《语言学导论》复习思考题

德语语言学导论_中国海洋大学中国大学mooc课后章节答案期末考试题库2023年1.下列哪些说法是正确的：参考答案:汉语的词类灵活，经常可以充当多种句法功能；_德语中，变位的只有动词；2.德语的框架结构都和动词有关，包括下列哪几种类型：参考答案:动词和可分前缀之间；_助动词和动词之间；_从句连词和从句的动词之间3.名词的语法范畴包括名词的词性、数和格。

参考答案:正确4.下列句子是否正确：Wenn das Wetter schön ist, gehen wir ins Freie?参考答案:错误5.篇章的表层结构为（）层面，深层结构为（）层面。

表层的任务是（），深层的任务是（）。

参考答案:语法，主题，理顺语法结构，构建认知关联性6.下列连词使用不当的是（）。

参考答案:Wenn das kleine arme Mädchen von zu Hause wegging, hatte es nurPantoffeln angehabt.7.将下列句子的两部分颠倒顺序会产生不同含义的是（）。

参考答案:Er hörte den Schritt der Mutter und schaltete den Fernseher aus._DerLehrer stellte eine Frage und die Studenten schwiegen.8.在阅读和写作篇章时还要注意多方面因素，如（）等。

参考答案:知识面_语境_文化交际规范9.阐述概念之间的逻辑关系需要必不可少的衔接手段。

参考答案:错误10.为什么要学习语言学？参考答案:认识科学，培养自身的科研素质和能力；_有助于站在理性高度去认识德语，学到掌握德语的有效方法；_为今后的学业深造奠定基础11.洪堡治学思想的核心是训练学生的科学认识论和思想方法，提高理解力和判断力，“授之以渔”。

