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词汇学相关的一些名词解释

词汇学相关的一些名词解释
词汇学相关的一些名词解释

Compounding is a process of word formation by which two independent words are put together to make one word. The word formed in this way is called compound Blending is a process of word formation by which a word is created by combining parts of other words. Words formed in this way are called blends. From morphological viewpoints, there are four types of blending:

Acronymy is the process of forming new words by joining the initial letters of names of social and political organizations or special noun phrases and technical terms. Words formed in this way are called initialisms or acronyms, depending on the pronunciation of the words.

Initialisms are words formed by the initial letters of words and pronounced as lettersEEC: European Economic Community

Acronyms are words formed by the initial letters of words and pronounced as words:OPEC: Organisation of Petroleum Export Countries

According to Leonard Bloomfield’s point of view, a word is a minimum free form, that is to say, the smallest form that may appear in isolation.

There are two types of linguistic forms: one is the bound form, the other is the free form.

A bound form is one which cannot occur on its own as a separate word, e.g. the various affixes: de-, -tion, -ize, etc.

A free form is one which can occur as a separate word. For example, the word lovely contains the free form love and the suffix –ly.

The suffix –ly in the word lovely, of course, i s not a free for m, because it cannot stand by itself. So we call it a bound form.

A word is a minimum free form

The morpheme can be considered as the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words.

1)Morphemes are commonly classified into two forms according to their character: one is free form, and the other is bound form.

2)Free morphemes自由词素are morphemes which can occur as separate words. That is to say, a free morpheme can stand alone as a word.

3)Bound morphemes粘着词素are morphemes which cannot stand alone as words. They are mainly affixes. That is to say, a bound morpheme is one that must appear with at least one other morpheme, bound or free in a word.

4)2) Morphemes may be classified into two categories according to their lexical and grammatical relationships:

5)lexical morphemes and grammatical morphemesLexical morphemes are morphemes used for the construction of new words as in compound words Grammatical morphemes are morphemes used to express grammatical relationships between a word and its context, such as plurality or past tense

There are three types of words according to morphology:Simple words,Compound words,Complex words

Conversion

Conversion is a main type of word-formation assigning the base to a different word

class with no change of form. For example, the verb release is converted to the noun release.

There are two kinds of conversion: full conversion and partial conversion.

Full conversion is conversion as already discussed above.

Partial conversion is conversion, where a word of one word class appears in a function which is characteristic of another word class

The types of conversion contain three major word classes: nouns, verbs and adjectives. Conversion from noun to verb and from verb to noun are the most productive categories.

Conversion can be classified into four categories according to word classes. Affixation falls into two categories: prefixation and suffixation a nd the differences between them are just the differences between prefixes and suffixes.

The major prefixes can be classified into 10 categories by their meaning.

Negative Prefixes否定前缀

Reversative or privative prefixes逆反前缀

Pejorative prefixes贬义前缀

Prefixes of degree or size表范围和程度的前缀

Prefixes of orientation and attitude表方向和态度的前缀

Locative prefixes方位前缀

Prefixes of time and order表时间和顺序的前缀

Number prefixes数字前缀

Conversion prefixes转化前缀

Miscellaneous prefixes其他类型的前缀

Etymology is the study of the origin and history of words and their meanings. Etymology provides background information and knowledge about the history, origin and development of the English language and increases the learner’s enjoyment and real understanding of English words from their changes of forms including their spellings and pronunciations to that of meanings

stem: the part of a word that stays the same when different endings are added to it, for example 'driv-' in 'driving‘

Infix: a formative element inserted in a word

affix: prefix and suffix

prefix: a group of letters that you add to the beginning of a word to make another word. In the word 'unimportant', 'un-' is a prefix.

Prefixes with opposite or negative meanings: dis; -il; -im; -in; -ir; -un-

multi-many; semi-half; anti-against; pro-in favour of; ex-former; post-after; over-too much; under-not enough

Language is a system of symbols based on physiology, psychology and physics. It is a specific social action and a carrier of information used for human communication in a society

Linguistics is the study of human speech including the units, nature, structure, and modification [change] of language.

Linguistics consists of three braches: phonetics, grammar and lexicology Lexicology deals with words, their origin, development, history, structure, meaning

and application.

Lexicology is the branch of linguistics concerned with the study of the vocabulary of a given language.

A synchronic approach is an approach to the study of a language at one point of time:

For example:

Shift: each of two or more periods in which different groups of workers do the same jobs in relay. A group of people who work in this way.

A diachronic approach is an approach to the study of the change in a language that took place over a period of time.

Black market 黑市

White market 白市

Gray market 灰市

word is a minimal free form of language which has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.

Four points:

(1)A minimal free form of a language;

(2)A sound unity;

(3)A unity of meaning;

(4)A form that can function alone in a sentence.\

There is no logical or intrinsic connection between a sound and what it refers to. T he relation between sound and meanin g is almost always arbitrary or conventional. The same language can use the same sound to mean different things and the different languages use different sounds to refer to the same thing.

