次生矿物：在风化及成土过程中由原生矿物分解转化而成的新矿物。 16．同晶替代：是指组成矿物的中心离子被电性相同、大小相近的离子所替代而晶格构造保持不变的现象。 17．硅铝率：土壤粘粒部分的SiO2和Fe2O3含量的分子比。 18．有机质：是指存在于土壤中的所有含碳有机物质，它包括土壤中各种动、植物残体，微生物体及其分解和合成的各种有机物质。 19．土壤腐殖质：是除未分解和半分解动植、物残体和微生物体以外的有机物质的总称。20．土壤腐殖物质：是经土壤微生物作用后，由多酚和多醌类物质聚合而成的含芳香环结构的、新形成的黄色至棕黑色的非晶形高分子有机化合物。 21．矿化率：每年因矿化而消耗的有机质的量占土壤有机质总量的百分数。 22．腐殖化系数：把每克干重的有机物施入土壤1年后所能分解转化为腐殖质（干重）的克数。 23．有机质土壤：一般把有机质含量20％以上的土壤称为有机质土壤。 24．矿质土壤：把有机质含量20％以下的土壤称为矿质土壤。 25．有机质的矿化过程：有机化合物进入土壤后，在微生物酶的作用下发生氧化反应，彻底分解释放出二氧化碳、水和能量，同时释放出植物可利用的矿质养料的过程。26．有机质的腐殖化过程：进入土壤中的各种有机化合物通过微生物的合成或在原植物组织中的聚合转变为组成和结构比原来有机化合物更为复杂的新的有机化合物的过程。27．C/N（碳氮比）：有机物中碳素总量与氮素总量之比。 28．有机质的周转：有机物质进入土壤后由其一系列转化和矿化过程所构成的物质流通称为有机质的周转。 29．激发作用：土壤中加入新鲜有机物质会促进土壤原有有机质的降解，这种矿化作用称之新鲜有机物质对土壤有机质分解的激发作用。 30．腐殖化作用：土壤腐殖物质的形成过程。 31．菌根：存在于一些树木根的活性部分的真菌菌丝，是真菌和植物根的共生联合体。32．联合固氮：有些固氮微生物在植物根系中生活，这时的固氮作用比单独生活时要强的多，这种类型称为联合固氮。 33．根际（根圈）：泛指植物根系及其影响所及的范围。 34．根际效应:由于植物根系的细胞组织脱落物和根系分泌物为根际微生物提供了丰富的营养和能量。因此，在植物根际的微生物数量和活性常高于根外土壤，这种现象称为根际效应。 土壤密度：单位容积固体土粒(不包括粒间孔隙的容积)的质量（实用上多以重量代替，克/厘米3）称为土壤密度。 35．土壤容重：田间自然垒结状态下单位容积土体（包括土粒和孔隙）的质量或重量(克/厘米3或吨/米3），称为土壤容重。 36．土壤孔隙度（总孔度）：全部孔隙容积与土体容积的百分率。 37．孔隙比：土壤中孔隙容积与土粒容积的比值。 38．固相率：土壤固相的容积占土体容积的百分率，称为固相率。 39．液相率：土壤液相的容积占土体容积的百分率，称为液相率。 40．气相率：土壤气相的容积占土体容积的百分率，称为气相率。 41．三相比：土壤固、液、气三相的容积分别占土体容积的百分率，称为固相率、液相率（即容积含水量或容积含水率，可与质量含水量换算）和气相率，三者之比即是土壤三相比。 42．土壤粒级（粒组）：土壤颗粒按粒径大小和性质不同分成若干级别（按土粒的大小，分为若干组，称为土壤粒级）。
Compounding is a process of word formation by which two independent words are put together to make one word. The word formed in this way is called compound Blending is a process of word formation by which a word is created by combining parts of other words. Words formed in this way are called blends. From morphological viewpoints, there are four types of blending: Acronymy is the process of forming new words by joining the initial letters of names of social and political organizations or special noun phrases and technical terms. Words formed in this way are called initialisms or acronyms, depending on the pronunciation of the words. Initialisms are words formed by the initial letters of words and pronounced as lettersEEC: European Economic Community Acronyms are words formed by the initial letters of words and pronounced as words:OPEC: Organisation of Petroleum Export Countries According to Leonard Bloomfield’s point of view, a word is a minimum free form, that is to say, the smallest form that may appear in isolation. There are two types of linguistic forms: one is the bound form, the other is the free form. A bound form is one which cannot occur on its own as a separate word, e.g. the various affixes: de-, -tion, -ize, etc. A free form is one which can occur as a separate word. For example, the word lovely contains the free form love and the suffix –ly. The suffix –ly in the word lovely, of course, i s not a free for m, because it cannot stand by itself. So we call it a bound form. A word is a minimum free form The morpheme can be considered as the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words. 1)Morphemes are commonly classified into two forms according to their character: one is free form, and the other is bound form. 2)Free morphemes自由词素are morphemes which can occur as separate words. That is to say, a free morpheme can stand alone as a word. 3)Bound morphemes粘着词素are morphemes which cannot stand alone as words. They are mainly affixes. That is to say, a bound morpheme is one that must appear with at least one other morpheme, bound or free in a word. 4)2) Morphemes may be classified into two categories according to their lexical and grammatical relationships: 5)lexical morphemes and grammatical morphemesLexical morphemes are morphemes used for the construction of new words as in compound words Grammatical morphemes are morphemes used to express grammatical relationships between a word and its context, such as plurality or past tense There are three types of words according to morphology:Simple words,Compound words,Complex words Conversion Conversion is a main type of word-formation assigning the base to a different word