参考答案:正确12.科学的构成要素包括：参考答案:研究对象_概念、定义、专业术语_研究方法_实验材料13.归纳是自上而下，从个体到一般的推理过程。

Chapter 1IntroductionI. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement.1. If a study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be CA. prescriptiveB. analyticC. descriptiveD. linguistic2. Which of the following is not a design feature of human language? DA. ArbitrarinessB. DisplacementC. DualityD. Meaningfulness3. Modern linguistics regards the written language as ___C_________.A. primaryB. correctC. secondaryD. stable4. In modern linguistics, speech is regarded as more basic than writing, because______D_____.A. in linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writingB. speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of informationconveyed.C. speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mothertongue.D. All of the above5. A historical study of language is a __B__ study of language.A. synchronicB. diachronicC. prescriptiveD. comparative6. Saussure took a(n) ___A____ view of language, while Chomsky looks at languagefrom a ________ point of view.A. sociological, psychologicalB. Psychological, sociologicalC. applied, pragmaticD. semantic, linguistic7. According to F. de Saussure, _C___ refers to the abstract linguistic system sharedby all the members of a speech community.A. paroleB. performanceC. LangueD. language8. Language is said to be arbitrary because there is no logical connection between__B____ and meanings.A. senseB. SoundsC. objectsD. ideas9. Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situationsof the speaker. This feature is called___A___.A. displacementB. dualityC. flexibilityD. cultural transmission10. The details of any language system is passed on from one generation to the nextthrough __D__ , rather than by instinct.A. learningB. teachingC. booksD. both A and BII. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given.1.1.Duality is one of the design features of human language which refers to thephenomenon that language consists of two levels: a lower level of meaningless individual sounds and a higher level of meaningful units.nguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for humancommunication.3.The discipline that studies the rules governing the formation of words intopermissible sentences in languages is called __syntax .4.Human capacity for language has a genetic_ basis, but the details of languagehave to be taught and learned.5.Parole_ refers to the realization of langue in actual use.6.Findings in linguistic studies can often be applied to the settlement of somepractical problems. The study of such applications is generally known as applied _ linguistics.nguage is productive_ in that it makes possible the construction andinterpretation of new signals by its users. In other words, they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences which they have never heard before.III. Define the following terms.1. Syntax:The study of how morphemes and words are combined to formsentences is called syntax.2. Applied linguistics:In a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to theapplication of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching andlearning, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages. In abroad sense, it refers to the application of linguistic findings to the solutionof practical problems such as the recovery of speech ability.3. Arbitrariness: It is one of the design features of language. It means that thereis no logical connection between meanings and sounds.4. Displacement: Displacement means that language can be used to refer tothings which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past,present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can beused to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of thespeaker.5. Duality:The duality nature of language means that language is a system,which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds and theother of meanings.6. Design features:Design features refer to the defining properties of humanlanguage that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.IV. Answer the following questions.1. A wolf is able to express subtle gradations of emotion by different positions of the ears, the lips, and the tail. There are eleven postures of the tail that express such emotions as self-confidence, confident threat, lack of tension, uncertain threat, depression, defensiveness, active submission, and complete submission. This system seems to be complex. Suppose there were a thousand different emotions that the wolf could express in this way. Would you then say a wolf had a language similar to man’s? If not, Why not?答案1. No. Hint: Wolf’s way of expressing emotions does not present the defining features of human language. Examine them one by one.2. Why does modern linguistics regard the spoken form of language as primary, not the written?答案2. While speech is the vocal/spoken form of language, writing is the written form of language. They belong to different systems though they mayoverlap.That speech is primary over writing is a general principle of linguistic analysis. First, speech existed long before writing systems came into being.Second, written forms just represent in this way or that the speech sounds.Third, genetically children learn to speak before learning to write.However, emphasizing the primacy of speech is by no means to deny the importance of writing, which gives language new scope and uses thatspeech does not have. First, with writing, messages can be carried throughspace and time. Second, oral message are subject to distortion, eitherintentional or otherwise, causing misunderstanding, while written messagesremain exactly the same whether read a thousand years later or ten thousandmiles away.Everything considered, speech is believed to more representative of human language than writing. Most modern linguistic analysis is thusfocused on speech, different from traditional grammar of the 19th centuryand therebefore.3. How is modern linguistics different from traditional grammar?答案3. First, linguistics is descriptive, while traditional grammar is prescriptive.Linguistics describes languages as they are and does not lay down rules ofcorrectness; traditional grammar emphasizes such matters as correctnessand aims to prescribe what is right.Second, linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written.Third, traditional grammar is based on Latin and it tries to impose the Latin categories and structures on other languages (Latin patterns andcategories, especially its case system and tense divisions of past, presentand future), while linguistics describes each language on its own merits.Linguists are opposed to the notion that any one language can provide an adequate framework for the others. They are trying to set up a universalframework, but that will be based on the features shared by most of thelanguages used by mankind.(Traditional grammar is usually based on earlier grammars of Latin and applied them, often inappropriately, to some other language. Forexample, some grammarians stated that English had six cases because Latinhad six cases. )4. Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole seems similar to Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance. What do you think are their major differences?答案4. According to Saussure, langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to therealization of langue in actual use. Langue is the set of conventions andrules which language users all have to follow while parole is the concreteuse of the conventions and the application of the rules. Langue is abstract; itis not the language people actually use, but parole is concrete; it refers tothe naturally occurring language events. Langue is relatively stable, it doesnot change frequently; while parole varies from person to person, and fromsituation to situation.According to Chomsky, competence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language. This internalized set of rules enables the languageuser to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences andrecognize sentences that are ungrammatical and ambiguous. However,performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguisticcommunication. Although the speaker’s knowledge of his mother tongue isperfect, his performances may have mistakes because of social andpsychological factors such as stress, embarrassment, etc. Chomsky believesthat what linguists should study is the competence, which is systematic, notthe performance, which is too haphazard.Although Saussure’s distinction and Chomsky’s are very similar, they differ at least in that Saussure took a sociological view of language andhis notion of langue is a mater of social conventions, and Chomsky looks atlanguage from a psychological point of views and to him, competence is aproperty of the mind of each individual.Chapter 2 The Sounds of Language1.If two phonetically similar sounds occur in the same environments and theydistinguish meaning, they are said to be in complementary distribution. F2. A phone is a phonetic unit that distinguishes meaning. F3.English is a tone language while Chinese is not.F4.In linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. T5.In everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms ofthe amount of information conveyed. T6.Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called voicing.T7.English consonants can be classified in terms of place of articulation and the partof the tongue that is raised the highest. F8.According to the manner of articulation, some of the types into which theconsonants can be classified are stops, fricatives, bilabial and alveolar. F9.Vowel sounds can be differentiated by a number of factors: the position of tonguein the mouth, the openness of the mouth, the shape of the lips, and the length of the vowels. T10.According to the shape of the lips, vowels can be classified into close vowels,semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels and open vowels. FII. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:1.Of all the speech organs, the t _1. tongue _ is the most flexible, and is responsiblefor varieties of articulation than any other.2.English consonants can be classified in terms of manner of articulation or in termsof p__2. place_ of articulation.3.When the obstruction created by the speech organs is total or complete, the speechsound produced with the obstruction audibly released and the air passing out again is called a s_3. stop.4.S__4. Suprasegmental_ features are the phonemic features that occur above thelevel of the segments. They include stress, tone, intonation, etc.5.The rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are calleds_5. sequential_ rules.6.The transcription of speech sounds with letter-symbols only is called broad transcription while the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics is called n_6. narrow _ transcription.7.When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as i__ 7. intonation _.8.P_8. Phonology_ is a discipline which studies the system of sounds of a particular language and how sounds are combined into meaningful units to effect linguistic communication.9.T__9. Tone_ are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords and which can distinguish meaning just like phonemes.10.Depending on the context in which stress is considered, there are two kinds of stress: word stress and s_10. sentence_ stress.III. Define the terms below:1 Phoneme: The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme; it is a unit of distinctive value. But it is an abstract unit. To be exact, a phoneme is not a sound; it is a collection of distinctive phonetic features.2. Allophone: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.3. International phonetic alphabet: It is a standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription.4. Intonation: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation.5. Auditory phonetics: It studies the speech sounds from the hearer's point of view. It studies how the sounds are perceived by the hearer.6. Acoustic phonetics: It studies the speech sounds by looking at the sound waves. It studies the physical means by which speech sounds are transmitted through the air from one person to another.7. Minimal pair: When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair.Phoneme: The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme; it is a unit of distinctive value. But it is an abstract unit. To be exact, a phoneme is not a sound; it is a collection of distinctive phonetic features.IV.1What are the major differences between phonology and phonetics?答案. They differ in their approach and focus. Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess, how they can be classified. Phonology, on the other hand, is interested in the system of sounds of a particular language; it aims to discover how speech soundsanswer to the question, or will best complete the sentence.1.The morpheme “vision” in the common word “television” is a(n) ______.A. bound morphemeB. bound formC. inflectional morphemeD. free morpheme2. The compound word “bookstore” is the place where books are sold. This indicates that the meaning of a compound __________.A. is the sum total of the meaning of its componentsB. can always be worked out by looking at the meanings of morphemesC. is the same as the meaning of a free phraseD. None of the above3. The part of speech of the compounds is generally determined by the part of speech of __________.A. the first elementB. the second elementC. either the first or the second elementD. both the first and the second elements4. _______ are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combined withother morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.A. Free morphemesB. Bound morphemesC. Bound wordsD. Words5. The meaning carried by the inflectional morpheme is _______.A. lexicalB. morphemicC. grammaticalD. semantic6. Bound morphemes are those that ___________.A. have to be used independentlyB. cannot be combined with other morphemesC. can either be free or boundD. have to be combined with other morphemes2.Morpheme: It is the smallest meaningful unit of language.3.Free morpheme: Free morphemes are the morphemes which are independent unitsof meaning and can be used freely all by themselves or in combination with oth-er morphemes.4.Bound morpheme: Bound morphemes are the morphemes which cannot be usedindepen-dently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free orbound, to form a word.5.Root: A root is often seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itself although itbears clear, definite meaning; it must be combined with another root or an affix to form a word.6.Affix: Affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational. Inflectional affixesmanifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories, whilederivational affixes are added to an existing form to create a word.7.Prefix: Prefixes occur at the begin-ning of a word. Prefixes modify the meaning ofthe stem, but they usually do not change the part of speech of the original word. 8.Suffix: Suffixes are added to the end of the stems; they modify the meaning of theoriginal word and in many cases change its part of speech.9.Derivation: Derivation is a process of word formation by which derivative affixesare added to an existing form to create a word.pounding: Compounding can be viewed as the combination of two orsometimes more than two words to create new words.V. Answer the following questions.1. What are the main features of the English compounds?Orthographically a compound can be written as one word, two separate words with or without a hyphen in between. Syntactically, the part of speech of a compound is determined by the last element. Semantically, the meaning of a compound is idiomatic, not calculable from the meanings of all its components. Phonetically, the word stress of a compound usually falls on the first element.2.Distinguish between phonologically and morphologically conditioned allomorphs.Give examples.Morphophonemics is an intermediary level of analysis between phonology and morphology in which the phonological regularities in the framework of morphology, especially the systematic phonological variants of morphemes and the conditions of their occurrence are described. 1) Phonological conditioning of allomorphs. The distribution of the allomorphs of a morpheme is stated in terms of their phonetic environment, e.g. the phonetic variations of the past tense morphemes, -ed, as /d/ in stayed, /t/ in heaped, and /id/ in needed. 2) Morphological conditioning of allomorphs. The morphologically conditioned allomorphs of a morpheme are regarded as irregular in contrast to the phonologically conditioned allomorphs which are regarded as regular. For instance, it is the particular morphemes rather than the sounds of the words that determine the plural forms of nouns. E.g. child: children, foot: feet.3. Discuss the types of morphemes with examples.Free morphemes: They are the independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves, for example, “book-” in the word “bookish”.Bound morphemes: They are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word such as “-ish” in “bookish”. Bound morphemes can be subdivided into roots and affixes. A root is seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itself although it has a clear and definite meaning, such as “gene-” in the word “generate”. Affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational. Inflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as “-s” in the word “books” to indicate plurality of nouns. Derivational affixes are added to an existing form to create a word such as “mis-” in the word “misinform”. Derivational affixes can also be divided into prefixes and suffixes. Prefixes occur at the beginning of a word such as “dis- ” in the word “dislike”, while suffixes occur at the end of a word such as “-less” in the word “friendless”.4. What have you learned about the topic of morphology, can you put them into practice in you English learning?(This is an open question. No answer is provided there.Chapter 4 Syntaxl.F 2.T 3.F 4.T 5.T 6.T7.T8.F9.F10.T11.F12.T13.T14.T1.Syntax is a subfield of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of language, including thecombination of morphemes into words.2.Grammatical sentences are formed following a set of syntactic rules.3.Sentences are composed of sequence of words arranged in a simple linear order, with oneadding onto another following a simple arithmetic logic.4.Universally found in the grammars of all human languages, syntactic rules that comprise thesystem of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker are known as linguistic competence.5.The syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, but there is no limit to the number ofsentences native speakers of that language are able to produce and comprehend.6.In a complex sentence, the two clauses hold unequal status, one subordinating the other.7.Constituents that can be substituted for one another without loss of grammaticality belong tothe same syntactic category.8.Minor lexical categories are open because these categories are not fixed and new members areallowed for.9.In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories are commonly recognized and discussed,namely, noun phrase, verb phrase, infinitive phrase, and auxiliary phrase.10.In English the subject usually precedes the verb and the direct object usually follows the verb.11.What is actually internalized in the mind of a native speaker is a complete list of words andphrases rather than grammatical knowledge.12.A noun phrase must contain a noun, but other elements are optional.13.It is believed that phrase structure rules, with the insertion of the lexicon, generate sentencesat the level of D-structure.14.WH-movement is obligatory in English which changes a sentence from affirmative tointerrogative.plex 20.embedded 21.open 22.adjacency 23.Parameters 24.CaseII. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given.15.A s________ sentence consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate andstands alone as its own sentence.16.A s______ is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words toform a complete statement, question or command.17.A s______ may be a noun or a noun phrase in a sentence that usually precedes the predicate.18.The part of a sentence which comprises a finite verb or a verb phrase and which sayssomething about the subject is grammatically called p_________.19.A c_________ sentence contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into theother.20.In the complex sentence, the incorporated or subordinate clause is normally called ane_______ clause.21.Major lexical categories are o___ categories in the sense that new words are constantly added.22.A _____ Condition on case assignment states that a case assignor and a case recipient shouldstay adjacent to each other.23.P_______ are syntactic options of UG that allow general principles to operate in one way oranother and contribute to significant linguistic variations between and among natural languages.24.The theory of C_____ condition explains the fact that noun phrases appear only in subject andobject positions.25.D26.D27.A28.29.A30.A31.D32.C33.D34.B25. A sentence is considered ____ when it does not conform to the grammatical knowledge in the mind of native speakers.A. rightB. wrongC. grammaticalD. ungrammatical26. A __________ in the embedded clause refers to the introductory word that introduces the embedded clause.A. coordinatorB. particleC. prepositionD. subordinator27. Phrase structure rules have ____ properties.A. recursiveB. grammaticalC. socialD. functional28. Phrase structure rules allow us to better understand _____________.A. how words and phrases form sentencesB. what constitutes the grammaticality of strings of wordsC. how people produce and recognize possible sentencesD. All of the above.29. Syntactic movement is dictated by rules traditionally called ________.A. transformational rulesB. generative rulesC. phrase structure rulesD. x-bar theory30. The theory of case condition accounts for the fact that __________.A. noun phrases appear only in subject and object positionsB. noun phrases can be used to modify another noun phraseC. noun phrase can be used in adverbial positionsD. noun phrase can be moved to any place if necessary31. The sentence structure is ________.A. only linearB. Only hierarchicalC. complexD. both linear and hierarchical32. The syntactic rules of any language are ____ in number.A. largeB. smallC. finiteD. infinite33. The ________ rules are the rules that group words and phrases to form grammatical sentences.A. lexicalB. morphologicalC. linguisticD. combinational34._______ rules may change the syntactic representation of a sentence.A. GenerativeB. TransformationalC. X-barD. Phrase structureIV. Define the following terms.35.Syntax: Syntax is a subfield of linguistics. It studies the sentence structure of language. Itconsists of a set of abstract rules that allow words to be combined with other words to form grammatical sentences.36.Sentence: A sentence is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number ofwords to form a complete statement, question or command. Normally, a sentence consists of at least a subject and a predicate which contains a finite verb or a verb phrase.37.Coordinate sentence: A coordinate sentence contains two clauses joined by a linking wordcalled coordinating conjunction, such as "and", "but", "or".38.Syntactic categories: Apart from sentences and clauses, a syntactic category usually refers toa word (called a lexical category) or a phrase (called a phrasal category) that performs aparticular grammatical function.39.Grammatical relations: The structural and logical functional relations of constituents arecalled grammatical relations. The grammatical relations of a sentence concern the way each noun phrase in the sentence relates to the verb. In many cases, grammatical relations in fact refer to who does what to whom.40.Linguistic competence: Universally found in the grammars of all human languages, syntacticrules comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker known as linguistic competence.41.Transformational rules: Transformational rules are the rules that transform one sentence typeinto another type.42.D-structure: D-structure is the level of syntactic representation that exists before movementtakes place. Phrase structure rules, with the insertion of the lexicon, generate sentences at the level of D-structure.V. Answer the following questions.43. What are the basic components of a sentence?Normally, a sentence consists of at least a subject and its predicate which contains a finite verb or a verb phrase.44. What are the major types of sentences? Illustrate them with examples.Traditionally, there are three major types of sentences. They are simple sentence, coordinate (compound) sentence, and complex sentence.A simple sentence consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence, for example:John reads extensively.A coordinate sentence contains two clauses joined by a linking word that is called47. What is NP movement? Illustrate it with examples.NP movement involves the movement of a noun phrase. NP movement occurs when, for example, a sentence changes from the active voice to the passive voice:(A) The man beat the child.(B) The child was beaten by the man.B is the result of the movement of the noun phrases "the man" and "the child" from their original positions in (A) to new positions. That is, "the man" is postposed to the right and "the child" is preposed to the left.Not all instances of NP-movement, however, are related to changing a sentence from the active voice to the passive voice. For example:(C) It seems they are quite fit for the job.(D) They seem quite fit for the job.These sentences are identical in meaning, but different in their superficial syntactic representations. It is believed that they have the same underlying structure, but (27b) is the result of an NP movement.Chapter 5 Semantics1. Define the following terms briefly.semantics naming theory truth-conditional semanticsbehaviourist theory use theory sensereference conceptual meaning connotative meaninglexical field lexical gap componential analysissemantic feature synonymy antonymyhyponymy meronymy semantic role。