All the words in a language are termed as vocabulary. However, vocabulary can also be used to refer to all the words in a book, or in a particular historical period of time, or in a dialet, or in a particular discipline, or even to all the words that a person possesses.

1)Denizens: the early borrowed words which have been assimilated and conformed to the English way of pronunciation and spelling.

(2)Aliens: the borrowed words which have retained the foreign way of pronunciation or spelling and have not been assimilated into the English language.

3)Translation-loans: the words and expressions which are formed from the existing English materials, but modelled on the patterns of another language.

(4)Semantic loans: Words which have not been borrowed with reference to the form, but to the meanings.

Words with a commendatory meaning may become ones with a derogatory sense. This is called degradation of meaning or deterioration

.What is ‘word meaning’?

Word meaning can be defined as a reciprocal relation between name and meaning. 意义是名称与意思的联系。

‘Meaning’ is what the form stands for.

Eg: desk: something you sit at and you do your work

2. What is reference所指关系?

It is the relationship between language and the world.所指是语言与客观外界之间的相互关系。

By means of reference, a speaker indicates which things in the world (including persons) are being talked about.通过这种相互关系,说话人指称外界的事物或人。It is the relationship between words and the things, actions, events, and qualities they stand for. For example, the word ‘tree’ refers to the object ‘tree’.

3. What is concept?

It is the general idea or meaning which is associate with a word or symbol in a person’s mind.

指词或符号在人脑中的大致印象或意义

What ‘s th e relationship between meaning and concept?

They are closely connected but not identical.

They are both related directly to referents and are notions of the words but belong to different categories.

Concept, which is beyond language, is the result of human cognition, reflecting the objective world in the human mind.Concept is universal to all men alike regardless of culture, race, language and so on.

But meaning belongs to language, so is restricted to language use. A concept can have as many referring expressions as there are languages in the world. Even in the same language, the same concept can be expressed in different words.

What is sense语义?

The sense of an expression is its place in a system of semantic relationships with other expressions in the language.

What’s the difference between reference and sense?

Sense denotes the relationships inside the language. 指语言内部的关系。Reference denotes the relationship between words and the things, actions, events, and qualities they stand for.

Every word that has meaning has sense but not every word has reference. 每个词都有语义,但不一定都有所指。Eg: but, almost. These grammatical words do not refer to anything. And words like God, dragon and phoenix refer to imaginary things.

1.What is motivation理据?

It refers to the connection between the linguistic symbol and its meaning.理据解释语言符号与意义之间的关系

. Onomatopoeic Motivation拟声理据

It means the imitation of sounds by sounds.

Words coined in imitation of the sounds associated with the things named are called onomatopoeia.or examples:Apes gibber. Bears growl.Bulls bellow.Cats mew ( purr).Eagles scream.Frogs croak.Goats bleat.

Morphological motivation形态理据

Words which were formed by means of morphological structure belong to the category of motivation by morphology.

Compounds and derived words are multi-morphemic words and the meanings of many of them are the sum total of the morphemes combined.

Word meaning is made up of various components which are interrelated and

interdependent. These components are commonly described as types of meaning.

词义有各种相互联系与相互依存的不同成分组成,这些成分就是词义的种类Grammatical meaning indicates grammatical concept or relationships such as part of speech of words, singular and plural meaning of nouns, tense meaning of verbs and their inflectional paradigm. (语法意义指词义中表示语法概念或关系的那部分意义。例如词类、名词的单复数、动词的时态意义及它们的屈折形式

For example : girls, winters, tables, joys

Lexical meaning is the meaning of an isolated word in a dictionary. This component of meaning is identical in all the forms of the word. (林承璋:词汇意义是词典中一个独立词的意义。在该词的所有形式中,其词汇意义相同。

Conceptual meaning is meaning given in the dictionary and forms the core of word meaning.

概念意义是词典中所给的意义,是词义的核心。

Associative meaning is the secondary meaning supplemented to the conceptual meaning. It differs from the conceptual meaning in that it is open-ended and indeterminate, liable to the influence of such factors as culture, experience, religion, etc. 联想意义是概念意义的补充意义,是次要意义。它受语言外界因素如文化、经历、宗教、地域、出身、教育等的影响而变化,所以是开放性的,是不定的。It refers to the overtones or associations suggested by the conceptual meaning.内涵意义是由概念意义产生的言外之意或联想。

1. What is componential analysis?

The analysis of word meanings/componential analysis is often seen as a process of breaking down the sense of a word into its minimal components, which are known as semantic features 语义特征or sense components语义成分. Componential analysis is on the basis of semantic contrast.

Idiom is a set expression made up of two or more words; it functions as a unit of meaning which cannot be predicted from its literal meaning of its component words. 作为一个意义单位使用的,意义不能从其独立的组成部分得出的一种表达法。For example, the idiom “show the white feather” means “to show fear”, and the meaning of this idiom has nothing to do with “feather”.

1. Semantic unity语义的整体性

Each idiom is a semantic unity. The semantic unity can be reflected by the fact that the meaning of an idiom is very often not the total sum of the meanings of the constituent words.

