（一）Origin of oil and Gas 石油和天然气的成因Oil and gas result mostly from
石油和天然气大多是由缺氧环境下迅速被掩埋的死亡微生物生成的。这种环境氧气奇缺致使这些微生物无法分解。氧气的缺乏能够使那些死去的微生物保持它们的碳氢键——这是产生化石燃料的一种必要组分。由板块构造运动和大陆裂谷作用（变形）而新近演化形成的大洋盆地，正好为在缺氧水域的快速埋藏提供了合适环境。河流携带着丰富的有机残余物充填这些盆地。由于这些盆地的水循环受到局限，因此，它们的含氧量比开阔大洋更低。
Plate tectonics is also responsible
构块构造还形成了一个使有机质缓慢成熟演化成石油和天然气的“压力锅”。油气生成过程通常要经历数百万年，从而为在板块运动背景下油气的运移提供了时间。因为烃类化合物比水的浮力大，所以它们最终会竭力上升到地表。同时裂谷作用，板块之间的碰撞以及其它构造力可以将沉积盆地深处成熟的石油或者天然气释放出来，并在这些有机流体逸散到地表之前，将它们圈闭在油气藏中，我们称这些油气藏为油气田。The same plate tectonics that
为缺氧条件下微生物的埋藏提供了空间和条件的板块构造运动同样对这些沉积盆地的后期地质演化起着重要作用。大陆漂移、俯冲（一个板块俯冲到另一板块之下的过程）以及和其它大陆的碰撞作用能使沼泽、河流三角洲和温带气候区（大部分有机质沉积的地方）恰巧演变成现今的极地和沙漠环境。
(二)Evolution of Petroleum Exploration Concepts and Techniques石油勘探概念和技术的演变
From the days of
从圣经里的诺亚时代到OPEC（石油输出国组织）时代，石油地质学家这一职业需要越来越多的技能，要求越来越高。早期石油都是人们满怀热情、乐观和冒险精神，在乡村信步游荡时发现的。一个大型的美国公司（匿名）曾聘用了一位首席地质学家，他的勘探哲学是在印弟安人古墓上进行钻探。另一个石油探寻者习惯于带上一顶旧帽子，然后在草原上骑马狂奔直至他的帽子掉落，并在他帽子落地的地方开始钻井。据历史记载，他是非常成功的（坎宁安——克雷格，1912）。“溪滨学”是最早的石油勘探工具之一，早期钻井工程师逐渐明白在河流底部钻井比山顶钻井更容易发现石油。由亨特创立的（1861）石油捕集的背斜理论可以解释这种现象。直至今日，背斜钻探一直是最成功的石油勘探概念之一。
Experience soon proved,
然而，经验很快证实，石油也能出现在偏离构造的地方。卡尔（1880）指出，宾夕法尼亚含油的海相韦南戈砂岩分布带反映的不是构造，而是古海岸线。因此，石油能赋存于地层圈闭和构造圈闭的勘探概念诞生了。地层圈闭是由积、侵蚀或储层内部的成岩作用的变化形成的。
Through the latter part of
19世纪末到20世纪初，石油勘探是以对背斜构造的地面绘图为依据。地层圈闭偶尔靠运气发现，或是通过地下绘图和对为检验构造异常体而进行钻井所得到的数据推断而来。不整齐和不规则的褶皱作用限制了地表绘图对地下构造推断的深度。20世纪20年代中期，当地震（反射）、重力和磁力方法都应用于石油勘探时，
该问题才开始得以解决。
Pure geological exploration
20世纪上半叶，纯粹的地质勘探方法发展缓慢但稳步
前行，石油勘探的主要应用之一是微体古生物学的发
展。基于菊石等大化石的传统生特地层带不能够在地
表下鉴定，因为钻井具有毁坏性作用。新的生物带不
得不由微体化石来确定，微体化石带在地表由在化石
带校准。20世纪50年代末0年代初的现代沉积环境研
究，特别是在加维斯顿岛（德克萨斯州）、密西西比三
角洲、巴哈马堤岸、荷兰瓦登海、阿拉伯湾的研究，
为古沉积相及其解释提供了新的见角。这种新视野提
高了预测储层几何形状、内部孔隙度和渗透率变化的
能力。
The 1970s saw major
20世纪70年代，见证了两个前沿领域——地球物理学
和地球化学的主要发展。计算机的出现带来了地震处
理技术的巨大飞跃。地震学家不再对几速检波器记录
苦思冥想，大量数据可以显示在连续的地震剖面上。
地球物理学家首先将反射层位挑出来用鲜明的颜色标
示，后来甚至地质淡定家也能这么做。随着技术的进
步，地震测线变得越来越像地质剖面，直至地层学概
念和环境概念直接应用于此。
In the 1980s increasing computing
20世纪80年代，计算机计算能力的提高促进了三维地
震勘探技术的发展，这就使得地震剖面能够从任意方
位进行显示，包括水平显示。因此，现在可以对许多
油藏的几何形态直接成像。同样增强了的处理方法使
得直接探测油气的存在成为可能。这些技术进步与先
进的测井技术齐头并进。现今，可以测到矿物、孔隙
度、井眼孔隙流体的测井曲线，以及钻井所穿过地层
的图像。
（三）Exploration Methods勘探方法
In the early 1900s drillers
十九世纪初，钻探学家最终认识到石油存在于地下储
集岩的微小孔隙中，并且聚焦在储集岩的圈闭中。根
据所谓的背斜理论，石油聚焦在储集岩石中形成的大
型上隆褶皱中。背斜构造通常可根据出露地面的岩层
产状来识别。十九世纪初，油气就是通过对地表上识
别的背斜和穹窿构造的绘图和钻探而发现的。
Geophysicists use three methods
地球物理学业家通过三种方法进行石油勘探：磁力、
重力和地震勘探。在磁力勘探中，用磁力仪测定地球
表面某一点的地球磁场强度。在重力勘探中，用重力
测定仪或重力计测定某一点的地球重力场强度。磁力
计和重力计用来确定地下隐藏的石油圈闭的位置。在
地震勘探中，通过用爆炸物（如甘油炸药或重锤车）
将声波传入地下。当声波向地下传播时，被地下的岩
层反射回地面，称为反射波。反射波在地面可用检波
器进行检测和记录，这此记录经过处理可以形成地下
岩层的图像。地震勘探在海洋中也很有效。计算机可
用来提高声波形成的地下图像的质量。
（四）Relationship of Pertroleum Geology…石油
地质学和石油勘探、开发之间的关系
Geologists ,in contrast to some
与非地质学家相比，地质学家相信地质学的概念知识
能够帮助寻找石油，并且通常认为石油地质学业和石
油勘探是同义词，尽管它们不是同义的。关于石油不
是由沉积物中的有机质转化而来的理论已经引起了人
们的注意。如果石油地质学家关于石油生成和运移的
观点没有被接受，那么现行的石油勘探方法将需要进
行大幅度的调整。
Some petroleum explorationists still
一些石油勘探家仍不承认他们需要地质学家的帮助进
行石油勘探。1982年，一位德克萨斯州成功的石油勘
探者声称不需要地质学家，因为当他的竞争对手在雇
用了地质学家之后，结果只是增加了每桶原油的发现
成本。南非国家石油公司在国家政府法律的强行规定
下，对每种发现石油的方法必须进行验证，以便确认
它们是找矿方法还是复杂的科学技术。这些例子都不
是孤立的情况，人们一直在争论，使用随机钻井可能
比采用科学原理更好地找到石油。
Petroleum geology is only one
石油地质学只是石油勘探和生产的一个方面。除去非
典型的公司，现今的石油勘探需要掌握广泛专业技能
的人员组成的综合团队。这些技能包括政治和社会知
识，以便用于远景区块的并购。地球物理勘探为区块
租赁以及后来的钻井建议提供原始数据。地质学概念
应用于解释已采集的和处理的地球物理资料。一旦油
井完钻，即需要对油气发现进行工程方面的评价。石
油工程要考虑油田的储量，油藏中油气分布以及最有
效的生产方式。因此，石油地质学位于一个连续的学
科体系中，始于地球物理淡定、止于石油工程，但是
在时间和主题上有交叉。
（五）Geophysical Methods of Exploration地球物
理勘探方法
Petrobleum exploration and production
石油勘探和生产很大程度上与地球物理资料的地质解
释密切相关，特别是在海上区域。石油地质学家需要
非常熟悉地球物理学方法。多年来，在很多石油公司，
通常隶属不同部门的地质和地球物理两个小组之间存
在很大的交流障碍。而今，随着石油地球科学家这一
新的群体的出现，他们既是半个地质学家，又是半个
地球物理学业家，原有的两派分化现象在很大程度上
已经消失。令人遗憾的是，在地球物理学领域，数学
家、物理学家及计算机程序员（采集和处理地球物理
资料）和那些应用地质学概念解释这些信息的人员之
间又出现了新的分化。
The following account of geophysical
以下所述的石油勘探的地球物理方法有两个目的。一
是寻求解释基本现象，二是展示现代地球物理学的技
术奇迹。但它并不解释从基本现象到最终色彩鲜明的
地球物理图像中所运用的神秘的数学和统计学技巧。
该描述可能足以帮助油藏工程师了解发现油田及进行
储量评估所用的图件。但是，对于石油地质学家而言，
这只是个基础，还要接着学习一般的地球物理学的课
程，尤其是地震解释的课程。
Three main geophysical methods
石油勘探中的三种主要的地球物理学方法是磁力勘
探、重力勘探和地震勘探。前两种方法仅用于钻井之
前的勘探阶段。地震勘探用于勘探和开发两个阶段，
是目前这三种方法中最重要的方法。
（六）Shale Gas页岩气
Shale gas production,which had
自1821年起稳步增长的页岩气生产，在20世纪70年
代末和80年代初的能源危机时期经历了一次复兴，并
继续增长。美国页岩气生产由1992年的195Bcf（十亿
立方英尺），增加到1995年的300 Bcf。
Extensive research has been
在页岩气勘探和生产领域已经开展了广泛的研究。现
在已知页岩气的区域分布是由页岩层中有机质的数
量、质量和成熟度水平来控制的。页岩气在粉砂岩地
层或裂缝系统中局部聚集。粉砂岩地层通常出现在同
沉积期的低洼地带，而常规油气勘探会特意避开这些
地方。
Fracure systems may be
裂缝系统最有可能发育在背斜脊部地层拉张的地方，
但是沿着区域断层和盆地枢纽线走向也有可能发育。