《语言学概论》复习题1．语言对于人类社会的重要意义主要体现在哪些方面？2．为什么说语言是一种特殊的社会现象？3．语言实际上是一种社会现象，怎样理解这句话的内涵？4．语言的社会性从哪些方面可以看出来？5．为什么说语言没有阶级性？谈谈你的看法．6．语言符号具有任意性特点，从哪些方面可以看出来？7．简要说明语言符号和一般符号的异同。

8．为什么说荀子的“约定俗成”四个字道出了语言符号的本质？9．什么是语言的结构二层性？其核心是什么？请以汉语为例加以说明。

10．语言符号的系统性表现在哪里？11．音高和音重在汉语中是否区别意义？举例说明。

12．元音和辅音有哪些方面的区别？13．举例说明什么是对立？什么是互补？14．简要说明音素和音位的区别与联系。

15．什么是音位？怎样认识音位的含义。

16．为什么说组合规则是现实的，而聚合规则是潜在的？17．简要说明词缀和词尾的区别。

18．什么是形态变化？包括哪些内容？举例说明。

19．什么是体？什么是级？简要说明体和级的词的形态变化。

20．什么是语法范畴？每一种语法范畴都具有哪些特点？21．举例说明基本词汇的特点，并简要说明这些特点之间的互相影响。

22．什么是词义的概括性？举例简要说明具体表现在哪些方面？23．词义为什么会有模糊性特点？24．汉字和汉语相适应，从哪些方面可以看出来？25．简要说明口语和书面语的关系。

26．为什么说社会发展是语言发展的基本条件？27．语言的发展有哪些特点？为什么会有这些特点？28．判断一种方言是否是独立的语言的依据是什么？29．简述社会方言和地域方言的异同。

30．什么是基础方言？什么样的方言可以作为基础方言？31．什么是借词？什么是意译词？他们是不是都是外来词？为什么？32．什么是双语现象？双语现象的最终结局有哪几种情况？33．语言融合需要哪些条件？34．什么是词语的替换？引起词语替换的原因是什么？。

大学网络与继续教育学院课程考试试题卷类别：网教专业：英语 20 年6月课程名称【编号】：语言学导论【0181】 A卷大作业满分：100分（要求：学生必须按各大题的答题要求，完成全部题目）Ⅰ. For each question there are four choices. Decide which one would be the best answer to the question, or would best complete the sentence. Write the corresponding letter on your ANSWER SHEET. (20%)1. ________ refers to the language user’s underlying knowledge about the systemof rules of his language.A. RegisterB. PerformanceC. CompetenceD. Dialect2. “classmate” is a _______.A. compoundB. phraseC. derivativeD. morpheme3. The function of the sentence “I promise to come on time tomorrow” is mainly_______.A. directiveB. informativeC. performativeD. phatic4. Which of the following sounds is a voiceless stop? _______.A. [d]B. [p]C. []D. []5. “-ed” and “-s” are ______ because they do not help to form new words.A. free morphemesB. inflectional morphemesC. derivative morphemesD. roots 6. Systemic-functional grammar has been developed by _______.A. GriceB. AustinC. ChomskyD. Halliday7. The syllabic structure of the word “studied” is ______.A. CCCCVVCB. CCCCVCC. CCCVVCD. CCVCVC8. ______ refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have thesame form.A. PolysemyB. SynonymyC. HomonymyD. Hyponymy9. The study of meaning in context is called _______.A. pragmaticsB. sociolinguisticsC. applied linguisticsD.semantics10. _______ means that certain authorities, such as the government, choose aparticular speech variety, standardize it and spread the use of it across regional boundaries.A. Language testingB. Language changeC. Language planningD. Language transferⅡ. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False. Write True or False on the ANSWER SHEET. (20%)11. Diachronic linguistics studies language development or change over time.12. Ultimate constituents are constituents directly below the level of aconstruction.13. Standard dialect is a particular variety of a language, which is used by aparticular social class.14. Compounds are words that are formed by joining two or more words.15. Transformational-Generative grammar was first proposed by P. H. Grice.16. To linguists, no languages are superior to any other languages.- 1 -- 2 -- 3 -。