The semantic unity can also be shown in the illogical relations between the literal meanings of the constituent words and the meaning of the idiom

2. Structural stability结构的固定性

Structural stability means that the structure of an idiom usually remains unchangeable. In other words, the constituent components of an idiom can not, generally speaking, be replaced.

1) Idioms nominal in nature名词性习语:

They function as nouns in a sentence: white elephant (昂贵而无用的东西brain trust (智囊团)Jack of all trades (博而不精的人high tea(正式茶点),cold shoulder(冷淡),red herring(转移注意力的话或事物)white elephant(无用而

累赘的东西fond dream(黄粱美梦),blue chip(热门的股票)the happy medium (中庸之道),narrow escape(九死一生),smooth tongue(油嘴滑舌)a fly in the ointment(美中不足之处;使人扫兴的小事)an apple of discord(争端;祸根)a bed of thorns(不愉快的境遇),drug in the market(市场上的滞销商品),a friend at court(有势力的朋友),the milk of human kindness(天生的善心;人情味)a snake in the grass(潜伏的危险;潜伏的敌人)a soldier of fortune(军事冒险家,冒险家the lion‘s share(最大或最好的份额),Achilles’ heel(唯一致命的弱点),cat‘s paw(被人利用的人),King‘s weather(庆典时的晴朗天气),a mare's nest(骗人的东西;混乱),man's estate(壮年)wear and tear(损耗;磨损),rank and file (普通士兵们;普通成员们),flesh and blood(亲骨肉,亲属),ways and means (方法,办法),part and parcel(重要或必要的部分),the ins and the outs(种种复杂详情),ups and downs(盛衰;沉浮),the pros and cons(赞成者和反对者;正面和反面的理由)sheet anchor(最后的或主要的靠山),brain trust(智囊团),a moot point(尚未定论的问题),brain drain(智囊枯竭) Idioms adjectival in nature 形容词性习语:

They function as adjectives in a sentence. E.g.: cut and dried (枯燥乏味的wide of the mark (离目的远的)up in the air high and mighty(趾高气扬;神气活现),null and void(无效),free and easy(不拘形式的;随便的),fair and square (正大光明的,此习语也可作状语用),high and dry(孤立无援,此习语也可作状语用),cut and dried(呆板的,没有生气的on the go(忙个不停;活跃着),out of sorts(不舒服的;不高兴的),beyond the pale(失宠;丢脸,此习语也可作状语用),behind the eightball(处于不利地位),on edge(紧张不安;易怒)wide of the mark(远未射中目标;毫不相关),wet behind the ears(缺乏经验的),up to the hammer(第一流的,极好的),up in the air(十分激动;气愤;悬而未决,此习语也可作状语用)as stiff as a poker(生硬,刻板),as cool as a cucumber (泰然自若;极为冷静),as slippery as an eel(油滑的;不可靠的),as meek as a lamb(非常温顺)bide one's time(等待时机), hang fire(延迟),bite one‘s tongue off(后悔自己说过的话),draw a blank(终于失败),face the music(勇于承担后果),spill the beans(不慎泄密),jump the queue(插队),fit the bill(适合某人的目的),miss the boat(坐失时机),make the grade(成功)beat about the bush(旁敲侧击),fall by the way(中途退出),bark up the wrong tree(攻击错了目标),dip into one‘s purse(乱花钱),jump down one‘s throat(突然粗暴地回答或打断某人;使某人哑口无言),breathe down one's neck(催逼某人干事;严密监视某人的行动),play for one's own hand(为自己的利益而做)burn the candle at both ends(过分地耗费精力),pull the wool over one‘s eyes(蒙蔽某人),put a spoke in one‘s wheels(破坏某人的计划),take the change out of someone(对某人报复),keep one‘s head above water(免遭灭顶;不背债),have a(good)head on one's shoulders(有见识或能力)make short work of(迅速处理),make a clean breast of(和盘托出),get wind of(风闻),pick holes in(在……中找毛病),poke one’s nose into(探听;干涉),dance attendance on(奉承)go easy(从容不迫,安闲),come clean(全盘招供),sit pretty(处于极为有利的条件;过舒服的生活;成功),fall flat(完全失败),sing low (不固执己见发表见解;措辞稳健),make good(成功)Idioms adverbial in nature副词性习语:They function as adverbials in a sentence:

E.g.: tooth and nail竭尽全力in nothing flat不久through thick and thin不顾艰难险阻heart and soul(全心全意地),tooth and nail(竭尽全力地),hammer and tongs(全力以赴地),bag and baggage(完全地,彻底地in a breeze(轻而易举地),with flying colors(出色地;成功地),behind the scenes(在幕后),by the way (顺便说)between the devil and the deep blue sea(进退维谷)through thick and thin (不顾艰难险阻,在任何情况下He that sups with the devil must have a long spoon.(和坏人打交道,必须提高警惕。)The pot calls the kettle black.(责人严而律己宽。)The mills of God grind slowly.(天网恢恢,疏而不漏。)

He laughs best who laughs last.(谁笑在最后,谁笑得最美。)

One cannot make a silk purse out of a sow‘s ear.(巧妇难为无米之炊。)

