1.What is language?
Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. It is a specific social action and a carrier of information.
“Language is man’s way of communication with his fellow man and. It is language alone which separate him from the lower animals”
2.What is linguistics?
Generally speaking, linguistics can be defined as the scientific study of language. To be more exact, linguistics studies the general principles upon which languages are constructed and operate as systems of human communication.
4.What is lexicology?
Lexicology is a branch of linguistics concerned with the study of the vocabulary of a given language. It deals with words, their origin, development, structure, formation, meaning and usage. In short, it is the study of the signification and application of words.
5.What is the Vocabulary?
Broadly speaking, all the words in a language together constitute what is known as vocabulary. The term vocabulary usually refers to a complete inventory of the words in a language. But it may also refer to the words and phrases used in the variants of a language, such as dialect, register, terminology, etc. There is a total English vocabulary of more than 1 million.
11. What Is a Word?
A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound, meaning and syntactic function.
词是具有一定的声音、意义和语法功能，能独立运用的最小的语言单位。
A word can be defined the smallest meaningful linguistic unit that can be used independently
14. What is a morpheme(词素)?
The morpheme is the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words, not divisible or analyzable into smaller forms.
We can difine morpheme in this way, the smallest unit in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit which can not be divided without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.
15. What is a allomorph (形位变体，词[语]素变体）
16. Free morphemes(自由词素）：
Morphemes which are independent of other morphemes are considered to be free. Free morphemes have complete meanings in themselves and can be used as free grammatical units in sentences. A free morpheme is one that may constitute a word (free form) by itself, in the traditional sense.
17. Bound morphemes(粘附词素):
Morphemes that can not occur as separate words. It can not stand by itself as a complete utterance; it must appear with at least one other morpheme, free or bound. Unlike free morphemes, they do not have independent semantic meaning; instead, they have attached meaning or grammatical meaning.
18. Root (or root morphemes) :
the basic unchangeable part of a word, and covers the main lexical meaning of the word. That is to say, it is the part of the word left, whether free or bound, when all the affixes are removed. It carries the main component of meaning in a word. 19. Free root:
In English many roots are free morphemes, such as boy, moon, walk, black ( i.e. they can stand alone as words).
20. Bound roots:
Quite a number of roots derived from foreign sources, esp. from Greek and Latin, belong to the class of bound morphemes.
A bound root is that part of the word that carries the fundamental meaning just like a free root. Unlike a free root, it is a bound form and has to combine with other morphemes to make words.
21. Affixes(词缀):
Affixes are forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or function. According to the functions of affixes, we can put them into two groups: inflectional and derivational affixes.
22. Inflectional affixes (inflectional morphemes)曲折词缀:——不改变词义
Affix attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional, thus known as inflectional morphemes. The inflectional affix does not form a new word with a new lexical meaning when it is added to another word. Nor does it change the word-class of the word to which it is affixed. It just adds some grammatical information to the word. 23. Derivational affixes (derivational morphemes):——改变词义
They are so called because when they are added to another morpheme, they "derive" a new word. If a morpheme can change the meaning or the word class, or both the meaning and word class of a word, it is a derivational morpheme.
25. root (词根)
" A root (词根) is a form which is not further analyzable, either in terms of derivational or inflectional morphology. It is that part of a word-form that remains when all the inflectional and derivational affixes have been removed. A root is the basic part always present in a lexeme." (Bauer 1983:20)
26. stem （词干）
" A stem （词干）is of concern only when dealing with inflectional morphology. ... Only Inflectional (but not derivational) affixes are added to it: it is the part of the word-form which remains when all the inflectional affixes have been removed,“ A stem is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.
27. base （词基）
A base （词基）is any form to which affixes of any kind can be added
28. Lexeme（词位）:
Lexeme is an abstract vocabulary item with a common core of meaning. It can be realized by different word forms. Put it in another way, lexeme is a set of linguistic signs which share the same lexical meanings but different in their grammaticalmeanings. For example, dies,died, dying, die belong to the same lexeme DIE.
29. Word form （词形）：
Word form is the realization (representation or manifestation) of the lexeme. Equivalently,it is the inflected forms of a lexeme.
30. Lexical entry(词条)
Lexical entry is the specification of the information of a lexeme in dictionary or the representation of the idiosyncratic information of a lexeme, including (i) its pronunciation, (ii) syntactic properties and (iii) meaning.