Explain the following terms 一1) free morpheme/ A free morpheme is one that can be uttered发出，表达alone with meaning. It can exist on its own without a bound morpheme. In the traditional sense, a free morpheme is a word. 例如hand ,eat, get 2) bound form/never used as sentences. – ess in countess, lioness and duchess –ish in boyish, childish and greenish –s in hats, books and cups 3) function words/ function words are often short words, they do not have much lexical meaning and some of them have no lexical meaning of their own; They are often short words such as determiners限定词, conjunctions连词, prepositions介词, auxiliaries辅助物, and so forth. 如to, the , of , by 4) content words实词/ They are used to name objects, qualities, actions, processes or states, and have independent lexical meaning. They are the nouns, main verbs, adjectives形容词and adverbs副词of a language. 二1) syntheti c综合的language / inflectional grammatical markers, French, German and Russian. 2) analytic language/word order, prepositions or auxiliary verbs , English and Chinese 3) Indo-European family of languages/ Europe and parts of Southern Asia Eight groups 三1) morphemes /The morpheme is the smallest meaningful linguistic unit of language, not divisible可分的or analyzable into smaller forms. 2) allomorphs/variants变体of the same morphem如im-, ir-, il- : allomorphs of the morpheme in- 3) root / is the basic unchangeable part of a word, and it conveys the main lexical meaning of the word. work able, work er, work ed, and work ing 4) stem /A stem is of concern only when dealing with inflectional morphology. Inflectional (but not derivational) affixes are added to it. It is the part of word-form which remains when all inflectional affixes have been removed. 如undesirables, undesirable; desired, desire 5) base / A base is any form to which affixes of any kind can be added. Desirable, desire - base and root, not stem; undesirable, desirable-base, not root and stem 6) inflectional affixes/A inflectional affix serves to express such meanings as plurality复数, tense, and the comparative比较的or superlative 最高的degree. 如-s, -ed, -er, -est 7) derivational affixes / When they are added to another morpheme, they derive a new word. re+write, mini+car, super+market, modern+ize, work+er 8) compounding 复合法/Compounding is a word-formation process consisting of combining two or more bases to form a compound word 9) derivation 派生法/Derivation or affixation is generally defined as a word-formation process by which new words are created by adding a prefix or a suffix or both to the base 10) conversion 转化法/Conversion is a word-formation process in which a word of a certain word-class is shifted into a word of another word-class without the addition of an affix. 11) initialism/It is a type of shortening, using the first letters of words to form a proper name, a technical term, or a phrase. 12) acronym首字母缩略词/Acronyms are words formed from the initial letters of the name of an organization or a scientific term, etc. Acronyms differ from initialisms in that they are pronounced as words rather than as sequences of letters. 13) blending拼缀/Blending is a process of word-formation in which a new word is formed by
Motivation of words分类：onomatopoeic motivation, morphological motivation, semantic motivation, etymological motivation. Types of meaning: grammatical ~ & lexical ~; conceptual ~& associative ~(connotative~, stylistic~, affective ~, collocative ~,) Primary meaning is the only meaning that a word had when it was first created. Derived meanings are the meanings that a word gets from the primary meaning at different stages of its development in the course of time. 同义关系Synonyms are words which share the same or nearly the same meaning with each other but different in sound and spelling. There are absolute synonyms and relative synonyms which result from borrowing, dialects and regional English, figurative and euphemistic use of words, coincidence with idiomatic expressions. There exists the difference between or among synonyms in terms of their denotation, connotation or application. Absolute synonyms or complete synonyms are words which are identical in meaning in all its aspects. Relative synonyms or near-synonyms are similar or nearly the same in denotation, but embrace different shades of meaning or different degrees of a given quality. 