Nothing succeeds like success.(一事成功,事事顺利。)Nothing venture, nothing have.(不入虎穴,焉得虎子。)Like attracts like.(物以类聚。)Enough is as good as a feast.(知足常乐。)

Speech is sliver,silence is gold.(雄辩是银,沉默是金。)Soft fire makes sweet malt.(好事多磨,慢工出细活。)Fish begins to stink at the head.(上梁不正下梁歪。)Never offer to teach fish to swim.(不要班门弄斧。)Feed a cold and starve a fever.(伤风时宜吃,发烧时宜饿。)Teaching focus:

Polysemy 一词多义关Homonymy 同形同音异义关系Synonymy 同义关系Antonymy 反义关系Hyponymy 上下义关系Semantic Field 语义场Polysemy means that one single word has two or more senses at the same time.

它是指一个单独的词同时有两个或更多的意义

\Diachronic approach历时研究方法

It is assumed to be the result of growth and development of the semantic structure of one and same word.一词多义是同一个词的语义结构历史发展的结果。

The first meaning is the primary meaning原始意义. Later meanings are called derived meanings派生意义.

Synchronic approach共时研究方法

Synchronically, polysemy is viewed as the coexistence of various meanings of the same word in a historical period of time. 从共时的角度看,在同一个历史时期,同一个词可以拥有许多不同的意义。

The basic meaning of a word is called the central meaning 中心意义. The derived meanings are secondary in comparison.

Semantically, radiation is the process which the primary or central meaning stands at the center while secondary meanings radiate from it in every direction like rays. 从语义学上讲,辐射型是这样一种过程,在此过程中,本义(也称中心意义)处在中心位置,次要意义从此处象光线一样朝各个方向辐射

Concatenation is a semantic process in which the meaning of a word moves gradually away from its first sense by successive shifts until there is no connection between the sense that is finally developed and the primary meaning.连锁型是一种语义过程,在此过程中,一个词的意义象链条一样,通过连续的改变,逐渐从本义移开,直至最后发展出来的意义和本义没有了任何关系

Homonyms are generally defined as words different in meaning but either identical both in sound and spelling or identical only in sound or spelling. 同形同音异义词是意义不同、而发音与拼写皆相同或只有拼写或只有发音相同的词。

Perfect/absolute homonyms完全同形同音异义词Homographs同形异义词Homophones同音异义词

Of the three types, homophones constitute the largest number and are most common. Synonyms are words different in sound and spelling but most nearly alike or exactly the same in meaning.同义词是发音和拼写不同但在意义上极为相似或完全相同的词。

Synonyms share a likeness in denotation as well as part of speech, for a verb cannot have an adjective as its synonym.同义词在外延意义和词性上要具有相似性

)Absolute synonyms绝对同义词

Absolute synonyms are words whose meaning is fully identical in any context so that one can always be substituted for the other without the slightest change in meaning. This kind of synonyms are rare and may be found in special terminology such as compounding and composition in lexicology, malnutrition and undernourishment in medicine.

Synonyms which denote different shades of meaning or different degrees of a given quality are called relative synonyms.

What are antonyms?Antonyms can be defined as words which are opposite in meaning. 反义词可被定义为意义上对立的词