36. Paradigm(词形变化表)
A paradigm is a list or pattern showing the forms which a word can have in a grammatical system.. It typically shows a word’s inflections rather than derivatives. It is the set of all the inflected forms which an individual word assumes or the full set of words realizing a particular lexeme. For example: Boy, {boy, boys}
37. Word-formation
Word-formation is a process of creating new words by means of existing elements and according to the patterns and rules of a given language. （affixation or derivation
Derivation or affixation is a kind of word-formation when a new word is formed by adding a derivational morpheme (usually suffix or prefix) to the root.
Prefixation is a kind of word-formation when a new word is formed by adding a prefix to the root.
Suffixation is a kind of word-formation when a new word is formed by adding a suffix to the root.
40. Suffixation
Suffixation is the formation of a new word by adding a suffix or a combining form to the base, and usually changing the word-class of the base;
43. Compounding
Compounding or composition is a word-formation process consisting of joining two or more bases to form a new unit, a compound word.
47. Conversion - zero derivation
The process of converting words from one part of speech to another without adding any derivative element is called conversion or zero derivation.(零位派生).
49. Shortening
It is a method of shortening a word without changing its meaning.
(1)Clipping ( 截短法)The process of clipping involves the deletion of one or more syllables from a word (usually a noun), which is also available in its full form.
(2) Acronymy -- Initialisms and Acronyms（首字母缩略词）Acronymy is a special kind of clipping, by which a new word is formed from the initial letters of the name of an organization or scientific term,etc. There are two kinds of word formed by acronymy: initialisms and acronyms，while are different in that the former are pronounced letter by letter while the latter are pronounced as single words.
（3）Blending（拼缀法）Blending is a process of word-formation in which a new word is formed by combining parts of two or more words or a word plus a part of another word.
（4）Back-formation（逆构法）Back-formation is a term used to refer to a type of word-formation by which a shorter word is coined by the deletion of a supposed affix from a longer form already present in the language.
50. Onomatopoeia （拟声）
Some English words came into being by onomatopoeia, i.e. the imitation of natural sounds. Onomatopoeic words(拟声词) are echoic ones whose sounds suggest their senses. These words help us from mental pictures about the things, people, or places that are described.
53. Motivation（理据）
Motivation deals with the connection between name (word-symbol) and its sense (meaning). It is the relationship between the word structure and its meaning.词的理据（motivation）是指词与词义之间的联系，也就是语言符号与客观事物和现实联系的依据。52. Conventionality
Most English words are conventional, arbitrary symbols; consequently, there is no intrinsic relation between the sound-symbol and its sense.
1. Onomatopoeic motivation（拟声理据）:means defining the principle of motivation by sound. Words motivated phonetically are called echoic words or onomatopoeic words, whose pronunciation suggests the meaning. They show a close relation of sound to sense, whereas non-echoic words do not show any such relationship.
2. morphological motivation: We say the word is morphologically motivated, for a direct connection can be observed between the morphemic structure of the word and its meaning. This is called morphological motivation(形态理据）
3. Semantic motivation（语义理据）refers to the mental association suggested by the conceptual meaning of a word. It explains the connection between the literal sense and figurative sense of the word.
4.Etymological motivation means that the meanings of words can be explained with reference to etymological information. Very often, the history of the word can explain why a form has acquired a particular meaning.
55. Polysemy(一词多义)Polysemy is “a term used in semantic analysis to refer to a lexical item which has a range of different meanings”. That is to say, the same word may have a set of different meanings. Polysemy gives rise to a great number of polysemic words, which are products of sense-shift in the course of the development of the vocabulary.
59. Homonymy (同音同形异义)Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings happen to be identical in sound and spelling, or in both.
Synonymy refers the exact sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called
64. Synonymy ( 同义词)
synonyms(Synonyms are traditionally defined as words different in sound and spelling but identical or similar in meaning.).
68. Antonymy
Antonymy is the phenomenon that two words have opposite senses; words that are opposite are antonyms.
70. Oxymoron(矛盾修饰法)
An oxymoron is a figure of speech that combines two normally contradictory terms.