可以通过遥感和地震勘探来确定这些裂缝的位置。常
规的地震勘探不适用于确定低速含气页岩区域。特定
的激发和地震资料的处理方法现在已经发展起来了。
Conventional drilling with a
因为泥浆的重量会迫使页岩气远离井筒，所以传统的
泥浆钻井方法很难找到页岩气。这些页岩气可能逃逸
到钻井泥浆里而被记录为“背景气体”，没有人想到这
些气体会有商业价值。页岩气是由空气钻井发现的。
只有应用了特殊的油井增产技术，才能进行页岩气生
产。
(七)Petroleum System含油气系统
A petroleum system is defined
含油气系统可以定义为一个天然系统，该系统包括一
套有效烃源岩和与之相关的所有石油和天然气，以及
油气藏存在所必需的所有地质要素和地质作用。这一
套曾经有效的烃源岩目前可能已不再有效或已排烃殆
尽。这里的“油气”包括高浓度的：（1）在常规储集
层、天然气水合物、致密储集层、裂缝性页岩和煤层
中发现的热成因或生物成因气；（2）在自然界发现的
疑析油、原油和沥青。“系统”一词指油气成藏的功能
单元形成所需的相互依存的地质要素和地质作用。
The essential elements include
“基本要素”包括烃源岩、储集层、盖层和上覆岩系。
“地质作用”包括圈闭的形成和油气的生成——运移
——聚集。前三种基本要素的作用是显而易见的，但
上覆岩系的作用比较难以捉摸，它不仅提供烃源岩热
成熟必须的上覆条件，而且还对其下伏的运移通道和
圈闭的几何形态产生很大的影响。这些基本要素和地
质作用必须发生在一定的时间和空间，从而使烃源岩
中的有机质转化为油气藏。含油气系统存在于具备这
些基本要素和地质作用发生的地方。
（八）Offshore Development海上开发
Onshore development wells are
陆上开发井是按照各种不同类型的几何布局进行钻井
的，井间距离取决于油藏的渗透率和每口井预期的泄
油半径。然而，这个过程在海上不可行。目前海上使
用不同类型的生产设备，包括浮标、轮船、浮式采油
平台和固定式采油平台。固定式生产平台用于水深约
450米以内的区域，更深水域使用浮式生产设备。目前
在水深达890米的地方已经实现了原油生产，在墨西
哥湾的Mensa油田，已经计划实施水空1650米的生产
系统。
Offshore petroleum production requires
海上石油生产需要具备在一个平台向四击钻多口井的能力。以前可以通过向井眼里放入一个钢楔或者“造斜器”的方法来造斜。现在使用电动钻头和先进的导航系统，可以按照要求控制钻井的任意走向。尽管这种技术在很大程度上是为了达到在一个海上平台上钻探多口井的目的，现在它却被重新引入陆上应用于水平钻井。水平井钻井可以穿透单个河道储集砂体，或可以穿越与断层相关的层面使之成为石油生产的天然渠道。水平井钻井已经得到广泛应用，如德克萨斯州的奥斯丁白垩层，这种岩石多孔隙但渗透率较低，水平钻井使得石油从与断层相关的裂缝系统中生产出来。
(九)Pressure of the Reservoir油藏的压力
For oil to move through the pores
油藏中原油的压力必须大于井底压力，原油才能流经储层岩石中的孔隙进入井底。只要维持这种压力差，原油及其伴生的溶解气就会源源不断地流入井筒。一部分游离气东水可能会随石油一起流入井筒。这些伴生流体的产出常常会减少井的产油量。石油通过岩石流向井筒的速度取决于油藏压力、井底压力、岩石的渗透率和原油的粘度。大部分石油将通过渗透率最高的层段流动，因为这些层段提供了流入井筒阻力最小的通道。这种情况在裂缝性储层中最为显著。几乎所有流体都通过裂缝流入井筒。同时，储层孔隙中的原油持续不断地补充到这些裂缝中。
As oil is removed from the rock
随着石油的开采，油藏的压力就会降低，如果没有天然水驱来维持压力，石油的产量就会降低。压力下降的速度会影响一定时间内从油藏中采出的原油总量。（十）Oil Extracyion采油
In most cases the reservoir has
在大多数情况下，油藏有足够的压力，可以使石油和天然气流出地面。在这种情况下，套管通常安装到生产层之下，在生产层对应的位置用射孔弹将套管射穿。油管悬挂在井口和生产层之间，油管和套管之间的环形空间被封隔器所密封。许多油井都采取了增产措施，可以在生产刚开始的时候，也可以在稍后的时候。典型的增产措施包括地层造缝，通常通过高压喷出金属性或塑性的物体使之炸开。最后，将盐酸或者其它配液注入，以便扩大裂缝，从而提高渗透率和生产能力。这些技术主要应用于碳酸盐岩油藏，但并不局限于这类油藏。
At the well head a system
在井口装有一整套阀门，它被称作为采油树，连着它的一根出油管将油导入一个油罐，采出来的石油和天然气在那里进行常压下分离。
If the reservoir pressure is too low
如果油藏的压力太低，不能使石油流出地面，就需要安装一个抽吸装置：井口的抽油机或者井下泵。柴油或者电力驱动的游梁举起和放下抽油杆，抽油杆另一端与井筒内的活塞相连。或者也可以在井底放一个电动的离心泵。
（十一）Artificial Lift and Enhanced Recovery人工举升和提高采收率
Not all fields produce by
并不是所有的油田都能依靠天然驱动机理进行生产，而且即便采用了天然驱动机理，也不能采出所有的石油。人工举升方法用于天然驱动不足的油田中采油。
提高采收率的方法可以增加可采储量。
A well will flow oil to the surface
如果井底的静态压力大于泥浆柱压力和井眼的摩阻，
油井内的原油就会流到地面。但在许多油藏压力低的
浅层油田和枯竭油田，油井不能自动流出原油。在这
种情况下，原油是用抽油机或者井底抽油泵抽到地面
的。
Once a field becomes depleted,
一旦油田枯竭了，要么报废该油田，要么进行二次采
油来提高产量。在适当的时候，甚至还要实施三次采
油。现在的做法是，在油田刚开始投入生产时就采用
提高采收率措施。提高采收率技术有很多，以下简要
讨论其中一些方法。
One of the main objectives of
提高采收率的主要目标之一是保持或者重新恢复原始
油藏压力。这个目标可以通过好几种方式来实现。可
以注入气体，要么注入来自相同或相邻油田的石油天
然气，要么注入天然或工业生产的惰性气体，例如二
氧化碳或氮气。另一种方式是注入液体，这些液体可
以是海水或相邻地层中的原生水。对注入水进行仔细
的化学分析和处理对于预防和监控油藏内发生不必要
的化学反应是非常重要的。一些水因为会在孔隙空间
内沉淀盐以及造成粘土矿物的膨胀而破坏渗透率。因
为细菌会降解原油而增加其粘度，海水必须经过处理
杀死细菌。更复杂的提高采收率的方法包括注入乳化
剂（胶束驱油）使重油乳化，然后采出。电热辐射已
经被用来驱动页岩和常规油层中的原油。
（十二）Reservoir Simulation of深切谷弃填的油藏
模拟
The principal aim of reservoir
根据露头区进行油藏模拟研究的主要目的是量化1米
至数百米尺度的岩性非均质性对深切谷充填油藏油气
产量的影响。犹他州南部Kaiparowits高原地区的深
切谷充填单元出露完好，这使高分辨率的岩相分布解
释成果能应用于二维流体流动模拟。穿过深切谷充填
地层的露头剖面大致与古水流方向垂直，并位于白垩
纪直崖组地层内的A砂岩层序边界之上。其岩相为泥
岩、异粒岩和带边界面的砂体，主要在垂直方向产生
非均质性。变化最小的方向是与古水流平行的水平方
向。
Petrophysical properties of the lithofacies
通过改变流体特性可以改变岩相的岩石物理特征，因
此生成不同的模拟情景来进行对比。这样，可以针每
种岩性对流体流动模拟的影响进行量化。我们的模拟
结果表明，对于线性驱动，其水平流动是由注入井—
—采油井的进组引起的，零渗透率和低渗透率的泥岩
以及异粒岩体的分布仅仅在砂体特性变化明显的情况
下对流体流动产生显著影响。但是，对于垂直流动，
由于这些岩性单元对液动路径弯曲度的影响，其对流
体流动的影响很大。模拟表时，尽管井的位置必须进
行优化，但与古水流平行（即岩相变化最小的方向）
进行水平井的布署能够获得最佳的驱油效率。
(十三)Outline of Natural Gas..天然气集输概述
Gathering and transmission of natural
在井场进行天然气集输是非常重要的生产过程。集气
是指天然气从井口通过管网到达集气站的过程。预处
理后将天然气输送到净化站入口，这个过程称为天然
气的传输或运输（不包括净化处理后纯净商业天然气
的输送）。
Pipelines used to transmit natural
用于把天然气从井口传输到集气站和净化站的管道称
为集气管网，它连接所有产气井，为天然气集气和预
处理提供通道。所有的管网都是密闭的，以使天然气
保持持续流云贵。管网布局的基本样式包括放射状、
杜状和环状三种，有时也组合使用。如果有两个或者
更多气藏需要同时开采，应根据天然气的品质和压力
设置几套管网。管网内的压力可由地层压力、气液分
离工艺和输气系统的压力要求来确定。在有些含流化
氢气田，管网系统要用低碳钢管或抗硫低合金钢管来
建造，以防止流化物造成应力腐蚀。
Stations for gathering and pre-treatment
天然气采集和预处理厂站包括集气站（含单井站）、脱
水站、调压计量站、分输产、增压站、储配站、阀室、
清管站和阴极保护站等。厂站的样式、数量、布点、
设备配置由天然气的品质、气井位置和预处理工艺来
确定。
(十四)H2S and Hydrocarbon… H2S和油气监测
Safety equipment in the gas purification
天然气净化厂的安全设备包括泄压装置、H2S连续监测
仪、个人H2S监测仪、油气连续监测仪、消防栓、防火
探测器、灭火器、自给式呼吸器、公用工程站及安全
淋浴器。
Continuous H2S monitors are installed