临床试验术语解释

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心理学名词解释集 【认知】是指人们获得知识或应用知识的过程,或信息加工的过程。这是人最基本的心理过程。它包括感觉、知觉、记忆、想象、思维和语言等。人脑接受外界输入的信息,经过头脑的加工处理,转换成内在的心理活动,再进而支配人的行为,这个过程就是信息加工的过程,也就是认知过程。 【艾森克的“三因素模型”】艾森克的“三因素模型”是人格的现代特质理论。其主要观点有:三因素包括外倾性,表现为内外倾的差异;神经质,表现为情绪稳定性的差异;精神质,表现为孤独、冷酷、敌视、怪异等偏于负面的人格特质。四层次由下到上依次为“特殊反应水平”,日常观察到的反应,属于误差因子;“习惯反应水平”,是由反复进行的日常反应形成的,属于特殊因子;“特质层”,由习惯反应形成,属于群因子;“类型层”,由特质构成,属于一般因子。各种人格特质可用一个人格维度图表示。 【场依存性】所谓场,就是环境,心理学家把外界环境描述为一个场,简单说场依存性是指一个人独立性的程度。美国心理学家赫尔曼?威特金(Herman?Witkin)认为有些人知觉时较多地受他所看到的环境信息的影响,有些人则较多地受身体内部线索的影响。他把个体较多地依赖自己所处的周围环境的外在参照,以环境的刺激交往中定义知识、信息称作场依存性。 【爬梯实验】美国心理学家格塞尔认为:先天的成熟和后天的学习是决定儿童心理发展的两个基本因素,在这两个因素中,他更强调成熟的作用。他让双生子中的一个从生后48周起每天爬十分钟楼梯,连续6周;而让另一个从生后53周起作同样的爬梯训练。后者在两周以后爬楼梯的水平就赶上前者。格塞尔认为,这一实验充分说明成熟有更重要的作用。 【感觉编码】我们的神经系统不能直接加工外界输入的物理能量和化学能量,这些能量必须经过感官的换能作用,才能转化为神经系统能够接受的神经能或神经冲动。这个过程就是我们说得感觉编码。 [内隐记忆]是不能进入心灵意识,但可以在行为上表现出来的记忆.其中最重要的一种内隐记忆是程序性记忆,也即"如何做"这一类程序或技能知识.另一种内隐记忆出现与"启动效应"的研究之中,即:前面接触的相同或类似信息,促进某个具体信息的加工. 【表象】指当事物不在面前时,人们在头脑中出现的关于事物的形象。它具有直观性、概括性和可操作性。 【语言】是一种社会现象。是人类通过高度结构化的声音组合,通过书写符号、手势等构成的一种符号系统,同时又是一种运用这种符号系统来交流的行为。 【图示】是知识的心理组织形式。它说明了一组信息在头脑中最一般的排列或可以预期的排列方式。 【语言表征】是语言材料所负载的信息在头脑中的存在方式。 【动机】是由一种目标或对象所引导、激发和维持的个体活动的内在心理或内在动力。动机是一种心理过程,而不是心理活动的结果。 【驱力】是指个体由生理需要所引起的一种紧张状态,它能激发和驱动个体行为以满足需要,消除紧张,从而恢复机体的平衡状态。 【诱因】是指能满足个体需要的刺激物,它具有激发和诱使个体朝向目标的作用。 【意识】是有意识的支配调节行为,通过克服困难,以实现预定目标的心理过程。 【意识行动】受意识支配的行动。 【冲突】由于在意识行动中人们常常具有两个以上的目标,而这些目标不可能同时实现,因而引起拉意识行动中的目标冲突或动机斗争。 【挫折】指个体的意志行为受到无法克服的干扰或阻碍,预定目标不能实现是所产生的一种紧张状态和情绪反应,也就是俗话说的碰钉子。 默许心向反应 acquiescence response set 在问卷调查中,被试没有看清题目而不假思索的作出“是”的反应倾向。 适应 adaption 在一系列连续的刺激后神经反应性的降低。 上瘾 addiction 依赖药物,当停止服药时,会导致症状复发。 后像 afterimages 当视觉刺激消失后仍残留的视感觉。 注意 attention 通常指从大量刺激中选择某一刺激进行进一步加工。 唤醒 arousal 生理上的觉醒阶段,它包括交感神经系统的激活和身体的活动准备。 供选假设 alternative hypothesis 观察者开始提出的假设,通常认为变量间有差异或相关。 虚无假设 null hypothesis 观察者提出的要放弃的假设,通常认为变量间无差异或不相关。 分析内省 analytical introspection 一种自我报告的方法,被试主要报告他们的个人经验的特定方面。 语法缺失 agrammatism 由于脑损伤而导致造句困难、遗漏重要词语和词尾的症状。 称名失能症 anomia 由脑损伤而导致对物体和物体图片无法命名的病症。 游动效应 autokinetic effect 一种知觉错觉,静止的光点看起来会动的现象。 自动加工 automatic process 加工过程非常快,无须心理能量,不受意识控制,不能避免的加工。 自主神经系统(ANS) autonomic nervous system 神经系统中控制身体内活动(如心跳)的部分,它通过肌肉和腺体起作用。 行为遗传学 behaviour genetics 关于遗传对行为影响的研究,以研究双生子和领养子为主。 行为疗法 behaviour therapy 以行为主义理论为基础的临床治疗方法。 患者中心疗法 client-centred therapy 由罗杰斯发展的心理治疗方法,此方法多采用鼓励的方法以促进患者的个人发展。 认知疗法 cognitive therapy 以改变非理性思想和信念为基础的临床治疗方法。 领悟疗法 insight-oriented therapies 强调治疗着重于患者对自己问题本质的了解。 心理动力学 psychodynamic 包括所有强调无意识冲突和早期经历的治疗方法。 行为顺从 behavioural compliance 尽管态度或信念与别人不一致,但仍屈从于别人的行为方式。