71. Hyponymy(下义关系)hyponymy: the relationship that obtains between specific and general lexical items, such that the former is "included" in the later
Extension of Meaning(词义扩大)
It is a process by which a word which originally had a specialized meaning has now become generalized or has extended to cover a broader and often less definite concept. 一个原本具有特殊意义的单词的词义被延伸，范围扩大，从而指代一种普遍意义语义变化过程。
Narrowing of Meaning（词义缩小）
It is a process by which a word of wide meaning acquires a narrow or specialized sense. In other words, a word which used to have a more general sense becomes restricted in its application and conveys a special concept in present-day English. 把词义范围较广的词缩小，表示特指，即过去具有普遍意义的词变化后，现在仅仅表达特殊意义。
Elevation of Meaning（词义的升格）It is the process by which words rise from humble beginnings to positions of importance.词义的升格指词由贬义或中性转变为褒义。
Degradation of Meaning（词义的降格）
It is a process whereby words of good origin or affective neutrality fall into ill reputation or come to be used in a derogatory sense. 这是一个词由原先表示中性意义或褒义转为表示贬义的过程。
Terms: 1. lexicology 2. morpheme 3. root 4. derivational affixes 5. affixes 6. compounding 7. blending 8. conversion 9. back formation 10. synonymy 11. homonymy 12. hyponymy Questions: 1. Explain the relationship between sound and meaning with examples. There is no logical relationship between sound and meaning as the symbolic connection between them is arbitrary and conventional. E.g. “woman” means “Frau” in German, “Femme” in French and “Funv” in Chinese. On the other hand, the same sound /rait/ can mean right, rite and write, though denoting different things, yet have the same sound. 2. Illustrate four types of antonyms with examples. 3. What are allomorphs? Please list the allomorphes of the morpheme{plural} in English. The different morphological or phonetic forms of a morpheme are allomorphs of the morpheme. The noun plural morpheme {plural} in English has a numer of allomorphs, such as [-s] in cats, [-z] in bags, [-iz] in fishes, [-ai] in mice, [-n] in oxen, [-i:] in geese and so on. 4. As language changes over time, the meaning of a word may deviate from its original denotation. Discuss the major types of semantic changes. Major types of semantic changes are semantic broadening, semantic narrowing and semantic shift. Semantic broadening refers to the process in which the meaning of a word becomes more general or inclusive than its historically earlier denotation. Take the word “holiday”for example, the orlder meaning was a “holy day”. Today everyone enjoys a holiday, regardless of religious background. Semantic narrowing is a process in which the meaning of a word becomes less gneral or inclusive than its historically earlier meaning. For example. “wife”used to mean “any woman”, but now it only means “a married female”. Semantic shift is a process of semantic change in which a word loses its former meaning and acquires a new, sometimes related, meaning. For example, the word silly meant “happy”in Old English, and naive in Middle English, but “foolish”in Modern Engilsh. 5. Illustrate four types of synonyms with examples.
Compounding is a process of word formation by which two independent words are put together to make one word. The word formed in this way is called compound Blending is a process of word formation by which a word is created by combining parts of other words. Words formed in this way are called blends. From morphological viewpoints, there are four types of blending: Acronymy is the process of forming new words by joining the initial letters of names of social and political organizations or special noun phrases and technical terms. Words formed in this way are called initialisms or acronyms, depending on the pronunciation of the words. Initialisms are words formed by the initial letters of words and pronounced as lettersEEC: European Economic Community Acronyms are words formed by the initial letters of words and pronounced as words:OPEC: Organisation of Petroleum Export Countries According to Leonard Bloomfield’s point of view, a word is a minimum free form, that is