英语语言学导论第二版课后题答案这篇课件介绍的是英语语言学导论第二版的课后题，也就是 predictional node,可以说是很多英语学习者学英语的入门。

这本课教程主要包括四个部分，第一是基础知识：英语语言学导论第二版的学习指南；第二是词汇、语法等部分内容；第三句话；第四个单元：基本语法和常识性语法。

由于这些部分主要针对英语学习者的，所以大部分人都不会太过深入。

第一部分主要介绍基本语法和常识性语法。

第二段从词汇开始教起，介绍常见单词表方法和有关单词表规则。

第三部分就是理论部分，主要对相关理论进行介绍和讲解。

第四部分则是一些语法结构、语法知识方面的练习和讲解，包括长难句设计和语义分析法等方面内容。

一、基本语法基本语法主要是指由名词、动词、形容词、谓词和定冠词等组成的句式结构。

语法有两个重要的特点，一是强调在逻辑上主谓一致和主谓宾一致；二是强调在形式上主谓一致和主宾一致。

在英文里，句式的基本形式是名词或形容词+名词修饰短语，这就决定了句子的结构是主宾并列式组合而非主谓宾非主有定冠词修饰短句。

这种结构以主从为主，主从搭配为辅，辅音连用为主就成了这种结构典型例句。

如: go up with not a london’s a doing; to was in the way for the doing; was the doing of this will with london; but as that way so that in the denim; proposition of that to that dots等。

这种结构式语法类型。

还有一些例子表明主谓一致或主次有序在形式上没有明显区别。

这种结构式还可以用不同形式表示宾语、代词和不定冠词等等；也有一些句子仅在主句之间使用谓词介辞方式而不运用动词主句的时候会用谓语短词组替代原句主句中未出现过的或不需要过多动词介辞元素（如 frontiers、 state等）而不用宾语或非宾语修饰动词和介词短语等。

语言导论试题及答案详解# 语言导论试题及答案详解一、选择题1. 语言的定义是什么？- A. 一种交流工具- B. 一种文化现象- C. 一种社会习俗- D. 一种自然现象答案： A. 一种交流工具详解：语言是用于交流思想、感情和信息的工具，它是人类社会中最重要的交流方式之一。

2. 以下哪项不属于语言的基本功能？- A. 信息传递- B. 情感表达- C. 社会控制- D. 艺术创作答案： D. 艺术创作详解：艺术创作虽然可以利用语言作为媒介，但它本身并不构成语言的基本功能。

语言的基本功能包括信息传递、情感表达和社会控制。

二、填空题1. 语言学可以分为多个分支，包括语音学、语法学、语义学、______和______。

- 答案：语用学；社会语言学详解：语用学研究语境对语言使用的影响，社会语言学研究语言与社会结构和文化的关系。

2. 语言的演变是一个______的过程，受到多种因素的影响，包括社会变迁、文化接触等。

- 答案：动态详解：语言不是静态的，它随着时间和社会的发展而不断变化。

三、简答题1. 简述语音和音位的区别。

答案：语音是语言中的声音现象，包括所有可能的声音。

音位则是特定语言中能够区分意义的最小声音单位。

例如，在英语中，/p/和/b/是两个不同的音位，因为它们可以改变单词的意义（如“pat”和“bat”）。

详解：语音是物理现象，音位是抽象概念，它们在特定语言中具有区分意义的功能。

2. 描述语言习得的关键阶段。

答案：语言习得通常包括几个关键阶段：咿呀学语期、单词语期、双词语期、电报句期和完全句期。

每个阶段都是儿童语言能力发展的自然过程。

详解：咿呀学语期是儿童发出无意义的声音；单词语期是儿童开始使用单个词汇；双词语期是儿童开始组合两个词汇表达简单的意思；电报句期是儿童使用简短的句子，省略了某些语法元素；完全句期是儿童能够使用完整的句子表达复杂的意思。