整个天然气净化厂到处都安装有H2S连续监测仪。这些
监测仪的确切安装位置在具体工程施工中确定。这些
监测仪需安装在H2S浓度可能达到有毒级别的H2S泄漏
源附近。几乎包括硫回收装置的所有设备和管线。因
为H2S比空气重，所以监测仪安装在大约高于平台或地
面0.4m的位置。应将监测器用电线连回到设备中的数
字控制系统、报警器和信号灯。信号灯通常安装在通
往设备的常经之路上。H2S监测仪要求安装在员工通常
进行正常操作检查作业时要到达的所有高度的地方。
In addition to the permanet
除了这些H2S的监测仪外，在厂区工作的职工在正常生
产期间必须一直携带个人H2S监测仪。这些便携式监测
仪是必要的，因为固定H2S监测仪不能监测工厂内所有
高度上的各个区域。
Continuous hydrocarbon monitors
油气连续监测仪也要安装。检测仪须安装在可能的油
气泄漏源附近。
Fire hydrants,monitors and
整个工厂内应有策略地放置消防栓、监控器和灭火器。
这些设备的位置应根据消防计划和演习的情况而定。
Self contained breathing apparatus
整个工厂内还应有策放置自给式空气呼吸器（SCBA）。
这些呼吸器的确切安装位置将在详细工程施工中确
定。呼吸器在毒气泄漏时可以用到。自给式空气呼吸
器通常放置在装置的主要入口处。要求将呼吸器放在
这里，以便操作人员在进入装置区营救晕倒的员工或
者隔离泄漏设备和管线前就可以佩戴上呼吸器。
Utility stations should be located
整个工厂都应有公用工程站。包括连续低压蒸汽、氮
气、厂用空气和工厂用水的管线。蒸汽管线可以用于
蒸汽吹扫。
(十五)Intelligent Well智能井
The term intelligent well generally
智能井通常指将基本的过程控制移到井下进行。当今
的智能井系统是一个实时注采管理网络，能提供井内
监测、数据评价及流量遥控作业的功能。智能井系统
通过先进的井内传感器获得数据，操作者无需进行井
的作业便能改变流动特性。测量点离目标层越近，其
分辨率越高，最终价值越大。这样，井内的永久性传
感器还有助于更好地了解特定产层和或注水层以及邻
井和井间油藏的特征。
Most intelligent systems well
大多数智能井系统的成本不到6个月就可以收回。快
速的成本回收所增加的价值超过了进行井的作业所需
的成本，所以现在生产和油藏管理人员使用智能井系
统进行资产管理。如今智能井系统可以根据需要提供
实时压力恢复和压降曲线，快速完成注入方案评价，
从而确定它们是否与模拟的速率一致。在许多情况下，
智能井系统获取的数据参数可以确定油藏构造，尤其
是封堵性断层。智能井系统具备分隔开特定的产层、
提高油井压力和确定是否与周围产层连通等方面的功
能，对油气生产大有益处。
(十六)Target constraints of …空气钻井目的层的
限制
The type of lithologies that
能采用空气钻井的岩笥类型是有限的，最适合用空气
钻井的是较老的固结的岩石。这些硬的岩层有些不需
要液体压力来支撑井避。而固结较差的地层不太适合
用空气钻井，其原因是这些地层可能有坍塌的倾向性。
空气钻井的用水量一定要适当，用水量太少会导致卡
钻，过多又会降低空气钻井的优势。
With the lack of a cost-effective
由于缺乏性价比高的导向系统，薄油层不能有效地采
用空气钻井。当使用旋转钻具组合时目的层的最小厚
度为50英尺，原因是旋转钻具组合能增加和减少的倾
向很难维持在0.25度/100英尺以下。对于薄的目的层，
为了使空气钻井更有效，会要求很多次马达方向的修
正。
Air drilling horizontal wells can
在某些情况下，用空气钻水平井是有效的。为了优化
钻井作业，作业人员必须要了解空气钻井的优点和局
限性。随着井斜角度变大直到水平，空气钻直井时许
多标准化的作业方法不得不连续地进行改进。和任何
水平井外井作业一样，精细的计划是钻一口成功井的
关键要素之一。
（十七）Precipitation of Salt井下盐的析出
The precipitation of salt downhole
井下盐的析出会导致油井的产能显著下降，甚至会造
成流动通道完全被堵塞。油井第天相对较低的产水量
仍可造成盐沉积物的快速形成，明显地降低原油或天
然气产量。例如，某口油井的井下温度为212°F，井
口温度为90°F，产出的氯化钠盐水处于或接近于盐饱
和，那么每桶产出水中会件出大约10磅盐。虽然岩盐
沉积物较之其它结垢物更容易清除，但由于盐沉积物
的形成较快，需要频繁地进行洗井作业以保持油井的
产能。最常用的方法是用淡水或低矿化度水进行定期
的清洗。
Deposition of sodium chloride
在世界各地，油井系统中氯化钠的沉淀都是一个严重的问题，因为它不仅会导致重大的生产延期，还必须进行高成本的修井作业。在高产含盐地层水或氯化钠含量接近于饱和的油井中，盐垢问题是十分严重的。在这些情况下，当生产流体在井筒中被兴举升并且冷却时，存在着盐大量结垢的潜在可能性，盐会从流体中析出，并在油井流动系统中形成盐桥。同其它的垢物沉淀相似，这些岩盐沉淀特会在油管中形成桥堵并遏制油井或地面管线的产能。
（十八）Logging or Measurement…随钻测井或测量The foregoing account of logging
前文提到的测井是钻井过程结束之后，在裸眼井或者套管井进行的测井。然而，自20世纪80年代初开始，钻进过程中，在钻杆内进行测井已经成为死扣儿。这种方法必须克服的主要问题是在地面和毗临钻头的探测器之间的遥测装置。人们曾经尝试了不同技术，包括电磁法、声波法、泥浆脉冲法和有线遥测法，只有最后两种被证明是有效的。钻井过程中进行的测井可以称为随钻测量（MWD）或者随钻测井（LWD）。
In the early days only simple
早期，只能做简单的电阻率和伽玛测井。其用途主要限于将正钻井和以前完钻的邻井进行对比。现今，密度和中子测井也能和一套电阻率测井一起使用。侧向和感应测井都可用于探测地层和钻井泥浆电阻率。现在，随钻测量/随钻测井比以往任何时候得到广泛应用。如上所述，海上石油勘探使得对超长定向钻井的需求增加了。因此，不但要知道钻头在地下的位置，而且还要实时了解岩石类型、油气显示和超压迹象等，这些对于定向井钻井是非常重要的。
(十九)Resistivity Logs电阻率测井
(二十)A Focus on Adding…聚焦储量增值
Petroleum exploration and production
石油勘探开发经济学的焦点是与其价格相关联的石油和天然气储量的规模及种类。石油勘探生产公司可以说拥有两个关键资产：
1.Its people and their ability
1..员工队伍及其发现（或并购）、开发和生产具有商业价值的油气储量的能力；
2.Its existing reserves and their
2.现有的储量以及生产后产生正规金流的能力。
The ability to apply new technology
运用新技术（如三维地震、水平钻井、深水钻井和生产技术，以及全球互联网知识共享等）的能力将会在未来十年内成为石油勘探生产行业风险管理和增加数十亿美元储量价值的关键。
E§P company managements
石油勘探生产公司管理层重视的是真正意义上的成功勘探，而不是成功率，即生产井数量与钻井总数的比例。一个10口井的勘探项目发现了单个大油藏远比一个用10口探吉发现了5个经济边界型油藏获利多得多。同样，勘探的成功与否也不是用所发现储量的多少来衡量的。在世界许多边远地区，已发现大量的天然气储量，但由于运输到天然气市场的成本太高，其价值是相对有限的。A U.S. property with one million
一个100万桶具有较高未来开发和生产成本的探明重
质、含硫原油储量的美国矿区可能只卖到100万美元，
而一个100万桶已完全投入开发的，具有低生产成本
的探明轻质、低硫原油储量的美国矿区则可能卖到600
万美元。因此，一个石油勘探生产公司必须经常用先
进的计算机生成的预测未来现金流现值的分析来估计
可能的勘探生产投资。
These analyses can project estimated
上述分析可预测出每口井在其多年的经济生命周期内
的估计月产量、储量及生产成本。通过这些预测的现
金流及所需的投资，就可计算出预期年收益率以及其
他利润指标，进而评价投资的经济价值。通常一个公
司的有关单井和整个历史产量、收入和成本构成等数
据记录对用于投资策略制定的现金流合理预测是有帮
助的。
二、汉译英
1、全球消耗的能源约86%都属于化石燃料，另外12%
来自水利和核能，但仅有大约2%的能源为可再生能源，
如太阳能、风能和地热能。未来20-50年内，这种情
况可望改变，但一切要视新科技发展和传统能源生产
情况而定。替代能源技术的实施需要大量的时间和资
金投入。
Approximately 86 percent of the world’s energy
consumption is based on fossil fuels.Another 12
percent comes from hydro and nuclear power,but
only about two percent comes from renwable
energies like solar,wind and geothermal
power.This situation will hopefully be changed in
the next 20 to 50 years,but it surely depends on
new technological developments and what happens
with conventional energy production.It will take
a lot of time and money for alternative energy
technologies to be implemented.