3.Sources of Synonyms 1) Borrowing 2)Dialects and regional English 3) Figurative and euphemistic use of words 4) Coincidence with idiomatic expressions 4.What are the characteristics of antonyms? 1) Antonyms are classified on the basis of semantic opposition 2) A word which has more than one meaning can have more than one antonym. 3) Antonyms differ in semantic inclusion. 4) Contrary terms are gradable antonyms, differing in degree of intenisty, so each has its own corresponding opposite. 5.同形同音异义关系Homonymy is one of the features of words that a word is different in meaning from another, but either identical both in sound and spelling or identical only in sound or spelling with the other Homonyms generally fall into three classes: perfect homonyms (same name); homographs (same spelling) and homophones （some sound）. Perfect homonyms are those words identical both in sound and spelling, but different in meaning. Homophones refer to the words identical only in sound but different in spelling and meaning 6.上下义关系:Hyponymy deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion. That is, the meaning of a more specific word is included in that of another more general word. Superordinates refer to some general words; subordinates denote those more specific words. Hyponymy can be described in terms of tree-like graphs, with higher-order superordinates above the lower subordinates. But their status either as superordinate or subordinate is relative to other terms. For example, horse, dog, pig are subordinates in relation to animal, but superordinates of mare, hound and boar, Animal itself becomes a subordinate of creature. And creature in turn becomes 7.词义变化的种类There are five types of meaning, changes: extension, narrowing, degradation, elevation, and transfer among which extension and narrowing are the most common. Changes in meaning can be accounted for from extra-linguistic factors (historical reason, class reason, and psychological reason) and intra-linguistic factors (shortening, the influx of borrowing, and analogy). 8.词义的扩大Extension is a process by which a word with a specialized sense is generalized to cover a broader or less 9.Definite concept. Compare the following；词义的缩小Narrowing is a process by which a word of wider meaning acquires a specialized sense；词义的升华Elevation is a process by which a word moves from a derogatory or neutral sense to a neutral and/or appreciative sense；词义的降格Degradation is a process by which a word of reputation slides into a pejorative use,；词义的转移Transfer is a process by which a word denoting one thing changes to refer to a different but related thing. Paper serves as an example. This word formerly denoted an African plant papyrus, which was
原生矿物:指那些经过不同程度的物理风化，未改变化学组成和结晶结构的原始成岩矿物。次生矿物:原生矿物在风化和成土作用下，新形成的矿物，如各种盐类CO32-、SO42- 、SiO42- 、Cl- 四面体: 硅氧四面体是硅酸盐矿物的最基本的结构单位，不同的连接组合方式形成不同的硅酸盐矿物。 八面体:由六个氧原子环绕着一个中心铝离子排列而成，氧原子排列成两层，铝原子居于两层中心孔穴内。 同晶替换:是指组成矿物的中心离子被电性相同、大小相近的离子所替代而晶格构造保持不变的现象。 1：1型:晶层与晶层间距离稳定，连接紧密，内部空隙小，电荷量少，单位个体小，分散度低。多出现于酸性土壤。如高岭石类。 2：1型: 胀缩性大，吸湿性强，易在两边硅氧片中以Al3+代Si4+，有时可在硅铝片中，一般以Mg2+代Al3+→带正电→吸附负离子。 粘粒矿物:组成粘粒的次生矿物叫粘土矿物。 土壤质地:据土壤中各粒级土粒含量（质量）百分率的组合划分的土壤类型。种类：砂土、壤土、粘土 风化作用:岩石、矿物在外界因素和内部因素的共同作用下，逐渐发生分解和崩解的过程。永久电荷:同晶替代的结果使土壤产生永久电荷，能吸附土壤溶液中带相反电荷的离子,使土壤具有保肥能力。 土壤吸湿水**：干土从空气中吸着水汽所保持的水称为吸湿水 土壤膜状水**：土壤颗粒表面上吸附的水分形成水膜，这部分水称为土壤膜状水。 土壤膜状水达到最大值时的土壤含水量称为土壤最大分子持水量。 凋萎系数:作物无法从土壤中吸收水分而呈现永久凋萎，此时的土壤含水量就称为凋萎系数。土壤毛管水***：存在于土壤毛管孔隙中的水分，称为毛管水。包括毛管悬着水和毛管上升水。这部分水作物可以利用。 毛管悬着水**借助于毛管力保持在上层土壤的毛管孔隙中的水分，它与来自地下水上升的毛管水并不相连，好像悬挂在上层土壤中一样，故称之为毛管悬着水。 田间持水量***：毛管悬着水达到最大值时的土壤含水量称为田间持水量，通常作为灌溉水量定额的最高指标。在数量上它包括吸湿水、膜状水和毛管悬着水。 土壤饱和含水量**：土壤所有孔隙都充满水时的含水量，也称为土壤全持水量。 重力水**:临时存在于土壤大孔隙（通气孔隙）中的水分，与土壤养分的淋失有关。 土水势：表示土壤水分在土—水平衡体系中所具有的能态。它是指将单位水量从一个土—水系统移到温度和气压完全相同的纯水池时所做的功。常用（Ψ）来表示。基质势 （Ψm）；压力势（Ψg）；溶质势（Ψs）；重力势（Ψg）。 基质势（ψm）***它是指将单位水量从一个平衡的土-水体系统移到另一个没有土壤基质(纯水)，而其它状态完全相同的水池时所做的功。或由吸附力和毛管力所制约的土水 势。 压力势（ψp）***它是指将单位水量从一个土-水体系移到另一个压力不同，而温度、基质、溶质等状态完全相同的参比系统时所做的功。或在土壤饱和水的情况下，由于受压 力而产生土水势变化。 溶质势（ψS）***它是指将单位水量从一个平衡的土-水体系统中移到另一个没有溶质而其它状态均相同的水池时所做的功。或指土壤水中溶解的溶质而引起的土水势 的变化。