to say, the smallest form that may appear in isolation. There are two types of linguistic forms: one is the bound form, the other is the free form. A bound form is one which cannot occur on its own as a separate word, e.g. the various affixes: de-, -tion, -ize, etc. A free form is one which can occur as a separate word. For example, the word lovely contains the free form love and the suffix –ly. The suffix –ly in the word lovely, of course, i s not a free for m, because it cannot stand by itself. So we call it a bound form. A word is a minimum free form The morpheme can be considered as the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words. 1)Morphemes are commonly classified into two forms according to their character: one is free form, and the other is bound form. 2)Free morphemes自由词素are morphemes which can occur as separate words. That is to say, a free morpheme can stand alone as a word. 3)Bound morphemes粘着词素are morphemes which cannot stand alone as words. They are mainly affixes. That is to say, a bound morpheme is one that must appear with at least one other morpheme, bound or free in a word. 4)2) Morphemes may be classified into two categories according to their lexical and grammatical relationships: 5)lexical morphemes and grammatical morphemesLexical morphemes are morphemes used for the construction of new words as in compound words Grammatical morphemes are morphemes used to express grammatical relationships between a word and its context, such as plurality or past tense There are three types of words according to morphology:Simple words,Compound words,Complex words Conversion Conversion is a main type of word-formation assigning the base to a different word
词汇的形象色彩与对外汉语教学 词语的形象色彩是指很多词语用于解释普遍存在的概念意义外，还同时具有形象感，它们通过人们的感官如视觉、听觉、味觉等诱发人们的联想，给人以生动可感的形象感。例如：猫头鹰这个词就比较形象地反映出这种鸟头部像猫的特点；哗啦啦，是人耳边回现出流水的声音；而甜丝丝会让我们如同品尝到了甜味的食物。这些都是日常生活中非常常见的例子，可见词汇的形象色彩在生活中的应用是很广的。 正由于应用广泛，有形象色彩的词很丰富，所以对这些词的分类显得有点困难。本文将采取兰宾汉先生对具有形象色彩的词的分类，即将它们分成形感、动感、色感、声感这样四类。下面分别加以阐释： 形感：有些词的意义能给人十分具体的形象。如佛手、木耳、浪潮，大家眼前会浮现出这种事物的整体的形状。木耳是一种长在腐朽的木头上的一种可供食用菌类，形状像人的耳朵；浪潮顾名思义，想浪花一样的潮流；这是对事物整体情状的比喻。又如喇叭花、鹅卵石，灯笼裤、斑马线则是在对事物的性状的比喻之后加上了一个类名。斑马、驼背、白头翁是对描摹事物的突出的特征等等。它们的突出的特点即是让人们很容易地联想到所指事物的外在形状，我们称之形感。 色感：有些词的意义给人以鲜明的色彩感。如血红让人联想到血的颜色；草绿则浮现出一片青草的的画面，联想到充满生机的绿，还有鹅黄、橘红等。具有色感的词多为形容词，比如ABB式的白茫茫，红彤彤，绿油油，金灿灿等；又如ABC式的白呲咧、血呼啦；还有A 里BC、A不BC式的，如血里呼啦，白不呲咧；还有ABCD式的如黑咕隆咚。这些词当中的词缀部分意义很虚，但它们结合在一起具有描摹性，给人们造成一种很模糊的印象，从而给人一种形象感。 动感：有些词的意义能让人产生特殊的动感。如席卷，会让人联想到用席子卷的这样一系列的动作，从而给人一动作快，范围大的感觉。而蚕食则让人们想到蚕不分昼夜沙沙吃蚕叶这样的动作行为，从而给人一种连续不断地侵食这样一种动感。这样的词还有摇曳、撞车、碰钉子、炒鱿鱼等。一些带如字的词常带有动作感：暴跳如雷、血流如注、泪如雨下、不绝如缕等。象点头哈腰、东倒西歪、俯首帖耳等次也是对存在事物的动作状态的直接的描写。声感：有些词能给人以如闻其声的感觉。这些词多为拟声词如呵呵，哈哈，嘻嘻，啧啧，喔喔，咩咩等。还有ABB式的如笑哈哈，笑嘻嘻，轰隆隆，哗啦啦；A里BC式的如稀里哗啦等，看到这些词自然会联想到自然界的一些声音，这也是其形象色彩的特点之所在。 当然，这只是众多对具有形象色彩意义的词的分类中的一种，而且也只是一种大至的分类，比如有的词就不只属于其中的一种，而是兼具两种甚至是多种形象色彩。如银河是因为看起来像一条白色的河而得名，它的意义中就包含了形感和色感两种形象色彩。有如扑啦啦，既有拍翅膀的动感又有拍翅时的声音的形容，也兼具两种形象色彩。 不仅仅是词，在词汇系统中的固定语中的一些成语同样具有形象色彩。例如狼吞虎咽明显是对动作的描摹，具有很强烈的动感；又如羊肠小道则是很典型的对于事物形状的描绘，具有形感。其它的成语如坐如针毡、骨瘦如柴、口若悬河等。还有一些成语以其呈现的整体的画面共同显示它的形象色彩。如隔岸观火，会使人的头脑中浮现一幅画面，隔岸是空间位置，观火是动作行为，如果接受者再补充一个动作行为的主体，就形成了这幅整体的画面。这是由于固定语的内部结构相对来首比较复杂，所呈现的信息量较大，因而信息的叠加呈现出了整体的画面，这个画面对整个成语的理解起着烘托得作用。如按下葫芦浮起瓢、拨云见日、兵临城下等。还有一些词语，其表层的给接受者提供两个形象单位二者结合在一块儿很容易使人想起它的深层的涵义，这一类成语形象感的形成和我国古典诗歌中意境的形成非常相似，既由表层的关系使人联想到深层的意蕴。如南辕北辙，辕向着南边而辄却朝着北，想去南边而却走向了北边，比喻行动和初衷是相违背的。如果对这个成语稍加体会其深沉含义是
Explain the following terms 一1) free morpheme/ A free morpheme is one that can be uttered发出，表达alone with meaning. It can exist on its own without a bound morpheme. In the traditional sense, a free morpheme is a word. 例如hand ,eat, get 2) bound form/never used as sentences. – ess in countess, lioness and duchess –ish in boyish, childish and greenish –s in hats, books and cups 3) function words/ function words are often short words, they do not have much lexical meaning and some of them have no lexical meaning of their own; They are often short words such as determiners限定词, conjunctions连词, prepositions介词, auxiliaries辅助物, and so forth. 如to, the , of , by 4) content words实词/ They are used to name objects, qualities, actions, processes or states, and have independent lexical meaning. They are the nouns, main verbs, adjectives形容词and adverbs副词of a language. 