2、根据最早期的科学研究调查，是有的形成被归结为
两种起源：有机和无机的。一些化学家和天文学家认
为石油是无机起源的，有的是火成岩成因，有的是宇
宙成因。或者是…
From the earliestdays of scientific
investigation the formation of petroleum had
been attributed to two origins:inorganic and
organic.Some chemists and astronomers argued for
an inorganic origin-ometimes igneous,sometimes
extraterrestrial,or a mixture of both.Most
petroleum geologists believe that it is
indigenous to sedimentary rocks rather than
igneous ones.The advent of cheap and accurate
chemical analytical techniques allowed petroleum
source rocks to be studied.It is now possible to
match petroleum with its parent shale and to
identify potential source rocks,their tendency to
generate oil or gas ,and their level of thermal
maturation.
For a commercial oil accumulation to occur ,five
conditions must be fulfilled:
1/There must be an organic-rich source rock to
generate the oil and gas.
2.The source rock must have been heated
sufficiently to yield its petroleum.
3.there must be a reservoir to contain the
expelled hydrocarbons.This reservoir must have
porssity ,to contain the oil and gas ,and
permeability,to permit fluid flow.
4.The reservoir must be saled by an impermeable
cap rock to prevent the upward escape of petrleum
to the earth’s surface.
5.Source ,reservoir ,and seal must be arranged in
such a way as to trap the petroleum.
3、原油储量是指从已知油田的油井中将来可望产出原
油的估计数量。世界已发现常规油田的可采石油的总
量约为一万亿桶。其中约67%的是接触量分布在沙特阿
拉伯、科威特、伊朗、伊拉克等中东国家。
The term oil reserves refers to estimated amount
of crude oil that is expected to be produced in
the future from wells in known oil fields.The
total amount of recoverable oil already found in
the world’s conventional oil fields amounts to
about 1 trillion barrels.About 67 percent of the
world’s reserves was in the Middle Eastern
countries of Saudi Arabia,Kuwait,Iran,Iraq et al.
石油是不可再生资源。和树木不同，石油一旦从地
下采出，就不可能再生。原油在地下岩层深处通过自
然过程形成的速度很慢，在实验室中还从未形成过。
从原岩中的有机物到原油的形成至少需要几百万年，
现存的原油量是有限的。
Petroleum is considered a nonrenewable
resource.Unlike trees,it cannot be replaced once
it is removed from the ground.Crude oil forms very
slowly by natural processes deep in subsurface
rocks and has never been formed in
laboratories.The generation of crude oil from
organic matter in a source rock requires at least
several million years.There is a lemited amount
of crude oil in existence.
4、石油水平运移的距离一直以来都是人们争论的话
题。这是一个很难测量的参数。一般它是靠实际测量
石油聚集区和最近的原岩之间的距离完成，然而，成
熟度和生油岩应该被界定。二维和三维研究方法都已
经做过尝试，在石油被圈闭在泥岩中的砂岩透镜体内，
石油运移是短距离的。而在那些圈闭周围没有明显临
近生油岩的地方，肯定发生过大量的侧向运移。生油
岩和石油之间的对比，可以通过气相色谱的鉴别技术
实现。
Migration lateral distance to which petrobleum
can migrate has always been debated.It is a
difficult parameter to measure.Traditionally,it
is done by physically measuing the distance
between the petrobleum accumulation and the
nearest soutce rock,however maturity and source
rock might be defined.Both two-and
tree-dimensional studies have been
attempted.Where oil is trapped in sand lenses
surrounded by sale,the migration distance must
have been short.Where oil occurs in traps with no
obsvious adjacent source rock,extensive lateral
migration must have occurred.Correlation between
soutce rock and oil can be carried out by
fingerprinting using gas chromatography.
5、第三种开采机理被称为溶解气驱。这种驱动类型存
在于起初没有气顶的油田。开采开始后，压力降低，
油中形成气泡并膨胀，迫使油从空隙体系中流出，从
而流向井眼。气体的膨胀有助于维持油藏的压力。起
初，气泡是分散的。随着时间的推移，它们聚合在一
起，可能形成了连续的游离气相，可能在油藏顶部形
成气顶。改点被定义为临界气体的饱和度。需采取措
施来避免达到这一点。通过维持低产率生产或重新注
入采出的天然气以维持原始油层压力的方法，可以避
免达到临界气体饱和度。
The third type of production mechanism is the
dissolved gas drive,sometimes called the solution
gasdrive.This type of drive occurs in oil fields
that initially have no gas cap.As producation
begins,pressure drops and gas bubbles form in the
oil and expand,forcing the oil out of the pore
system and toward the boreholes.As the gas
expands,it helps to maintain reservoir
pressure.Initially,the gas bubbles are
separated.As time passes,they come together and
may form a continuous free-gas phase,which may
accumulate as a gas cap in the crese of the
reservoir.This point is termed the critical gas
saturation,and care should be taken to prevent it
form being reached.It may be avoided either by
maintaining a slow rate of producation or by
reinjecting the produced gas to maintain the
original reservoir pressure.
6、远离井口的页岩其的运输基本上是不可行的。由于
压力低，天然气必须加压后才能够在管道内流动。这
种额外增加的成本通常破坏了项目的盈利能力。另一
方面，如果页岩气毗邻城镇，或甚至独立的工厂、学
校、农场、医院、监狱、大学及其他类似机构，那么
就可以成为极为适宜的能源来源。页岩气生产对环境
的影响很小。钻井结束后，就不需要井架了。与油田
不同的是，页岩气井不需要井口泵，也不需要横跨乡
村修建长距离的管道。一旦投产，页岩气的生产不引
人注意、容易安静。除日常维护之外，页岩气产量不
太高，但可靠并能长期生产。
Transportation of shalegas far from the well head
is seldom feasible.Because of the low pressure，
the gas must be pressurized for it to flow along
a pipeline.This additional cost generally
destroys the profritability of the project.On the
other hand,shale gas is an eminently suitable
energy source when located adjacent to a town,or
even individual
factories,schools,farms,hospitals,prisons,univ
ersities,and similar establishments.Shale gas
production has a negligible environmental
impact.Once the well is drilled there is no
derrick.Unlike an oil field there is no need for
well-head pumos.No long-distance pipelines have
to be built across the countryside.Once estabished,shale gas production is inconspicuous ,undemanding,and silent.Apart from routine maintenance production is modest,but reliable and long term.