四、论述题1. 论述语言多样性的重要性。

答案：语言多样性是文化多样性的重要组成部分。

《语⾔学导论》重点整理1 .An Introduction to Linguistics and language1. What is Linguistics?Linguistics is the scientific study of language. It endeavors to answer the question--what is language and how is represented in the mind? Linguists focus on describing and explaining language and are not concerned with the prescriptive rules of the language.2. Basic criteria for doing Linguistics1. Objectivity2. Explicitness3. Rigorousness4. Adequacy3. The Scope of Linguistics(1)General Linguistics: the study of language as a wholePhonetics: the study of sounds in linguistic communicationPhonology: the study of the sound patterns of language. It is concerned with how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication.Morphology : the study of the way in which the symbols are arranged and combined to form words.4. The Scope of Linguistics (2): Syntax the study of sentence structure. It attempts to describe what is grammatical in a particular language in term of rules Semantics: the study of meaning.Pragmatics: the study of meaning in contextSociolinguistics: the study of social aspects of language and its relation with society.Psycholingustics:the study of language with relation to psychologyApplied linguistics: the study of applications of linguistics.5. Some distinctions in linguisticsPrescriptive vs.descriptiveSynchronic vs. diachronicSpeech and writingLangue and paroleCompetence and performanceTraditional grammar and modern linguistics(linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive; modern linguistics regards spoken language as primary, not the written; modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar in that it does not force language into a Latin-based framework.)6. What is language?Language is not an abstract construction of the learned, or of dictionary-makers, but is something arising out of the work, needs, ties, joys, affections, tastes, of long generations of humanity, and has its bases broad and low, close to the ground. ? Walt Whitman7. The definition of languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication8. Design features (Properties)Arbitrariness: vast majority of linguistic expressions are arbitraryProductivity: creativity or open-endednessDuality: double articulation(sounds and meanings)Displacement: eg. Santa Claus, Superman, dragonCultural transmission: meme, memics(Discreteness:the sounds used in language are meaningfully distinct. Eg. pack, back)9. AssignmentsComment on the definition of language.Summarize the design features of language.What is your understanding of synchronic study of language2.Chapter 2 Phonetics and phonology1. Phonetics: the sounds of languageThree branches of phoneticsArticulatory Phonetics发⾳语⾳学: the production of speech sounds.Auditory Phonetics听觉语⾳学: the study of the perception of speech soundsAcoustic Phonetics声学语⾳学: the study of the physical production and transmission of speech sounds.2. Organs of speech: 1.The pharyngeal cavity喉腔2.The oral cavity⼝腔3.The nasal cavity⿐腔3. Two kinds of transcriptionBroad transcription宽式标⾳: transcription with letter-symbolsNarrow transcription窄式标⾳: transcription with letter-symbols and the diacritics4. Classification of English consonants5. Classification of English vowels6. Phonology : the sound patterns of languageDifference Phone, phoneme, allophonePhonemic contrast, complementary distribution, minimal pair7. Phones, phonemes, and allophonesPhonology is the study of sound patterns of language( i.e. how sounds are arranged to form meaningful units) and the function of each sound. It reveals what are the possible combinations of sounds in a language and explains why certain words take the form they do.8. Phone ⾳素phone: the smallest perceptible discrete segment of sound in a stream of speechi) phonetic unit ii) not distinctive of meaning iii) physical as heard or produced iv) marked with [ ]9. Phoneme ⾳位the minimal unit in the sound system of a language. With phonemes, we establish the patterns of organization within the infinitely large number of sounds. Each language can be shown to operate with a relatively small number of phonemes (15-80). No two languages have the same phonemic system.10. Phoneme ⾳位i) phonological unit ii) distinctive of meaning iii) abstract, not physical iv) marked with / /.11.Three requirements for identifying minimal pairs:1) different in meaning; 2) only one phoneme different; 3) the different phonemes occur in the same phonetic environment. Minimal set: pat, mat, bat, fat, cat, hat, etc.11. Allophone ⾳位变体: phonic variants/realizations of a phoneme12. Phonological rules:Phonological patterning is rule-governed. [blik] and [kilb], though not found in English, can be possible combinations, while [kbil] or [lkib] cannot. Sequential rules are those that account for the combination of sounds in a particular language. They are language-specific, as in thefollowing cases:* [tlait] [iltrit]13.Sequential ruleIf three consonants should cluster together at the beginning of a word, the combination should follow the order/sequence below:a. The first phoneme must be /s/b. The second phoneme must be /p/, /t/ or /k/c. The third phoneme must be /l/, /r/, or /w/. spring, string, squirrel, split, screen14. Assimilation ruleA sound may change by assimilating/copying a feature of a sequential/neighboring sound, e.g. impossible, irresistible, illegal [in-]Question: What other examples?sink /since pan cake sun glasses five past seven has to15. Deletion ruleA sound may be deleted even though it may be orthographically represented.16.Stress, tone, and intonationSuprasegmental （超切分）phonology Suprasegmental phonemes:stress, tone and intonation17.Stress重⾳Word stress/sentence stress Primary stress/secondary stressStress of compounds: ‵blackbird / black ‵bird; ‵greenhouse / green ‵ houseSentence stress: Depending on the relative importance of the words; contrastive stress18. Tone (声调）Different rates of vibration produce different frequencies, which are termed as different pitches. Pitch variations are distinctive of meaning.In some languages like Chinese, pitch variations are called tones. Languages using tones are tone languages.19. Intonation（语调）When pitch, stress and length variations are tied to the sentence, they combine to become known as intonation.Three major types of English intonation: a. falling tone/tune b. rising tone/tune c. fall-rise tone/tune20. Assignments:Difference between phonetics and phonologyPhone, phoneme, allophonePhonemic contrast, complementary distribution, minimal pair3. Morphology（词法）1. Morphology is the study of word formation and structure. It studies how words are put together from their smaller parts and the rules governing this process.2. Two kinds of words1. Open class words: content words .e.g. nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs2. Closed class words: grammatical words or functional words. E.g. conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns Words can be related to other words, e.g. "happy" — "unhappy".The rules that relate such sets of words are called Word Formation Rules. Thus, the morphology containsfundamental elements – morphemes rules of combination -- Word Formation Rules4. MorphemesThe elements that are combining to form words are called morphemes. A morpheme is the smallest unit of meaning you can have in a language.we know three things about every morpheme:1. its meaning2. its form (the sounds that make it up)3. a rule of combination (put it before/after/inside the stem)5. A case: Unhappy Happier unhappier6. Bound and Free Morphemes" In the word doors" there are two morphemes: "door" and "-s".The morpheme "door" can be used by itself, so it is called a FREE morpheme.But the morpheme "s" cannot be used by itself: ? "How many doors did you shut?" "More than one." OK "s" Not OK Therefore, "-s" is called a BOUND morpheme.7. AffixesMorphemes added to free forms to make other free forms are called affixes. There are four principle kinds of affixes:1. prefixes (at beginning) — "un-" in "unable"2. suffixes (at end) — "-ed" in "walked"3. circumfixes (at both ends) — "en--en" in "enlighten" (These always seem to consist ofotherwise attested independent prefixes and suffixes.)4. infixes (in the middle) -- "-bloody-" in "inbloody- credible"8.Derivational morphemesDerivational morphemes may or may not change the category, or grammatical class of words.E.g. Noun--- Adjective affection + ate alcohol+ ic9. Inflectional MorphologyMorphology that interacts with syntax (sentence structure) is called INFLECTIONAL MORPHOLOGY Some examples are: ? person? number? gender ? noun class ? case ? tenseInflectional morphemes never change the category. Inflectional morphemes do not change the "core" meaning of the word. Inflectional morphemes usually occur "outside" derivational ones. 10. A Rule for Forming some English Words 11. Compounds12. Other ways of Forming Words13. Word-formation:the creation of new words on the basis of existing structural devices in the language derivation compounding derivational affixation clipping, abbreviation, acronyms conversion* affixation * coinage: Ford, Kodak* compounding/composition: hot-line, keep-fit* conversion /functional shift : knee, cool, trigger, brake* derivation: alcoholic, affectionate* back-formation:edit, babysit, massproduce, laze* blending: smog, motel, globesity* shortening (clipped words, acronym) * borrowing: tea, algebra15. Compare the following derived words: in how far do they differ? Lab OED16. Compare the following derived words: in how far do they differ?lab babysit (from: babysitter)17. Compare the following derived words: in how far do they differ? institution-al skin-deep18. Compare the following derived words: in how far do they differ?to strength-en to house (e.g. this building houses 500 families)19. AssignmentsDistinguish the following terms: Open class words and closed class wordsBound morpheme and free morphemeInflectional morpheme and derivational morpheme List some rules of word formation 4. syntax1. Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.2. Syntactic rulesHow do we COMBINE WORDS to make SENTENCES? Syntax uses trees (just as in morphology) but the trees are built on WORDS instead of morphemes. Words are the fundamental units of sentences. The laws of combination for words are the syntactic rules.3. Sentence StructureWe know that there is structure in sentences separate from the meaning of the sentence because of the difference between "well formed nonsense" (1) and "total gibberish" (2) :(1) Colorless green ideas sleep furiously. (2) Green sleep furiously ideas colorless.Which sounds better ?4. Word-level categoriesMajor lexical categoriesN( Noun) book, boy V(Verb) run, buy A(Adjective) happy, heavyP (Preposition) about, in Minor lexical categories Det (determiner) the, a thisDeg (Degree word) quite, very Qual (Qualifier) often, always Aux(Auxiliary) must, should Con (Conjunction) and, but 5. Three criteria for judging the word’s categories1.meaning Noun—entity2.inflection -ed, -s3.distribution the girl Det+ N6. Phrase categoriesPhrases are constructed out of a "head" plus other material into:Noun Phrase (NP) Verb Phrase (VP) Adjective Phrase (AP) Prepositional Phrase (PP)7. Head, specifier, complementHead: the word around which a phrase is formedSpecifier: the words on the left side of the headscomplement: the words on the right side of the headsE.g. a touching story about a sentimental girl8. Phrase Structure RulesNP → (Det)N (PP) ? VP → (Qual) V ( NP) ? AP → (Deg)A (PP) ? PP → (Deg) P (NP)9. XP rule X= N, V, A or P XP →(specifier) X (complement)10. X – theory XP →(specifier) X X - → X(complement)11. Co-ordination rules X → X Con X12. XP rule (revised): XP →(specifier) X (complement ) Matrix clauseComplement phrase (CP) Complement clause Complementizers (Cs)13. ModifierAP PP AdvP The expanded XP rules XP →(spec)(Mod) X (complement*)(Mod)14. The S ruleS NP VPDet N V P Det N| | | | | |The cat is on the mat15. Transformational RulesOnce we have built a basic tree, we then might want to change it, for example to turn it into a question.1. John is going to school.2. Is John going to school?What happened between (1) and (2)? "Is" moved to the front. How did we make the yes/no question? What change did we make?16.Deep structure and surface structure:Deep structure is a level of syntactic representation that results from insertion of lexical items into the tree structure generated by the phrase structure rules.Surface structure is a level of syntactic representation that results from the application of whatever transformations are needed to yield the final syntactic form of the sentence.17. The organization of the syntactic componentThe XP ruleDeep structuretransformationsSurface structure18. Wh MovementMove the wh phrase to the beginning of the sentenceMove a wh phrase to the specifier position under CP19. Word OrderRecall that languages can choose the order of the constituents in a phrase structure rule. ? English: PP → P NP ? Japanese: PP → NP P20. SVOWe can say that the overall word-order in a simple sentence is Subject-Verb-Object or SVO.There are two choices for each rule:1. Sentence: S → NP VP S → VP NP2. Verb Phrase: VP → V NP VP → NP V21. AssignmentsDraw two possible trees for the sentence “The boy saw the man with the telescope. ”5. Semantics1. Semantics is the study of meaning.2. The Meanings of MeaningEveryday use and ambiguity of the word mean(ing)(1) Daddy, what does 'unique' mean? (2) When Mary talks about "her ex" she means me.(3) 'Purchase' means the same as 'buy'. (4) Gwailou means "foreign devil".