二1) syntheti c综合的language / inflectional grammatical markers, French, German and Russian. 2) analytic language/word order, prepositions or auxiliary verbs , English and Chinese 3) Indo-European family of languages/ Europe and parts of Southern Asia Eight groups 三1) morphemes /The morpheme is the smallest meaningful linguistic unit of language, not divisible可分的or analyzable into smaller forms. 2) allomorphs/variants变体of the same morphem如im-, ir-, il- : allomorphs of the morpheme in- 3) root / is the basic unchangeable part of a word, and it conveys the main lexical meaning of the word. work able, work er, work ed, and work ing 4) stem /A stem is of concern only when dealing with inflectional morphology. Inflectional (but not derivational) affixes are added to it. It is the part of word-form which remains when all inflectional affixes have been removed. 如undesirables, undesirable; desired, desire 5) base / A base is any form to which affixes of any kind can be added. Desirable, desire - base and root, not stem; undesirable, desirable-base, not root and stem 6) inflectional affixes/A inflectional affix serves to express such meanings as plurality复数, tense, and the comparative比较的or superlative 最高的degree. 如-s, -ed, -er, -est 7) derivational affixes / When they are added to another morpheme, they derive a new word. re+write, mini+car, super+market, modern+ize, work+er 8) compounding 复合法/Compounding is a word-formation process consisting of combining two or more bases to form a compound word 9) derivation 派生法/Derivation or affixation is generally defined as a word-formation process by which new words are created by adding a prefix or a suffix or both to the base 10) conversion 转化法/Conversion is a word-formation process in which a word of a certain word-class is shifted into a word of another word-class without the addition of an affix. 11) initialism/It is a type of shortening, using the first letters of words to form a proper name, a technical term, or a phrase. 12) acronym首字母缩略词/Acronyms are words formed from the initial letters of the name of an organization or a scientific term, etc. Acronyms differ from initialisms in that they are pronounced as words rather than as sequences of letters. 13) blending拼缀/Blending is a process of word-formation in which a new word is formed by
Types of meaning Types of lexical changes 1.Elevation:词义升格 Definition: words rise from humble beginnings to positions of importance Some words early in their history signify something quite low or humble, but change as time goes by to designate something agreeable or pleasant. For example: nice: ignorant---foolish---delightful, pleasant Marshal: a keeper of horses---a high ranking army officer So elevation refers that the meaning of word changes from the neutral/negative to positive. 2.Old English:It refers to the English starting from 450 to 1100 AD. The old English is made up of different sources of languages spoken then –that of Anglo-Saxons, that of Celts, and that of Jutes, with a lot of Latin elements used for common peopl e’s life. 3.Bound morpheme: It is the smallest unit of grammar, a unit which cannot occur as separate words. They have no independent semantic meaning; instead, they have: Attached meaning E.g. un-kind, hope-ful Grammatical meaning E.g. cat-s, slow-ly, walk-ing, call-ed For an exact example, in the word “careful”, care is free morpheme, “-ful” is a bound morpheme. 4.Hyponymy: Hyponymy deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion, or to say, the relationship between general lexical items and specific lexical items. That is to say, when X is a kind of Y, the lower term X is the“hyponym”, and the upper term Y is the “superordinate”. For example, “fiction”is the superordinate of “novel”, “novelette”and “short story”, which are the hyponyms of “fiction”. Knowing the semantic features of the hyponyms and their superordinates can help us achieve vividness, exactness, and concreteness in expression.