7、含油气系统的保存时间是指发生在油气运移生成-运移-聚集过程之后，该含油气系统中的油气被保存、改变或破坏的时间。保存期间发生的地质作用包括再次运移、物理或生物降解以及/或油气的完成破坏。在保存过程中只有发生褶皱、断裂、抬升或剥蚀的情况下，才会发生再次运移。一个正在形成或刚刚形成的含油气系统没有保存时间。也就是说，当含油气系统中的生成-运移-聚集过程持续至今时，保存时间不存在，可以认为大部分油气被保存，而极少被生物降解或破坏。
The preservation time of a peeroleum system takes place after the generation-migration-accumulation of hydrocarbons occur,and is the time when hydrocarbons within that petroleum system are preserved,modified,or destroyed.Processes that occur during the preservation time are remigration,physical or biological degradation,and complete destruction of the hydrocarbons.Remigration occurs during the preservation time only if folding,faulting,uplift,or erosion occurs.An actively forming or just completed petroleum system is without a preservation time.That is,when the generation- migration-accumulation of the petroleum system extends to the present day,there is no preservation time,and it would be expected that most of the petroleum is preserved and that comparatively little has been biodegraded or destroyed.
8、煤层中甲烷气的出现是众所周知的，因为作为“爆炸性矿井瓦斯”，它对煤矿工人来说是一种普遍存在的安全隐患。作业煤矿需要大量的通风系统来抽取甲烷。美国能源部估计，作为一项日常安全措施，每天约250百万立方英尺的甲烷从美国的煤矿中抽取。因此，煤层气现已成为非常规油气资源之一。
The occurrence of methane gas in coal measures is only too well known because as “fire damp” it is a widespread safety hazard to coal miners.Extensive ventilation systems are required to extract methane from working coal mines.The U.S.Department of Energy has estimated that some 250 MMcf of methane is vented daily from U.S.coal mines as a routine safety measure.Thus coal-bed methane has now joined the list of non-conventional petroleum resources.
9、当油田开采到一定时候，油藏的天然压力会衰减到再也无力将岩石孔隙里的石油驱替出来进入井底。在石油工业发展初期，油田开发人员完全依靠一次采油机理进行生产。驱替能量一旦耗尽便无计可施，只能将油田报废。这些情况导致各种人工开采方法的发展，以便从储集岩额孔隙空间驱替出更多的石油。应用人工开采技术从储集岩中驱替石油被称为“二次采油”。
A time may come in the life of an oilfield when
the natural pressure of the reservoir has declined
to an extent where it is no longer sufficiently
large to force the oil out of the pores of the rock
into the bottom of well.In the early days of the
industry,the operator depended entirely on
primary producation mechanisms and,once their
energy had been exhauseted,he had little
alternative but to abandon the field.These
affairs led to the development of artificial means
of forcing more oil out of the pore spaces of the
reservoir rock.The oil which is forced out of the
reservoir rock as a result of the applicationg of
an artificial technique is knoen as “secondary
oil recovery”.
把储集岩里的石油驱替出来的最简单的方法时用另一
种流体直接进行驱替。驱替流体必须比从孔隙中驱替
出来的石油便宜得多。最自然不过的做法是用水或天
然气作为置换介质去效仿一次采油机理。
The simplest method of forcing the oil of the
reservoir rock is by direct displacement with
another fluid.The displacing fluids must be
appreciably cheaper than the oil which they force
out of the pores.And what could be more natural
than any others is to imitate the primary
production mechanisms by using water or gas as the
displacing medium.
10、许多国家提供石油勘探开发的机会，经济风险也
伴随着国际经营的增加而增加。每个国家除了石油勘
探开发中常见的风险外，还有各自不同的一系列风险。
公司管理者应该了解和明白这些额外风险，并评价其
对公司在国际市场上盈利的影响是很重要的。
Many coutries offer opportunities for petroleum
exploration and production.With international
operations,there are increased economic
risks.Each country has its own set of risks to
address in addition to the normal risks inherent
in petroleum exploration and production.It is
important for company management to know and
understand these additional risks and to assess
their impact on the company’s ability to earn a
profit in the global market.
11、与页岩气不同，大部分煤层只生产干气，即甲烷。
因此煤层气和页岩气相比有较低的热值。煤层的渗透
率通常比页岩高，因为不论是天然或人工，煤层都更
容易断裂。这样一来，煤层气井通常有更高的流动速
率，因此有利于调整地面压力和管道运输。
Unlike shale gas , most coals only prlduce dry
gas ,methane.The coal-ed gases thus have a lower
calorific value than shale gas.Coal beds normally
have higher permeabilities than shales,because
they more easily fracture,either naturally or
artificially.Thus coal-bed methane wells
normally have higher flow rates and may therefore
justify surface pressuring and pipeline
transportation.The parameters that control the
methane-generating potential of a coal include
its rank,ash content,maceral type,matrix
porosity,fracture porosity,pressure,and water
contene.
12、虽然储油层被描述为具有一定孔隙度和渗透率的
多孔介质，但它几乎不是性质稳定的均质岩层。通常
情况下，储层中有很多物性变化范围很大的地层。储
层性质的变化对储层内流体的流动有着深远的影响，
从而也影响着原油的采收率。
Although oil reservoirs are characterized as
porous media with certain porosity and
permeability,they are almost never homogeneous
beds with constant properties.Generally,there
are numerous strata with wide-ranging
properties.The proerties variation can have a
profound effect on the flow of fluids in a
reservoir and thereby influence oil recovery.
13、在气田开发的初期和中期，井口压力一般都高于
集气管网内的压力。而在气田开采的后期，气井产率
和压力都会降低，天然气不能靠自身压力进入集气管
网，于是就要通过压缩机进行增压。由气轮机提供动
力的往复式压缩机可广泛安装在井场或集气站。
In the initial and middle periods of gas
development,well head pressure is usually higher
than that pressure inside the gathering pipe
networks,but at the final period of
development,the production rate and pressure of
gas well will be reduced,and the gases can not flow
into pipe networks by itself,and need to be
boosted by compressors.The reciprocating
compressors powered by gas turbine entine can be
used widely at well site or gathering station.
14、每个工厂都应有几处安全淋浴器和洗眼台。职工
在可能接触到胺液、腐蚀性以及其它化学物品时需要
用到这些设施。安全淋浴器应该安装在可能泄漏点附
近，且容易到达的地方。接触到这些物品的视力可能
受到影响，安全淋浴器和洗眼台必须清楚地做出标记。
There should be several safety showers and eye
wash stations located throuthout each plant.These
are needed due to possible exposure of personnel
to amine,caustic and other chemical agents.Satety
showers should be located in easily accessible
areas near potential exposure points.The safety
showers and eye wash stations must be clearly
marked since the vision of an exposure victim may
be affected.
15、智能井技术有希望在实时油藏描述和生产管理方
面取得相似的技术突破，从而大幅度增加油气资产价
值。工业界已经开始共同发布智能井接口标准。以便
改善通信和相互操作性，实现数据和设备的互交换，
共享数据的相同油藏，实现产量最大化。
智能井系统数据的演变与地震资料库相似。人们采集
地震数据的能力要远早于理解这些数据的能力。三维
地震最终被证明是上游油气工业最重要也是最有价值
的一项技术突破。
Intelligent well technology holds the promise
for similar breakthroughs in real-time reservoir
characterization and production management that
will lead to significant increases in asset
value.The industry has come together to begin
issuning intelligent well interface
standards.Recommendations are being published to
improve communication and interoperability,so
equipment and data can be inter-changed,and
producers who share common reservoirs can
maximize production.
The situation with regard to intelligent well
systems data evolution is comparable to that of
seismic libraries.The ability to acquire seismic
data was in place long before the ability to make
sense of it.Ultimately,3D seismic proved to be one
of the most important and valuable technological
breakthroughs in the upstream petroleum industry.
16、在石油工业中钻井费用是主要的作业费用之一。
提高钻井作业的钻进速度和减秒诸如压差卡钻和泥浆
漏失等钻井问题，长期以来被认为是降低钻井费用的
有效方法。通常认为，过平衡压力是影响钻井速度的
诸多因素中最重要的因素，它通常被定义为井筒压力
与地层流体压力之间的压力差。如果地层压力低于静
水压力则需要较低比重钻井液，如将空气和液体一起
泵入来降低过平衡压力，从而加快钻进速度，尽量减
少泥浆漏失、卡钻以及地层伤害。因此用空气或天然
气作为循环介质取代常规泥浆的充气泥浆钻井，在有
些地区正变成有吸引力的钻井方式，充气泥浆钻井的
商业应用在最近几年才刚开始，用于欠平衡钻井的低
密度钻井液包括空气、液体喷雾、稳定的泡沫和有回
压条件的充气泥浆泡沫。这里所说的充气泥浆是指为
钻特殊类型地层而将空气和泥浆同时引入立管中。
Drilling cost is considered one of the major
components of operating cost in the petroleum
indestr.Improving the penetration rate of
drilling operation and reducing drilling
problems.such as pressure differentina pipe
sticking and lost circulation,have long been
considered an effective way of decreasing
drilling costs.The have long been considered an
effective way of decreasing drilling costs.The
overbalance pressure,generally recognized as the
most important among the many factors affecting
penetration rate,is often defined as the pressure
differential between the borehole pressure and
formation fluid pressure.Formation pressures
lower than the static pressure of a column of fresh
water require the use of a lighter fluid,such as
air,injected with liquid to obtain lower
overbalance pressure to enhance penetration rate
and to minimize lost circulation and pipe sticking
as well as formation damage.Therefore,aerated mud
drilling “implies the use of air or natural gas
as the circulating medium instead of the regular
mud”is becoming an attractive practice in some
areas.The commercial use of aerated mud drilling
began only in recent years.Lws-densit drilling
fluids used in underbalanced drilling consist of
air,mist,stable foan,and aerated mud foam with backpressure.Whereas the term”aerated mud”implies the simultaneous introduction of air and mud together into the standpipe in order to drill special types of formatilns.