(5) When he drinks it means he's depressed. (6) I didn't mean to hurt you.3. Ogden and Richards' The Meaning of Meaning (1923)sixteen different meanings of the words "mean/meaning" were distinguished. Here are some of them:John means to write. 'intends’A green light means go. 'indicates' Health means everything. 'has importance'His look was full of meaning. 'special import'What is the meaning of life? 'point, purpose'What does 'capitalist' mean to you? 'convey'What does ‘cornea‘(⾓膜)mean? 'refer to in the world'4. What does meaning mean in linguistics?It is the last kind of use that comes closest to the focus of linguistic semantics. In modern linguistics, the meaning is studied by making detailed analyses of the way words and sentences are used in specific contexts ("meaning" is not some kind of "entity" separate from language - any more than measures such as "height" or "length" have some kind of independent existence). This is an approach shared by a number of philosophers and psychologists. Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889- 1951), in particular, stressed its importance in his dictum: "The meaning of a word is its use in the language."5. 4 views concerning the study of meaningThe naming theory The conceptual theory Contextualism behaviorism6. The naming theoryPlato Words are names or labels for things.Limitations of the theory: it can be applicable to nouns only, but verbs, adjectives, and adverbs are not names or labels; imaginary things like “dragon”;abstract nouns like “joy”7. The conceptual theoryOgden & Richards' TriangleTHOUGHT (concepts, images, schemas)/ \(Sense) / \/ \(language) WORDS - - - - - - - - WORLD(things, situations)(Reference)Note: (i) Reference as an indirect relation(ii) Sense as a psychological notionWhat is the link between the language and concept?8. ContextualismLudwig Wittgenstein Malinowski J.R.Firth2 kinds of contexts: the situational context and the linguistic context9. BehaviorismBloomfield 1926, 1935 Behaviorism vs. mentalismHuman and animal behaviorStimulus and responseS -> r ... s -> R Jack and Jill10. Lexical meaningSense and referenceSense refers to the meaning of a Noun Phrase which determines its referent;Reference refers to that part of meaning of a Noun Phrase which is its referent.Sense is abstract and de-contextualized;Reference is concrete and contextualized.11. sense relations between words1.synonymy2.polysemy3.homonymy4.hyponymy5.antonymy11.1. synonymytwo words, same meaning never complete; tendency toward divergence,e.g small - little, but cf. small change and little sistera) dialectal synonymsb) stylistic synonymsc) synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaningd) collocational synonymse) semantically different synonyms11.2. polysemyone word, many meaningseye 'organ of sight', 'center of hurricane' , 'hole in needle'11.3.homonymydifferent words, same soundbear 'carry' bear 'furry creature' bare 'naked'cf. Homonymy, Homography: different words, same spelling bow 'knotted ribbon' bow 'front of ship'11.4.hyponymysuperordinate (hyponym) to subordinate Also: co-hyponymsProblematic superordinates:aunt - uncle > none sweet - sour - bitter > Tastes , but no Adj chair - sofa - couch > ? sitting furniture (Sitzm?bel) 11.5. antonymy(1) Gradable (scalar) antonyms: cold. . hot(2) Complementary antonyms: dead - alive(3) Relational opposites: teach - learn husband - wife12. six sense relations between sentencesa) X is synonymous with Yb) X is inconsistent with Yc) X entails Y (Y is an entailment of X)d) X presupposes Y (Y is a prerequisite of X)e) X is a contradiction?f) X is semantically anomalous?13. Analysis of meaningComponential analysisPredication analysisgrammatical meaningsemantic meaning13.1 Componential analysisFeatures in Semantic Theoryman = [+human] [+adult] [+male]woman = [+human] [+adult] [+female]girl = [+human] [-adult] [+female]boy = [+human] [-adult] [+male]stool = [+sitting] [+legs] [-back] [-arms] [+single person]chair = [+sitting] [+legs] [+back] [+/- arms] [+single person]sofa = [+sitting] [+/-legs] [+back] [+arms] [-single person] etccow = [+bovine] [+adult] [+female]ewe = [+ovine] [+adult] [+female] bull = [+bovine] [+adult] [+male]ram = [+ovine] [+adult] [+male] calf = [+bovine] [- adult]lamb = [+ovine] [-adult]But should calf = [+/-female] [+/-male] or simply unspecified?And what about: steer? = [+bovine] [+adult] [-male] [-female]13.2Predication analysisIt is proposed by G. Leech. In his framework of analysis, the basic unit is called predication, which is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence. A predication consists of arguments and predicate. An argument is a logical participant in a predication. A predicate is something said about an argument or it states the logical relation linking the arguments in a sentence.14.Interdisciplinary nature of semantics (1)philosophy: definitions, truth, logiclinguistics: lexical, grammatical meaning; structural ambiguitypsychology: concepts, categorization, learninglaw: interpretation, entailment translation: translatability, paraphrasecomputer science: processing and representation of information15. Interdisciplinary nature of semantics(2)musicology: musical meaning (Joseph Swain: Musical Languages, 1997)anthropology: cultural meaning, relativityliterary criticism: interpretation, ambiguity, metaphorreligion (Anna Wierzbicka, What did Jesus mean?, 2001)16. Assignments:Summarize the four approaches to the studies on meaning.Specify the five major sense relations1.synonymy2.polysemy3.homonymy4.hyponymy5.antonymyDefine the following terms: componential analysis Predication analysis6 Pragmatics1. Pragmatics is the study of meaning in context2. Contextualist viewLudwig WittgensteinMalinowskiJ.R.Firth2 kinds of contexts: the situational context and the linguistic context3. Some issues in PragmaticsDeixis指⽰ Speech acts⾔语⾏为 Indirect language间接语⾔Conversation会话 Politeness礼貌 Cross-cultural communication跨⽂化交际Presupposition预设4. Pragmatics and Semanticsa There is continuum between Semantics (things that are true by theDEFINITIONS and RULES) and Pragrmatics (things that are true by virtue of the REAL WORLD Complementarism: semantics studies meaning in the abstract; pragmatics studies meaning in the context/use.5. Consider the following sentences:The rock ate my lunch. Semantically false, because "eat" requires anANIMATE subject.The giraffe ate the hyena. Grey area, does SEMANTICS include the concept VEGETARIANThe giraffe ate one hundred pounds of grass today.Pragmatics, how much DOES a giraffe eat in a day?6. ContextAccording to Firth, context includes the relevant features of participants: persons, personalities, the verbal and non-verbal action of the participants, the relevant objects and the effect of the verbal action. Hymes’ notion of context includes addressor, addressee, topic, setting, channel, code, message form, event, key and purpose.Shared knowledge7. Sentence meaning vs. utterance meaningSentence is often studied as the abstract, intrinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of predication. Utterance is the issuance in an actual context.The meaning of a sentence is abstract and decontextualized,while the meaning of an utterance is concrete and contextdependent.8. Speech Act TheoryAustin noticed that some sentences are special in that they DO things. One class is PERFORMATIVES. When spoken such sentences do the work:I (hereby) declare the fair open. ("hereby" is a good diagnostic of performatives)Performatives⾏事: Performatives were sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state, and were not verifiable. Constatives⾔事: constatives were statements that either state or describe, and were thusverifiable9. Three kinds of actsLocutionary act⾔内⾏为: locutionary act is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.Illocutionary act⾔外⾏为: an illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention. It is an act performed in saying something.Perlocutionary act⾔后⾏为: perlocutionary act is the act performed by saying something. 10. Searle’s classification of speech actsRepresentatives: stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true;Directives: trying to get the hearer to do something;Commissives: committing the speaker himself to future course of action;Expressives: expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing state;Declarations: bringing about immediate changes by saying something11. Principle of ConversationGrice discovered a number of conversational maxims (rules) that people generally obey.Two of them are: ? Be cooperative ? Be relevantThe following discourse represents a failure of cooperation:A: Do you know what time it isB: Yes.Or, if you know for sure that you're leaving on Tuesday it's misleading to say: "I'm leaving on Monday or Tuesday."12. Four maximsThe maxim of quantity The maxim of qualityThe maxim of relation The maxim of manner13. Conversational Implicatureconversational implicature: Conversational implicature occurs only when the maximsof Cooperative Principle are “flouted”. A: Do you know where Mr. X lives?B: Somewhere in the southern suburbs of the city.(said when it is known to both A and B that B has Mr. X’s address.)A: Would you like to come to our party tonight?B: I’m afraid I’m not feeling so well today.A: The hostess is an awful bore. Don’t you think?B: The roses in the garden are beautiful, aren’t they?(said when it is known to both A and B that it is entirely possible for B to make a comment on the hostess)A: Shall we get something for the kids?B: yes. But I veto I-C-E-C-R-E-A-M.(said when it is known to both A and B that B has no difficulty in pronouncing the word“ice-cream”).14. Leech’s Politeness PrincipleTact maxim Generosity maxim Approbation maximModesty maxim Agreement maxim Sympathy maxim15. The 6 maxims of Leech’s PPtact generosityapprobation modestyagreementsympathy16. Tact Maxim:1. Minimize cost to other 2.Maximize benefit to other Generosity Maxim:1. Minimize benefit to self 2. Maximize cost to self Approbation Maxim: 1. Minimize dispraise of other 2. Maximize praise of other Modesty Maxim:1. Minimize praise of self 2. Maximize dispraise of self17. Agreement Maxim: 1.Minimize disagreement between self and other2.Maximize agreement between self and otherSympathy Maxim: 1. Minimize antipathy between self and other2. Maximize sympathy between self and other18. Politeness scale: DirectnessdirectCould you possibly answer the phone?Would you mind answering the phone?Can you answer the phone?Will you answer the phone?I want you to answer the phone.Answer the phone.indirect19. Politeness scale: Cost – benefitbenefitHave another sandwich.Enjoy your holiday.Look at that.Sit down.Hand me the newspaper.Peel these potatoes.Cost20. PresuppositionsStatements or questions that presuppose a related sentence. "Leading" questions or statements. "When did you stop beating your donkey?" presupposes:You stopped beating your donkey.You did beat your donkey.You beat something.You have a donkey...."I'll have some more coffee." presupposes that you have already had some.21. assignmentsSpeech act theorycoperative principleconversational implicature7. Language Change1. ReviewPrescriptive vs.descriptive (Chapter 1)The definition of language: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication (Chapter 1) Word formation: affixation, composition, conversion, back formation, blend, shortening , coinage (Chapter 3) Contextualism (Chapter 5) Context (Chapter 6)2. All languages change through timeLanguages change in the phonology, morphology, syntax, lexicon and semantic components of the grammar.3. The changes of language at different levels (1)Sound changeMorphological and syntactic changea) change in “agreement” ruleb) change in negation rulec) process of simplificationd) loss of inflections4. The changes of language at different levels (2)Vocabulary changea) addition of new words(coinage, clipped words, blending, acronyms, backformation, functional shift, borrowing)b) loss of wordsc) changes in the meaning of words (widening of meaning, narrowing of meaning,meaning shift)5. Some recent trendsMoving towards greater informalityThe influence of American EnglishThe influence of science and technologya) space travel b) computer and internet language c) ecology6. Causes of language changea) The rapid development of science and technology has led to the creation of many new words: fax, laser, telecomb) As more and more women have taken up activities formerly reserved for men, more neutral job titles have been created: chairman-chairperson, fireman-fire fighter.c) The way children acquire the language provides a basic cause of change.d) “economy of memory ” and “theory of least effort”. foe/foes, cow/cows (kine)cheap-cheaplye) other factors, e.g. elaboration of grammar7. SummaryThe linguistic change is complex.The linguistic change is gradual.The exact reasons for language change are still elusive and need to be further investigated. 8. Assignments1. Illustrate the vocabulary change with examples.2. What are the possible causes of language change?8. Language and Society1. The relatedness between language and societyLanguage is used to establish and maintain social relationship.The kind of language the users choose is in part determined by his/her social background.Language is closely related to the structure of the society in which it is used, and the evaluation of a linguistic form is entirely social.2. Speech communityFor general linguists, a speech community is defined as a group of people who form a community and share the same language or a particular variety of a language.。