管理学名词解释整理

名词解释 1、管理:组织为了达到个人无法实现的目标,通过各项职能活动,合理分配、协调相关资源的过程。 (1)管理的载体是组织。组织包括企事业单位、国家机关、政治党派、社会团体以及宗教组织等。 (2)管理的本质是合理分配、协调相关资源。所谓“合理”,是从管理者的角度来看的,因为具有局限性和相对的合理性。 (3)管理的对象是相关资源,即包括人力资源在内的一切可调用的资源,包括原材料、人员、资金、土地、设备、顾客和信息,其中人员是最重要的,所以管理要以人为中心。 (4)管理的职能活动包括信息、决策、计划、组织、领导、控制和创新。 (5)管理的目的是为了实现既定的目标,而该目标是个人力量无法完成的,这也是组织设立的原因。 2、技术技能:管理者掌握和熟悉特定专业领域中的过程、惯例、技术和工具的能力。 3、人际技能:成功地与别人打交道并与别人沟通的能力。 4、概念技能:产生新想法并加以处理,以及将关系抽象化的思维能力。 5、运筹学:是一种分析的、实验的和定量的方法,专门研究在既定物质条件下,为达到一定目的,如果最经济、最有效地使用人、财和物等资源。P20 6、决策科学化:决策要以充足的事实为依据,按照事物的内在联系对大量的资料和数据进行分析和计算,遵循科学的程序,进行严密的逻辑推理,从而做出正确的决策。P21 7、全面质量管理:由顾客需求和期望驱动企业持续不断改善的管理理念。P22 8、学习型组织:具有持续不断学习、适应和变革能力的组织。P22 9、精益生产:企业把客户、销售代理商、供应商、协作单位纳入生产体系,同他们建立起利益共享的合作伙伴关系,进而组成一个企业的供应链。P23 10、精益思想:根据客户需求定义企业生产价值,按照价值流组织全部生产活动,是要保留下来的、创造价值的各个活动流动起来,让用户的需要拉动产品生产,暴露出价值流中所隐藏的muda,不断完善,达到尽善尽美。P23 11、核心资源:有价值的、稀缺的、不完全模仿和不完全替代的资源,它是企业持续竞争优势的源泉。P24 12、核心能力:组织内的集体知识和集体学习,尤其是协调不同生产技术和整合多种多样技术流的能力。P24 13、决策:管理者识别并解决问题的过程,或者管理者利用机会的过程。P84 (1)决策的主体是管理者,因为决策是管理的一项职能。管理者既可以做个体决策,也可以做群体决策。(2)决策的本质是一个过程,这一过程有多个步骤组成。 (3)决策的目的是解决问题或利用机会。

完全版英语词汇学名词解释_共6页

第一章word 1.Word --- A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic funtion. 第三章formation 1 1. Morpheme --- A morpheme is the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words. 2. Allomorph --- Some morphemes are realized by more than one morph according to their position in a word. Such alternative morphs are know as allomorphs. 3. Free morphemes (Free root) --- They are morphemes which are independent of other morphemes. 4. Bound Morphemes --- They are morphemes which cannot occur as separate words. 5. Bound root --- A bound root is that part of the word that carries the fundamental meaning just like a free root. Unlike a free root, it is a bound form and has to combine with other morphemes to make words. 6. Affixes --- Affixes are forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or function. 7. Inflectional affixes --- Affixes attaches to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are known as inflectional morphemes. 8. Derivational affixes --- Derivational affixes are affixes added to other morphemes to create new words. 9. Prefixes --- Prefixes are affixes that come before the word. 10. Suffixes --- suffixes are affixes that come after the word. 11. Roo t --- A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analysed without total loss of identity. 12. Stem --- a stem can be defined as a form to which affixes of any kind can be added. 第四章formation 2 1. Affixation --- affixation is generally defined as the formation of words by adding word-forming or derivational affixes to stems. 2. Prefixation --- is the formation of new words by adding prefixes to stems. Suffixation--- is the formation of new words by adding suffixes to stems. 3. Compounding(Compositon)-- is the formation of new words by joining two or more stems. 4. Conversion-- is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class. 5. Blending-- is the formation of new words by combined by parts of two words or a word plus a plus a part of another word. 6. Clipping- is the formation of new words by shortening a longer word by cutting a part off the original and using what remain instead.

心理学题库基本名词解释(总汇)1

心理学题库: 心理学:研究人的行为和心理活动规律的科学。 社会心理学:致力与理解人在社会情境中的心理和行为级其本质和起因的一个科学领域。 个体发展心理学:研究个体从出生到衰老的整个过程中的心理发展和变化规律。 发展与教育心理学:个体心理发生与发展以及为了促进个体心理发展的人类学习与教育的实质与规律的科学。 心理健康:基本心理活动的过程内容完整、协调一致(知、情、意、行、人格完整协调,能适应社会) 方法: 观察法:在自然情境中对行为有目的、有计划观察并记录及进行分析,以发现心理活动变化和发展规律的方法。 测验法:特定量表为工具,对心理特征进行间接了解,做出量化结论的研究方法。 实验法:在控制条件下对某种行为或心理现象进行观察的方法。 调查法:就某个问题要求回答自己想法或做法,以此来分析、推测群体的态度和心理特征的研究方法。 问卷法:采用预先拟定好的问题表,由被试自行填写来搜集资料进行研究的方法。 谈话法:根据预先拟定问题向被调查者提出,在面对面一问一答中搜集资料,然后对群体的心理特点级心理状态进行分析和推测。测验法(人格):在标准化的技术条件下,对受测者的行为和内部心理变化进行探索和鉴别的方法。 横断研究法:在同一时间研究不同年龄组被试的心理发展水平,并对其进行比较。 纵向研究法:对被试进行较长时间追踪研究,对其心理发展进行观察、记录。目的是考察某些心理现象发生的质的变化规律。 群体序列研究法:在同一时间选定不同的被试群体进行研究,然后对各个被试群体进行纵向的跟踪研究。 投射测验:若干个模棱两可的刺激所组成,被试可任加解释,使自己动机、态度。感情及性格等在不知不觉中反应出来。 意识与注意 意识(心理活动):用感觉、知觉、思维、记忆等心理活动,对内在的身心状态和环境中外在(人、事、物)变化的觉知。 无意识:不能觉察的心理活动和过程。 前意识:意识与无意识之间过度层面。 催眠:似睡眠又实非睡眠的意识恍惚状态。 注意:意识在某一时刻所处状态,表现为对一定对象的指向与集中。 注意的指向性:瞬间意识选择某个对象,而忽略了其余对象。 注意的集中性:意识指向某个对象时,在这这个对象上集中起来。 不随意注意:事先没有目的、也不需要意志努力的注意。 随意注意:有预定目的、需要一定意志努力的注意。 随意后注意:服从当前的任务要求,节省意志的努力。 感觉 感觉:对直接作用与感觉器官的事物的个别属性在脑中的反映。 感受性:人对刺激物的感觉能力。 感觉阈限:感到性大小的基本指标。 绝对感觉阈限:最小可觉察的刺激量。 差别感觉阈限:对两个刺激间最小差异的察觉能力。 知觉 知觉:通过感官得到内部和外部环境的信息,信息经过头脑的加工(整合和解释),产生了对事物的整体认识。 知觉的整体性:在经验基础上把由多种属性构成的事物,知觉为一个统一的整体的特性。 知觉的选择性:知觉时,从复杂刺激环境中将一些有关内容抽出组织成知觉对象,其他部分则留为背景。 知觉的理解性:以过去的知识、经验来解释对象。 知觉的恒常性:感觉不断在变化,知觉稳定不变。 方位知觉:对物体的空间关系和自己的身体在空间所处的位置的知觉。