17、虽然该井产油多产水少，但是在油井投产初期便发生了井筒结盐问题。盐块会使油井的产量降低到不足预期产量的50%，因此需要对油井实施淡水清洗作业恢复油井的产量。洗盐作业通常能恢复产能，但是井底流压有可能在3-5天内明显地降低。在30天内，产量会再次受到限制，需要再次洗井。周期性的洗盐通常会成为例行的作业措施，从而带来产量损失、停工和高昂的洗井费用。
Although the well was capable of producing a high volume of oil and only a very small amount of water,salt problems started with the very early production.Salt blocks would restrict production to less than 0% of expected volumes,and then the well would require fresh water washing to restore productivity.Washing would normally restore production rates,but bottom hole flowing pressure would drop significantly within 3-5days.Within 30 days,production would again be restricted,and another cleaning would be required.The washing cycle became a normal routine,with associated loss of production,down time and expensive cleaning.
18、目前在阿拉巴马州的宾夕法尼亚系（上石碳统）煤层和美国西部内陆的白垩系煤层正在进行煤层气的商业化生产。在20世纪90年代初，大约500口井生产了超过两千八百万立方米的天然气。英国和世界其它地区也正在寻找煤层气。
Coal-bed gas is now being commercially peoduced from Pennsylvanian(Upper Carboniferous)coal measures in Alabama,and from the Cretaceous coals of the Western interior of the United States.In the early 1990s some 500 wells were producing more than 28 million cubic meters of gas. Coal-bed methane is being sought in the United Kingdom and elsewhere around the world.
19、在世界上一些地区，可能通过开凿水平巷道到达油藏来成功地开采石油。石油从墙壁滴到地面并且流到矿井出口。这种方式已得到应用。然而，从传统意义上讲，石油和天然气是通过钻井来定位和生产的，在石油勘探开始前，绳索工具钻井在世界上许多地方是寻找地下水和盐水的一项成熟的技术。西方国家第一口专门的采油井是爵克上校于1859年在宾夕法泥亚州的油溪钻探的。以前地下水井中产出的石油被视为一种污染物。钻探爵克井的技术来源于到美国修建铁路的中国工匠。绳索工具钻井至少从公元前一世纪就在中国使用了。但是在中国这项钻井技术是用来生产自流盐水，而不是石油的。
Oil has been mined successfully in several parts of the world by driving horizomtal adits into reservoirs.Oil dribbles down the walls onto the floor and flows down to the mine entrance.This technique has been used.However,oil and gas are located and produced by drilling boreholes.Before exploration for oil began,cable-tool drilling was an established technique in many parts of the world in the quest for water and brine.The first well to produce oil intentionally in the Western World was drilled at Oil Creek,Pennsylvania,by Colonel Drake in 1859.Previously water wells produced oil as a contaminant.The technology for drilling Drake’s well was derived from Chinese artisans who had traveled to the United States to work on the railroads.Cable-tool drilling had been used in China since at least the first century B.C..-In China,however,this drilling technology had developed to produce artesan brines,not petroleum.
20、历史成本与发现的储量价值相比，可能相差甚远。石油勘探生产财务报表核算从以下三个方面显示出油气储量的经济重要性。
·已探明储量的矿区（探明矿区）投资成本是根据目前已采出油气量与上述采出量和剩余探明储量之和的比值，按产量单位攫旧法来进行摊销；
·探明矿区的净投资成本仅限于对一些主要探明储量的价值计算；
·上市公司必须通过审计的财务报表去发布某些未经审计的有关探明储量及相关价值的补充信息。
即使如此，石油勘探生产公司的股票价格更多的取决于储量生产所获得的历史及期望现金流，以使储量的预计价值，而较少的取决于以通用公认会计原则计算得出的历史盈利。
Historical cost may be dramatically greater or less than the value of reserves found. E＆P financial statement accounting recognizes the economic importance of reserves in three ways: ·Capitalized costs of properties with proved reserves(proved properties)are amortized on a units-of-production method based on the ratio of volumes currently produced to the sum of those volumes and remaining proved reserves;
·Proved propreties’ net capitalized costs are limited to certain computations of value of the underlying proved reserves;
·Public companies must disclose,with audited financial statements,certain supplemental unaudited information on the proved reserve volumes and certain related values.
Even so,an E＆P company’s stock price is more closely correlated to historical and expected cash flow from production of reserves and to estimated values of reserves than to historical earnings measured under generally accepted accounting principles.
模拟试題一 I. Vocabulary Section A Directions: There are 10 incomplete sentences in this section. For each sentence there are four choices marked A, B, C and D. Choose the ONE answer that best completes the sentence and mark your answer on the answer sheet. 1.I could just see a car in the distance, but I couldn't ____ what color it was. A. make out B. look to C. look out D. take in 2.He mumbled something and blushed as though a secret had been____ A. imposed B. exposed C. composed D. opposed 3.You should these tables and buy new ones. A. throw off B. throw down C. throw up D. throw away 4. _ ____ their suggestions， we will discuss them fully at the next meeting. A. In regard for B. In regard to C. With regard of D. Regardless for 5.On cloudy nights it is not possible to see the stars with ____ eye. A. naked B. bare C. flesh D. pure 6.Many new _____ will be opened up in the future for those with a university education. A. opportunities B. necessities C. probabilities D. realities 7.I found myself completely _ ____ by his vivid performance. A. carried out B. carried off C. carried away D. carried on 8.Although the examination he had passed was unimportant, his success ____ him in his later study. A. persuaded B. promised C. urged D. encouraged 9.This is the first time you have been late. A. under no circumstances B. on no account C. by no means D. for no reason 10.The taxi had to _ because the traffic light had turned red. A. set up B. catch up C. shut up D. pull up Section B Directions: There are 10 sentences in this section. Below each sentence are four other words or phrases. You are to choose the one word or phrase which would best keeping the meaning of the original sentence if it were substituted for the underlined word or phrase. Then mark your answer on the answer sheet.- 11.The roof of the house was practically falling in and the front steps were rotting away. A. almost B. essentially C. always D. conveniently
2020年职称英语考试真题及答案(综合类C级) US Signs Global Tobacco Treaty 1 The United States has taken the first step toward approving a global tobacco treaty that promises to help control the deadly effects of tobacco use throughout the world. Health and Human Services Secretary Tommy Thompson signed the Framework Convention on Tobacco Control (FCTC) this week at the United Nations. (46) 2 The FCTC was developed by the World Health Organization and approved by members of the World Health Assembly，including the United States，last year. (47) 3 For instance, cigarettes sold in those countries would have to have health warnings on at least 30% of the front and back of every pack. (48)It also requires bans on tobacco advertising, though there are some exceptions for countries like the United States, where the Constitution prohibits such an outright ban. 4 (49) The World Health Organization estimates that tobacco use kills nearly 5 million people worldwide every year. In the US alone, about 440,000 people die each year from tobacco-related illnesses; about one-third of all cancers in the US are caused by tobacco use. If current trends continue, WHO estimates, by 2025 tobacco will kill 10 million people each year. 5 The treaty must be ratified by at least 40 countries before it can take effect. (50)
2016职称英语考试真题及答案 第1部分：词汇选项(第1～15题，每题l分，共15分) 下面每个句子中均有1个词或者短语有下划线，请为每处下划线部分确定1个意义最为接近的选项。 1、Have you talked to her?lately? https://www.doczj.com/doc/6a4783483.html,stly B.finally C.shortly D.recently 2、 About?one quarter of?the workers in the country are employed in factories. A.third B.fourth C.tenth D.fifteenth 3、 The dentist has decided to?extract?her bad tooth. A.take out B.repair C.push in D.dig 4、 We shall keep the money in a?secure?place. A.clean
B.secret C.distant D.safe 5、 This table is strongand?durable. A.long-lasting B.extensive C.far reaching D.eternal 6、 He endured agonies before he finally?expired. A.fired B.resigned C.died D.retreated 7、 There are only five minutes left, but the?outcome?of the match is still in doubt. A.result B.judgement C.estimation D.event 8、 The great changes of the city?astonished?every visitor to that city A.attacked
试卷一 I. Vocabulary Directions: There are 20 incomplete sentences in this part. For each sentence there are four choices marked A, B, C and D. Choose the ONE answer that best completes the sentence and mark your answer on the Answer Sheet. 1. It is possible to predict how much energy and water a building will consume, how much _______ will be needed. A. matter B. things C. material D. substance 2. They found that the positive thinkers sold 37 percent more insurance than did the_______ thinkers. A. negative B. positive C. active D. passive 3. In labs around the world, bad bugs are undergoing the ultimate rehabilitation, being _______ from life-threatening viruses and bacteria into lifesaving therapeutic agents. A. translated B. transported C. transformed D. transmitted 4. The fresh air is sometimes humid from the _______rainfall of this area. A. numerous B. abundant C. plenty D. substantive 5. We know that many animals _______ the deep seas at pressures of 15,000 pounds per square inch. A. live on B. live in C. live through D. live up to 6. Speakers and writers of the Germanic languages _______for a great deal of the world's output in everything from economics to literature to military to science and technology. A. account B. allow C. apply D. arrange 7. _______of the great state of Illinois, let me express my deepest gratitude for the privilege of addressing this convention. A. On account B. In honor C. In place D. On behalf 8. The companies that are finding ways to hang on to their older workers _______ from an intangible commodity: wisdom. A. obtain B. earn C. develop D. benefit 9. I raced to_______ Jill. A. keep on B. keep up with C. come up with D. come up to 10. Managers need to monitor inflation trends so they can make good _______. A. decisive B. decisions C. decide D. decided 11. Fluency can be _______ defined as "being able to communicate ideas without having to stop and think too much about what one is saying." A. simple B. simply C. similar D. simplify 12. The number of vehicles has been steadily increasing. _______, more than 100 cities in the United States still have levels of carbon monoxide that exceed legally established limits. A. Continuously B. Consequently C. Constantly D. Consistently 13. A(An) _______ is better than the text and may make the point clear. A. interpretation B. representation C. illustration D. draw 14. Some of the world's best mountain _______ is available within the 500-kilometer long chain of the Southern Alps. A. scene B. scenery C. scarce D. scare 15. After a through research, the police __ most of the missing jewels. A. retreated B. refreshed C. recovered D. reminded 16. A gold-rated building is estimated to have reduced its environmental impact by 50% compared with a(an) __ conventional building. A. equivalent B. alike C. uniform D. likely 17. When pessimists __ in their first attempt, they usually say, "I can't do this." A. feel B. fail C. defeat D. lost 18. Six years __ before she got another note from Teddy. A. went into B. went around C. went by D. went on 19. The company owns a large number of _______ stores. A. export B. bargain C. retail D. trade 20. The cost of self-education has fallen with the multitude of sources of knowledge and information _______ on CD-ROMs and the Internet. A. preferable B. ready C. available D. considerable II. Grammatical Structure Directions: There are 20 incomplete sentences in this part. For each sentence there are four choices marked A, B, C and D. Choose the ONE answer that best completes the sentence and mark your answer on the Answer Sheet. 21. Put things back _______ you found them.