第一章word 1.Word --- A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic funtion. 第三章formation 1 1. Morpheme --- A morpheme is the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words. 2. Allomorph --- Some morphemes are realized by more than one morph according to their position in a word. Such alternative morphs are know as allomorphs. 3. Free morphemes (Free root) --- They are morphemes which are independent of other morphemes. 4. Bound Morphemes --- They are morphemes which cannot occur as separate words. 5. Bound root --- A bound root is that part of the word that carries the fundamental meaning just like a free root. Unlike a free root, it is a bound form and has to combine with other morphemes to make words. 6. Affixes --- Affixes are forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or function. 7. Inflectional affixes --- Affixes attaches to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are known as inflectional morphemes. 8. Derivational affixes --- Derivational affixes are affixes added to other morphemes to create new words. 9. Prefixes --- Prefixes are affixes that come before the word. 10. Suffixes --- suffixes are affixes that come after the word. 11. Roo t --- A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analysed without total loss of identity. 12. Stem --- a stem can be defined as a form to which affixes of any kind can be added. 第四章formation 2 1. Affixation --- affixation is generally defined as the formation of words by adding word-forming or derivational affixes to stems. 2. Prefixation --- is the formation of new words by adding prefixes to stems. Suffixation--- is the formation of new words by adding suffixes to stems. 3. Compounding（Compositon）-- is the formation of new words by joining two or more stems. 4. Conversion-- is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class. 5. Blending-- is the formation of new words by combined by parts of two words or a word plus a plus a part of another word. 6. Clipping- is the formation of new words by shortening a longer word by cutting a part off the original and using what remain instead.
汉语言文字学必读书目30种2009年10月修订 1、《中国语言学史》王力 2、《语文常谈》吕叔湘 3、《基础语言学教程》徐通锵 4、《普通语言学教程》 [瑞士]索绪尔 5、《现代语言学流派》冯志伟 6、《应用语言学概论》于根元 7、《对外汉语教学概论》赵金铭 8、《现代汉语八百词》吕叔湘 9、《汉语和汉语研究十五讲》陆俭明、沈阳 10、《现代汉语》黄伯荣廖序东 11、《汉语语法学》张斌 12、《汉语语法入门》马庆株 13、《汉语描写词汇学》刘叔新 14、《现代汉字学纲要》苏培成 15、《语义论》石安石 16、《词汇语义学》张志毅张庆之 17、《修辞学发凡》陈望道 18、《古汉语通论》（《蒋礼鸿文集》）蒋礼鸿 19、《训诂学原理》王宁 20、《训诂学概论》方一新 21、《古汉语词汇纲要》蒋绍愚
22、《文字学概要》裘锡圭 23、《音韵学教程》唐作藩 24、《中国修辞学》杨树达 25、《〈说文解字〉注》 [清]段玉裁 26、《说文释例》 [清]王筠 27、《经传释词》 [清]王引之 28、《四书章句集注》 [宋]朱熹 29、《训诂丛稿》（《郭在贻文集》）郭在贻 30、《同源字论》（《同源字典》）王力 研究生阅读、写作初步建议（09） 壹、阅读 一、文献文本：文献阅读的目的是增强语感，储存语料，了解语言面貌；精读（即参考注释，字句无窒碍）阅读量10-15万字（不包括注释），泛读（即不一定参考注释，基本理解）阅读量20-30万字；下列书目大致按难易排序，可以二选一（史书部头大，可以选读）。 1、《世说新语》/《坛经》 2、《中古汉语读本》（方一新、王云路编著） 3、《近代汉语读本》（刘坚编著） 4、《论语》/《孟子》（杨伯峻译注） 5、《史记》/《汉书》（传记部分） 6、《庄子》（陈鼓应今注今译）/《荀子》（王先谦集解） 7、《诗经》选读（100篇以上）/《左传》选读
《英语词汇学》（课程代码：00832）试卷结构 Chapter 5 Word Meaning(词的意义) Reference(所指关系) is the relationship between language and the world. Concept(概念)，which is beyond language, is the result of human cognition n.认识；知识；认识能力, reflecting the objective world in the human mind. Sense(语义)denotes the relationship inside the language. Every word that has meaning has sense (not every word has reference) Motivation (词义理据)account for the connection between the linguistic(word) symbol and its meaning. Onomatopoeic motivation(拟声理据) words were created by imitating the nature sounds or noises. Morphological motivation(形态理据)compounds and derived words are multi-morphemic words and the meanings of many are the sum total of the morphemes combined. 