临床试验术语

临床试验术语 临床试验 代表含义: 指任何在人体(病人或健康志愿者)进行药物的系统性研究,以证实或揭示试验药物的作用、不良反应及/或试验药物的吸收、分布、代谢和排泄,目的是确定试验药物的疗效与安全性。 Ⅰ临床研究 代表含义: 首次在人体进行研究药物的周密试验计划,受试对象是少量(开放20~30例)正常成年健康自愿者。目的是观察药物在人体内的作用机制。 Ⅱ临床研究 代表含义: 在只患有确立的适应症的病患者(盲法不小于100对)上进行的研究,目的是找出最佳的剂量范围和考虑治疗可行性 Ⅲ临床研究 代表含义: 确定研究药物的有效性和安全性、受益和危害比率。(试验组不小于300例。) Ⅳ临床研究 代表含义: 新药获准注册上市后的大型研究,检察普遍临床使用时的不良反应和毒性。 药品临床试验管理规范 代表含义: 对临床试验的设计、实施和执行,监查、稽查、记录、分析和报告的标准。该标准是数据和报告结果的可信和精确的保证;也是受试者权益、公正和隐私受保护的保证。 伦理委员会 代表含义: 是指一个由医学,科学专业人员及非医学,非科学人员共同组成的独立体,其职责是通过对试验方案、研究者资格、设备、以及获得并签署受试者知情同意书的方法和资料进行审阅、批准或提出建议来确认临床试验所涉及的人类受试者的权益、安全性和健康受到保护,并对此保护提供公众保证。 申办者 代表含义: 发起一项临床试验,并对该试验的启动、管理、财务和监查负责的

公司、机构或组织。 研究者 代表含义: 实施临床试验并对临床试验的质量及受试者安全和权益的负责者。研究者必须经过资格审查,具有临床试验的专业特长、资格和能力。 协调研究者 代表含义: 在多中心临床试验中负责协调参加各中心研究者工作的一名研究者。 监查员 代表含义: 由申办者任命并对申办者负责的具备相关知识的人员,其任务是监查和报告试验的进行情况和核实数据。 合同研究组织 代表含义: 一种学术性或商业性的科学机构。申办者可委托其执行临床试验中的某些工作和任务,此种委托必须作出书面规定。 研究中心 代表含义: 指实际实施试验相关活动的场所。 多中心研究 代表含义: 是由多位研究者按同一试验方案在不同地点和单位同时进行的临床试验。 安全性研究 代表含义: 观察评估药物副反应 有效性研究 代表含义: 观察评估药物有效性 预防研究 代表含义: 例如疫苗、抗生素 治疗研究 代表含义: 一般药物治疗研究、外科步骤 研究者手册 代表含义: 是有关试验药物在进行人体研究时已有的临床与非临床研究资料试验方案