2015年职称英语理工类C级考试真题及答案第一部分：词汇选项 1. The weather last summer was awful. A. bad B. fair C. dry D. hot 参考答案：A 2. The law carries a penalty of up to three years in prison. A. message B. guilt C. obligation D. punishment 参考答案：D 3. My piano playing has improved significantly since I had a new teacher. A. definitely B. generally C. certainly D. greatly 参考答案：D 4. There is a need for radical changes in education.
A. revolutionary B. long-term C. short-term D. systematic 参考答案：A 5. It frustrates me that I‘m not able to put any of my ideas into practice. A. discourages B. shows C. surprises D. frightens 参考答案：A 6. I realized to my horror that I had forgotten the present. A. limit B. fear C. power D. fool 参考答案：B 7. He tried to assemble his thoughts. A. gather B. clear C. share D. spare
英语分级测试 第一篇How to be Happy 如何获得幸福 (2) 第二篇City Design 城市设计 (4) 第三篇Population 人口 (6) 第四篇Earthquake 地震 (7) 第五篇The Aftermath of BP Fulf Oil Spill----英国石油公司墨西哥湾原油泄漏 (9) 第六篇Green Computers“绿色’’电脑 (11) 第七篇Cell Phones手机 (12) 第八篇Touch Tech触屏技术 (13) 第九篇Fossil Fuels and Our Life化石燃料与我们的生活 (15) 第十篇Carbon Emissions碳排放 (16) 第十一篇Marine Pollution海洋污染 (17) 第十二篇China's Growth and the Clean Energy Tech中国的经济增长与清洁能源技术 (18) 第十三篇Market Economy市场经济 (19) 第十四篇CPI消费者物价指数 (20) 第十五篇The Internet互联网 (21) 十六篇Apple Expands its Touchy-Feely Vision苹果公司用iPad延续梦想 (22) 十七篇3G Technology技术 (23) 十八篇Carbon Capture and Storage碳捕获和储存 (24) 十九篇GlobaIWarming全球变暖 (25) 二十篇Alternate Energies替代能源 (26) 二十一篇Biofuels生物燃料 (27) 二十二篇Coal Chemicallndustry煤化学工业 (28) 二十三篇Resource Curse资源诅咒 (30) 二十四篇Company Management公司管理 (31) 二十五篇Recruitment Drives Take Talent from Wide Pool人才库 (32) 二十六篇Tips for Job Seekers找工作的秘诀 (33) 二十七篇Chinese Oil Market中国石油市场 (34) 二十八篇0il Trade石油贸易 (35) 二十九篇How I Lost My Head in the Volcanic Ash Cloud令人发疯的火山灰 (36) 三十篇Project Management项目管理 (37)
花了一天时间做了一份真题答案，特做几点申明： 1、仅为参考答案，由于水平问题，可能与每个人的答案会有出入，见仁见智吧，毕竟官方不给出标准答案。 2、作答依据大部分来源于网上搜索，尽可能地找到原题出处，实在无法找到出处的根据个人理解给出答案。 3、每题后列出了题目出处，并做出简单解析。前40题错误应该不多，阅读理解部分无法保证全对。 中石油职称英语考试2016年真题及参考答案解析 I. Vocabulary Section A Directions: There are some sentences in this section. Below each sentence are four other words or phrases. You are to choose the one word or phrase which would best keeping the meaning of the original sentence if it were substituted for the underlined word or phrase. Then mark your answer on the answer sheet. 1、In most countries, the crime of murder carries harsh penalties. A. unconscious B. thrive C. severe D.prudent 【参考答案】C 【释义】harsh adj.残酷的；严酷的；严厉的；恶劣的 unconscious adj.无知觉的；昏迷的；不省人事的；无意识的 thrive v.繁荣；茁壮成长；蓬勃发展；兴旺发达 severe adj.极为恶劣的；十分严重的；严厉的；苛刻的 prudent adj.谨慎的；慎重的；精明的 2、I tell my mother about my trials at work and brag about the kids. A. lie B. boast C. secretive D. feel awkward 【参考答案】B 【出处】2016版《通用选读》第28课That "Other Woman" in My Life第8段。【释义】brag v.吹嘘；自吹自擂 lie v.躺；说谎；撒谎；在于 boast v.自夸；自吹自擂；有（值得自豪的东西） secretive adj.（思想、情感等）不外露的；惯于掩藏自己的；有城府的 feel awkward 为难；作难；犯难 3、The employee had to breakoff the conversation in order to wait on his manger. A. continue B. hurry C. begin D.discontinue 【参考答案】D 【出处】MBA联考大纲英语词组。原题：The employee had to break off the conversation in order to wait on his manager. (discontinue) 【释义】break off v.断绝；折取；把…折断；使脱落 continue v.持续；延伸；继续存在；不断发生 hurry v.赶快；（朝某方向）迅速移动；催促（某人）；迅速处理
全国职称英语考试历年真题及答案 理工类-A级 2003-2010 目录 1.2003年全国职称英语考试（理工类A级）真题及答案 (2) 2.2004年全国职称英语考试（理工类A级）真题及答案 (16) 3.2005年全国职称英语考试（理工类A级）真题及答案 (35) 4.2006年全国职称英语考试（理工类A级）真题及答案 (54) 5.2007年全国职称英语考试（理工类A级）真题及答案 (68) 6.2008年全国职称英语考试（理工类A级）真题及答案 (76) 7.2009年全国职称英语考试（理工类A级）真题及答案 (89) 8.2010年全国职称英语考试（理工类A级）真题及答案 (102)
2003年职称英语等级考试理工类A级试题及答案第一部分：词汇选项（第1—15题，每题1分，共15分） 下面共有15个句子，每个句子中均有1个词或短语画有底横线，请从每个句子后面所给的4个选项中选择1个与画线部分意义最相近的词或短语。答案一律涂在答题卡相应的位置上。 1. The union representative put across her argument very effectively. A explained B invented C considered D accepted 2. He talks tough but has a tender heart. A heavy B strong C kind D wild 3. It is no use debating the relative merits of this policy. A making B taking C discussing D expecting 4. Our statistics show that we consume all that we are capable of producing. A waste B buy C use D sell 5. The fuel tanks had a capacity of 140 liters. A function B ability C power D volume 6. Our lives are intimately bound up with theirs. A tensely B nearly C carefully D closely 7. Her faith upheld her in times of sadness. A supported B excited C inspired D directed
2016年中石油职称英语考试真题及参考答案解析 I. Vocabulary Section A Directions: There are some sentences inthis section. Below each sentence are four other words or phrases. You are tochoose the one word or phrase which would best keeping the meaning of theoriginal sentence if it were substituted for the underlined word or phrase.Then mark your answer on the answer sheet. 1、In most countries,the crime of murder carries harsh penalties. A. unconscious B. thrive C. severe D.prudent 【参考答案】C 【释义】harsh adj.残酷的；严酷的；严厉的；恶劣的 unconscious adj.无知觉的；昏迷的；不省人事的；无意识的 thrive v.繁荣；茁壮成长；蓬勃发展；兴旺发达 severe adj.极为恶劣的；十分严重的；严厉的；苛刻的 prudent adj.谨慎的；慎重的；精明的 2、I tell my motherabout my trials at work and brag about the kids. A. lie B. boast C. secretive D. feel awkward 【参考答案】B 【出处】2016版《通用选读》第28课That "Other Woman" in My Life第8段。【释义】brag v.吹嘘；自吹自擂 lie v.躺；说谎；撒谎；在于 boast v.自夸；自吹自擂；有（值得自豪的东西） secretive adj.（思想、情感等）不外露的；惯于掩藏自己的；有城府的 feelawkward 为难；作难；犯难 3、The employee had to breakoff the conversation in order to wait on his manger. A. continue B. hurry C. begin D.discontinue 【参考答案】D 【出处】MBA联考大纲英语词组。原题：The employee had to break off theconversation in order to wait on his manager. (discontinue) 【释义】break off v.断绝；折取；把…折断；使脱落 continue v.持续；延伸；继续存在；不断发生 hurry v.赶快；（朝某方向）迅速移动；催促（某人）；迅速处理 begin v.开始；启动；起始；开始存在（或进行） discontinue v.停止；终止；中断；终止（生产）
2011年真题： 第1部分：词汇选项（第1—15题，每题1分，共15分） 下面每个句子中均有1个词或短语划有底横线，请为每处划线部分确定1个意义最为接近的选项。 1.His shoes were shined to perfection. A. cleared B. polished C. washed D. Mended 2.She can be relied on in A. looked after C. turned on B.believedin D.depended on 3.Marsha confessed that she knew nothing of computer. A. admitted B. reported C. hoped D. answered 4.The test produced disappointing results. A. unsatisfactory B. indirect C. similar D. positive 5.My doctor said I should vary my diet more A, change B. prepare C. cook D. choose 6.Greene spent a brief time at Cambridge. A. hard C. short B. good D. long 7. The book took ten years of thorough research A. basic B. careful. C, social D. major 8. The high-speed trains can have a major impact on our lives. A. effor B. problem C. influence D. Concern 9.Eventually, she got a job and moved to London A. Certainly B. Luckily C. Naturally D. Finally 10.The love of money is the root of'all evil A. result B. end C. cause D. Force 11.We explored the possibility of expansion at the conference A. offered B. investigated