很多合成词和派生词都是这类， Semantic motivation(语义理据)refers to the mental associations suggested by the conceptual meaning of a word. It explains the connection between the literal sense and figurative sense of the word.( 由字面义派生出来的引申 义) Etymological motivation (词源理据) the meaning of many words often relate words the history of the word explain the meaning of the word. associative meaning 关联意义 Lexical meaning 词汇意义 Types of Meaning conceptual /denotative meaning 词义的分类概念意义 Grammatical meaning 语法意义directly to their origins. In other connotative meaning 内涵意义 stylistic meaning 文体意义 affective meaning 感情意义 collocative meaning 搭配意义 Grammatical meaning refers to that part of the meaning of the word which indicates grammatical concept or relationships. Conceptual meaning also known as denotative meaning( 外延意义 ), is the meaning given in the dictionary and
《词汇学》名词解释总汇 1.Conversion（转换）is a word-formation whereby a word of a certain word-class is shifted into a word of another without the addition of an affix. It is also called zero derivation. 2.Neologisms（新词用法）are newly coined words or words that are given new meaning to fit new situation because of social, economic, political, cultural, scientific and technological changes in human society. 3.Lexicology（词汇学）is a branch of linguistics concerned with the study of the vocabulary of a given language. It deals with words, their origin, development, structure, formation, meaning and usage. 4.the elevation of meaning（词义的升格）refers to the process by which words rise from humble beginnings to positions of importance. 5.Acronyms（首字母拼音词）words formed from the initial letters of words and pronounced as words. They differ from initialisms in that they are pronounced as words rather than as sequences of letters. 6.Hyponymy(上下义关系)deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion. It refers to the relationship which obtains between the genus (general lexical item)and the species(specific lexical items). 7.Analogy（类比）is a process by which words or phrases are created or re-formed according to the existing patterns in the language. 8.Motivation（理据）deals with the connection between name (word-symbol) and its sense (meaning). It is the relationship between the word structure and its meaning. 9.Metaphor（隐喻）is a figure of speech containing an implied comparison. It is a simile without like or as. 10.Antonymy(反义关系)is concerned with semantic opposition. It can be defined as words which are opposite in meaning. 11.Suffix（后缀）: an affix attached to the end of a base (root or stem) 12. synecdoche（提喻）means using a part for a whole, an individual for a class, a material for a thing, or vice versa, the whole for a part. 13. prefix（前缀）: an affix attached to the beginning of a base (root or stem) 14. initialism（首字母连写词）: a type of shortening, using the first letters of words to form a proper name, a technical term, or a phrase; it is pronounced letter by letter. 15.morpheme(词素): the smallest meaningful linguistic unit of language, not dividable or analyzable into smaller forms. 16.the degradation of meaning（词义的降格）: is the opposite of semantic elevation. It is a process whereby words of good origin fall into ill reputation or non-affective words come to be used in derogatory sense. 17.Derivational affixes (派生词缀)Affixes added to other morphemes to create new words. They can be further divided into prefixes and suffixes。 18. back-formation（逆成法）: is a process of word-formation by which a word is created by the deletion of a supposed suffix. It is also known as a reverse derivation. 19. derivation（派生）: the process by which noninfectional affixes are added to roots to form words. 20. compounding（复合）: the process of joining together two linguistic forms which can function independently.