《语言学导论》复习提纲1、Termsrecursiveness：It mainly means that a constituent can be embedded within（i.e.，be dominated by）another constituent having the same category，but it can be used to any means to extend any constituent. Together with openness，recursiveness is the core of creativity of language. For example，“I met a man who had a son whose wife sold cookies that she had baked in her kitchen that was fully equipped with electrical appliances that were new”.duality：the structural organization of language into two abstract levels：meaningful units（e.g. words）and meaningless segments（e.g. sounds，letters）.compositionality：Compositionality refers to the principle that the meaning of a sentence depends on the meanings of the constituent words and the way they are combined. Take，for example，the sentence“Socrates was a man”. Once the meaningful lexical items are taken away－“Socrates”and“man”－what is left is the pseudo-sentence，“S was a M”.ontological metaphors：Ontological metaphors mean that human experiences with physical objects provide the basis for ways of viewing events，activities，emotions，ideas，etc.，as entities and substances. Take the experience of rising prices as an example，which can be metaphorically viewed as an entity via the noun inflation. This gives us a way to refer to experiences：INFLATION IS AN ENTITYmorpheme：Morpheme is the smallest unit of language in regard to the relationship between sounding and meaning，a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning，such as boy and –s in boys，check and –ing in checking，dis-，appoint，and –ment in disappointment. Morphemes cannot be further analyzed. For instance，chair cannot be analyzed into ch and air because there is no relationship between the parts ch，air，and the whole chair.displacement：the ability of language to refer to contexts removed from the speaker’s immediate situation. When a man，for example，is crying to a woman，about something，it might be something that had occurred，or something that is occurring，or something that is to occur.2、Short questionsChapter 16、Does the traffic light system have duality？Can you explain by drawing a simple graph？Traffic light does not have duality. Obviously，it is not a double-level system. There is only one-to-one relationship between signs and meaning but the meaning units cannot be divided into smaller meaningless elements further. So the traffic light only has the primary level and lacks theexpression. Do body language and facial expression share or lack the distinctive properties of human language？On a whole，body language and facial expression lack most of the distinctive properties of human language such as duality，displacement，creativity and so on. Body language exhibitsarbitrariness a little bit. For instance，nod means“OK/YES”for us but in Arabian world it is equal to saying“NO”. Some facial expressions have non-arbitrariness because they are instinctive such as the cry and laugh of a newborn infant.15、Why is the distinction between competence and performance important in linguistics？Do you think the line can be neatly drawn between them？How do you like the concept communicative competence？This is proposed by Chomsky in his formalist linguistic theories. It is sometimes hard to draw a strict line. Some researchers in applied linguistics think communicative competence may be a more revealing concept in language teaching than the purely theoretical pair－competence and performance.Chapter 33、MORPHEME is defined as the smallest unit in terms of relationship between expression and content. Then is morpheme a grammatical concept or a semantic one？What is its relation to phoneme？Can a morpheme and a phoneme form an organic whole？As a matter of fact，morpheme is both a grammatical concept and a semantic one. For instance，we can recognize that English word-forms such as talks，talker，talked and talking must consist of one element talk，and a number of other elements such as -s，-er，-ed，-ing. All these elements are described as morphemes. The definition of morpheme is“the smallest unit of language in terms of the relationship between expression and content”. We would say that the word reopened in the sentence The police reopened the investigation consists of three morphemes. One minimal unit of meaning is open，another minimal unit of meaning is re-（meaning again），and a minimal unit of grammatical function is -ed（indicating past tense）. Therefore，we are in a position to conclude that those which can stand by themselves as single words，e.g. open，are semantic concepts，and those which cannot normally stand alone，but which are typically attached to another form，e.g. re-，-ist，-ed，-s，are grammatical concepts.As we know，each one of the meaning-distinguishing sounds in a language is described as a phoneme. An essential property of a phoneme is that it functions contrastively. If we substitute one sound for another in a word and there is a change of meaning，then the two sounds represent different phonemes.The relation between morpheme and phoneme is also of twofold feature，viz. one-to-one，one-to-more. As with the former type，one-to-one，re-is the kind of morpheme that always consists of two phonemes /ri:/；as for the latter type，one-to-more relation，a typical example would be the plural morpheme that follows a noun or a verb. {s} after a noun can be pronounced in three ways，viz. /s/，/z/，and /iz/，as in locks，bags，and watches；{z} after a verb can also be pronounced in three ways，viz. /s/，/z/，and /iz/，as in stops，drags，and catches.Seem from an integrative perspective，a morpheme and a phoneme，indeed，can form an organic whole，as the number of the sound of each morpheme cannot be unlimited.Chapter 47、Use examples to illustrate different ways to extend syntactic constituents.In this chapter，several ways to extend syntactic constituents are brought under the category of recursiveness，including coordination and subordination，conjoining and embedding，hypotactic and paratactic and so on. Coordination and conjoining are the different names for the same linguistic phenomenon，that is，to use and，but or or to join together syntactic constituents with the same function. For instance，the sentence A man got into the car could be extended into a sentencelike this“[NP A man，a woman，a boy，a car and a dog] got into the car”. While subordination and embedding can be understood as the extension of any syntactic constituent by inserting one or more syntactic elements with different functions，into another. I saw the man who had visited you last year is an extended sentence by changing the independent clause The man had visited you last year into a dependent element（here a relative clause）.However，hypotaxis and parataxis are the two traditional terms for the description of syntactic relations between sentences. In the examples below，the former is hypotactic，while the latter is paratactic：We live near the sea. So we enjoy a healthy climate.He dictated the letter. She wrote it.Chapter 57、The British linguist F. R. Palmer argues in his Semantics（p. 97）that“there is no absolute distinction between [gradable antonyms and complementary antonyms]. We can treat male/female，married/single，alive/dead as gradable antonyms on occasions. Someone can be very male or more married and certainly more dead than alive.”Comment on it.It is not advisable to tell beginners of linguistics that the distinction between gradable antonyms and complementary antonyms is relative. The expression“more dead than alive”is not a true comparative.8、姜望琪（1991：79）claims that“To some extent，we can say that any two words of the same part of speech may become antonyms，as long as the meaning difference between them is what needs to be emphasized in the particular context.”He uses the two sentences below as examples. What do you think of the claim？You have to peel a raw potato but you can skin a boiled one.He’s no statesman，but a mere politician.This is a reasonable claim. As the author said in the paper，“man”can be the antonym of “woman”，but it can also be the antonym of“boy”in a situation when the age difference is important. When the difference between a man and an animal is important，“man”can also be the antonym of“dog”. And when the difference between something animate and something inanimate is important，then“man”can even be the antonym of“stone”. In the extreme cases，so-called synonyms may also become antonyms，for example，“You have to peel a raw potato but you can skin a boiled one”，“He’s no statesman，but a mere politician”.Supplement：Give your comment on the distinction between word group and phrase.A“phrase”is a single element of structure containing more than one word，and lacking the subject-predicate structure typical of“clauses”. Traditionally，it is seen as part of a structural hierarchy，falling between a clause and word，e.g. “the three tallest girls”（nominal phrase）. There is now a tendency to make a distinction between word groups and phrases. A“word group”is an extension of a word of a particular class by way of modification with its main features of the class unchanged，e.g. right behind，all along. Thus we have nominal group，verbal group，adverbial group，conjunction group and preposition group.In general，word group can be a phrase，but phrase not always a word group.。