UNIT 1 How to be Happy如何获得幸福 In the past two weeks we have looked at the happiness formula defined by positive psychologist Martin Seligman, where H (happiness) = S (your biological set point for feeling happy) + C (the conditions of your life) + V (the voluntary choices you make). This week we look at the conditions in life that can improve our happiness quotient. 过去两周我们研究了一项幸福公式，这是由乐观心理学家马丁·塞利格曼定义的。在这个公式中，H（幸福）=S（个人生理幸福感受的固定指数）+C（个人生活状态）+V（个人主观选择）。本周我们将着眼于能提升幸福指数的生活状态。 Step 1: Peace and quiet Jonathon Haidt in his excellent book, The Happiness Hypothesis, notes that research shows that we can never completely adapt to new or chronic noise pollution. Loud noises trigger one of our most primitive fear responses (the other is the fear of falling) and we can never fully relax if we are surrounded by intrusive noise. It is essential to have some peace and quiet every day. If you are unfortunate enough to live somewhere noisy, persist with complaining to your local council. Additionally, try wearing wax earplugs to have some respite. If you need your TV, radio or music up loud, wearing headphones demonstrates altruism to your neighbours, which will make you and them feel good. 第一步：平和宁静乔纳森·海迪在他的优秀著作《幸福假说》当中提到，研究调查显示，我们不可能完全适应噪音污染，无论是新近的还是长期的。巨大噪声会引发我们面对恐惧的某种本能反应（另一种是对于坠落的恐惧），如果周遭噪音喧闹，我们不可能完全放松。每日保持平和与宁静事关重要。如果你不幸生活在比较嘈杂的环境中，请一定要坚持去居委会投诉。另外，尝试使用耳塞，可能会缓解噪声。如果你需要用大音量看电视、听收音机或放音乐的话，记得戴上耳机，别影响邻里，这样可以使双方都感到舒适。 Step 2: Relationships This is the most important of all the external conditions that can improve your happiness quotient. Often our deepest sources of unhappiness are found in poor relationships with others. A cruelly conflictual relationship with a partner or lover leaves us feeling betrayed and abandoned. A relationship with our parents or children which is not based on compassionate, unconditional regard creates isolation and misery. When faced with such relationships, the most positive thing we can do is to either mend the relationship by confronting what is going wrong or learn to move on. 第二步：人际关系这是增加幸福指数的一条至关重要的外部条件。我们感到不快乐的最深层原因，往往就是人际关系欠佳。与搭档或者爱人的关系陷入激烈的冲突中，会让我们产生遭到背叛和遗弃的感觉。父母和孩子之间如果缺乏同情心和无私关怀，会产生隔阂与痛苦。当我们面临这类问题时，最好的办法就是直面难题，修复关系，或者学着继续前行。 Step 3: Share If you have discovered conditions or choices in life that have significantly improved your wellbeing, remember to share them with friends. Passing on what works is essential to improve the wellbeing of our own and others. 第三步：分享如果你发觉生活状态或者做的某项决定对幸福生活有重大帮助的话，记得与你的朋友们分享。将有用的发现与更多人分享，这对增进自己的幸福和他人的幸福都有积极作用。 1.What's the happiness formula according to the passage?(The formula refers to H (happiness) = S (your biological set point for feeling happy) + C (the conditions of your life) + V (the voluntary choices you make).) 2. Why can we never completely adapt to new or chronic noise pollution?(Loud noises trigger one of our most primitive fear responses and we can never fully relax if we are surrounded by intrusive noise.) 3. How could we make both ourselves and the neighbors feel good?(If we need our TV, radio or music up loud, wearing headphones demonstrates our kindness and can do is to either mend the relationship by confronting what is going wrong or learn to move on.) 1．吵闹的邻居的确对我们家庭不和(domestic upset)有很大影响。Noisy neighbors are one of the major causes of domestic upset. 2．在职场上，如果一个同事对我们表示威吓的话，会造成难以言表的抑郁情绪(unwretchedness)。A colleague at work who bullies or dismisses us creates untold wretchedness. 3．我们不可能适应这种敌对关系，这种不良的人际关系会损害身心健康。We can never fully adapt to hostile relationships, which inevitably damage our wellbeing. 4．如果这种坏情绪长时间留在人们的心里，会让人陷入无法解决的恶性心理困境。If this bad mood stays inside our mind, it will lead us to an unresolved destructive depression. 5．我们不应当回避这些问题，而是要正确面对它们。We should not avoid these problems but face them instead. There are many benefits to being happy. Happier people tend to be healthier, live longer and eam more. They also tend to volunteer more, be better at relationships and smile more of w hat psychologists call “Duchenne" or genuine smiles. What is less well understood is why happiness is contagious. 幸福有许多好处。越幸福的人往往越健康、越长寿、挣的钱越多。他们通常也会从事更多的志愿工作、更善于处理人际关系、发出更多心理学家所说的“杜兴微笑”，即真诚的微笑。我们了解不深的是，为什么幸福可以传染。 According to James Fowler and Nicholas Christakis, authors of the international bestseller Connected, people surrounded by many happy friends, family members and neighbours who are central to their social network become significantly happier in the future. More specificallyi they say we will become 25 per cent happier with our life if a friend who lives within a mile of us becomes significantly happier with his or her life. 全球畅销书《关联》的作者詹姆斯·福勒和尼古拉斯·克里斯塔基斯发现，如果你身边那些重要的人际网络中有许多幸福的朋友、家人与邻居，那么你将也会很幸福。他们表示，更准确地说，如果居住在离你1英里内的一个朋友生活幸福感得到显著提升，你的生活幸福感就会增加25%。 Similar effects are seen in co-resident spouses (8 per cent happier); siblings who live within a mile of each other (14 per cent); and next-door neighbours (34 per cent). What this implies is that the magnitude of happiness spread seems to depend more on frequent social contact (due to physical proximity) than on deep social connections. Alas, for some reason this doesn't translate to the workplace. 具有同样效果的还有同居配偶（幸福感提升8%）、居住在1英里之内的兄弟姐妹(14%)和邻居(34%)。这意味着，幸福传播的强度似乎更取决于交往的频繁度（与地域邻近相关），1而不是社会关系的深度。可惜由于某种原因，这并不适用于工作场合。 So, why is happiness contagious? One reason may be that happy people share their good fortune with their friends and family (for example, by being pragmatically helpful or financially generous). Another reason could be that happy people tend to change their behaviour for the better by being nicer or less hostile to those close to them. Or it could just be that positive emotions are highly contagious. 那么，为什么幸福能够传染？一个原因或许是，幸福的人会与亲朋好友分享好运气（例如，提供实际的帮助，或在经济上慷慨解囊）。另一个原因可能是，幸福的人往往会改善自己的行为，会对周围的人更加友好，或减少敌意。又或许只是因为正面情绪具有高度传染性。