管理名词解释

oc 《行政管理学》名词解释【行政管理】国家各级政府部门再执行法定职能以及具体运作的过程中,对于经历的程序、环节,以及所处理的事项和解决的问题等一系列的管理活动。【行政环境】影响行政系统生存和发展的要素的总和,它包括外部环境和内部环境。外部环境是指行政系统界限之外的、直接或者间接影响行政系统生存与发展的因素或者条件的总称。内部环境是指行政系统界限之内的、影响其生存和发展的各种因素或者条件的总称。【经济环境】是行政系统外部环境中最基本的方面,是行政系统赖以生存和发展的最深层环境。【文化】广义的文化是指人类在社会实践中所创造的物质财富与精神财富的总合,包括物质文化、社会文化、精神文化三个部分。狭义的文化是社会的意识形态,包括科学、文化艺术、哲学、思想、信仰、风俗等,又可归纳为两点,即价值观念和行为模式。【行政道德】行政系统成员在行政管理过程中所遵循的调整个人之间、个人与行政系统以及社会之间的关系的行为规范。【民族】在历史上形成的有共同语言、共同地域、共同经济生活,以及表现欲共同民族文化特点上的共同心理素质的稳定的共同体。【国际社会环境】一国在与外国或者各种国际组织交往过程中所形成的、影响该国行政系统及其功能的各种因素的总和。【国际组织】是主权国家之间为了就共同关心的问题协商对话、解决纠纷或者发展友好合作关系,依据条约、协议而成立的。【民族区域自治】在主权国家内国家最高权力机关的领导下,以少数民族聚居地区为基本组成民族自治地方政府,由少数民族当家作主,行使自治权,管理本地区、本民族的内部事务。【宗教信仰自由】一个国家的公民都有信仰或者不信仰宗教的平等权利,即公民有选择和拒绝信仰任何宗教的自由权利,不得强制、敢于人民的自由选择。【独立自主】就是在任何时候,行政系统都要从本国和世界人民的根本利益出发,根据事情的是非曲直,独立的决定自己的政策,保障本国的独立、主权和领土完整,反对任何外来势力的干涉。【行政职能】行政机关再管理活动中的基本职责和功能作用,主要涉及管什么、怎么管、发挥什么作用的问题。它是国家职能的具体执行和体现,其行使受立法机关的监督;反之,它发挥的程度又制约和影响其他国家职能的实现程度。【组织职能】为有效的实现既定行政管理目标和任务,通过建立行政组织机构,确定职位、职责和职权,协调相互关系,将组织内部各个要素连结成有机的整体,使人、财、物得到最合理的使用。【职能关系】不同管理职能该由谁来行使和管理主体间职责权限的划分。【行政组织】是静态组织结构和动态组织活动过程的统一。就动态讲,行政组织指未完成行政管理任务而进行的组织活动和运行过程。就静态讲,有广义狭义之分。广义上,除政府行政组织外,还包括立法司法企业事业等部门以及社会团体中有行政性职能的机构,狭义上,专指为推行政务,依据宪法和法律组建的国家行政机关体系,是国家机构的重要组成部分。【民间组织】自愿组成,为实现共同意愿,按照章程开展活动的非营利性社会组织。【非正式组织】正式组织内的若干成员由于生活接触、感情交流、情趣相近等产生的交互行为和共同意识,并由此形成自然的人际关系。【行政组织结构】构成行政组织各要素的配合和排列组合方式。它包括行政组织各成员、单位、部门和层级建的分工协作以及联系沟通方式、结构合理、运转灵活的行政组织是实现行政目标、提高行政效率的重要组织保证。【管理层次】是等级层次,即行政机关中设置多少等级的额工作部门,这因由工作量来决定。 【管理幅度】一级行政机关或者一名上级领导者直接领导和指挥的下级单位或者工作人员的数量。【编制】狭义的编制是指法定社会主之内人员的数额以及职位的配置。广义的编制是法定社会组织的职能范围、机构设置、隶属关系、规格级别、人员数额、人员结构及职位的配置。【编制管理】按法律规定的制度和程序,对行政组织的职能范围、机构设置和人员配备等进行的管理。包括职能管理、机构管理、人员编制管理三方面。【领导】在一定的环境下,为实现既定组织目标,对被领导者进行指挥与防御的行为过程。【行政

词汇学 名词解释(部分)

Types of meaning Types of lexical changes 1.Elevation:词义升格 Definition: words rise from humble beginnings to positions of importance Some words early in their history signify something quite low or humble, but change as time goes by to designate something agreeable or pleasant. For example: nice: ignorant---foolish---delightful, pleasant Marshal: a keeper of horses---a high ranking army officer So elevation refers that the meaning of word changes from the neutral/negative to positive. 2.Old English:It refers to the English starting from 450 to 1100 AD. The old English is made up of different sources of languages spoken then –that of Anglo-Saxons, that of Celts, and that of Jutes, with a lot of Latin elements used for common peopl e’s life. 3.Bound morpheme: It is the smallest unit of grammar, a unit which cannot occur as separate words. They have no independent semantic meaning; instead, they have: Attached meaning E.g. un-kind, hope-ful Grammatical meaning E.g. cat-s, slow-ly, walk-ing, call-ed For an exact example, in the word “careful”, care is free morpheme, “-ful” is a bound morpheme. 4.Hyponymy: Hyponymy deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion, or to say, the relationship between general lexical items and specific lexical items. That is to say, when X is a kind of Y, the lower term X is the“hyponym”, and the upper term Y is the “superordinate”. For example, “fiction”is the superordinate of “novel”, “novelette”and “short story”, which are the hyponyms of “fiction”. Knowing the semantic features of the hyponyms and their superordinates can help us achieve vividness, exactness, and concreteness in expression.

社会心理学名词解释20题

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