语言导论试题及答案详解一、选择题（每题2分，共20分）1. 语言导论中，语言的最小意义单位是：A. 音素B. 词C. 词组D. 句子答案：A2. 以下哪项不属于语言的三大功能？A. 表达功能B. 交际功能C. 娱乐功能D. 思考功能答案：C3. 语言的起源至今没有确切的定论，但以下哪种理论被认为是最有可能的？A. 神赐论B. 劳动创造论C. 模仿论D. 语言天赋论答案：B4. 语言的词汇量随着社会的发展而不断增加，这种现象被称为：A. 词汇增长B. 词汇减少C. 词汇停滞D. 词汇不变答案：A5. 语言的语法规则是：A. 随意的B. 固定的C. 可变的D. 无规律的答案：B6. 以下哪种语言现象不属于语言的变异？A. 方言B. 语言接触C. 语言死亡D. 语言标准化答案：D7. 语言的语音系统是由哪些要素构成的？A. 音位B. 音节C. 音标D. 音素答案：A8. 语言的语义学研究的是：A. 语言的发音B. 语言的结构C. 语言的意义D. 语言的书写答案：C9. 以下哪种语言现象不属于语言的演变？A. 语言的分化B. 语言的融合C. 语言的标准化D. 语言的消亡答案：C10. 语言的交际功能主要体现在：A. 信息传递B. 情感表达C. 社会认同D. 所有选项答案：D二、填空题（每题2分，共20分）1. 语言的______性是指语言能够表达思想和情感的能力。

答案：表达2. 语言的______性是指语言能够适应社会变化的能力。

答案：适应3. 语言的______性是指语言能够被社会成员普遍理解的能力。

答案：普遍4. 语言的______性是指语言能够跨越时间和空间的能力。

答案：传承5. 语言的______性是指语言能够进行抽象思维的能力。

答案：抽象6. 语言的______性是指语言能够进行逻辑推理的能力。

答案：逻辑7. 语言的______性是指语言能够进行创造性表达的能力。

答案：创造性8. 语言的______性是指语言能够进行文化传承的能力。

语言学导论试题及答案一、选择题（每题2分，共20分）1. 语言学的主要研究对象是什么？A. 文学作品B. 语言C. 语言现象D. 语言规则答案：B2. 语言学中，研究语言结构的分支学科是？A. 社会语言学B. 心理语言学C. 句法学D. 语用学答案：C3. 以下哪个选项不是语言学的子学科？A. 语音学B. 词汇学C. 语义学D. 逻辑学答案：D4. 语言的最小意义单位是？A. 音素B. 词C. 语素D. 句子答案：C5. 以下哪个术语是描述单词在特定语境中的意义？A. 语法意义B. 词义C. 语义D. 语用意义答案：D6. 语言的音素和字母之间的关系是？A. 一一对应B. 多对一C. 一对多D. 没有固定关系答案：D7. 以下哪个选项是描述语言随时间演变的学科？A. 社会语言学B. 历史语言学C. 心理语言学D. 神经语言学答案：B8. 语言的地域变体被称为？A. 语种B. 方言C. 语言D. 语言变体答案：B9. 以下哪个术语是描述语言的交际功能？A. 语言能力B. 语言表现C. 语言使用D. 语言结构答案：C10. 语言学中，研究语言在社会中的作用和影响的学科是？A. 社会语言学B. 心理语言学C. 神经语言学D. 历史语言学答案：A二、填空题（每题2分，共20分）1. 语言学的创始人是________。

答案：费迪南德·德·索绪尔2. 语言的四个基本功能包括表达、信息、社交和________。

答案：情感3. 语言的________性是指它能够传递新信息。

答案：创造性4. 语言的________性是指它能够传递旧信息。

答案：习惯性5. 语言学中，研究语言和思维关系的学科是________。

答案：心理语言学6. 语言的________性是指它能够跨越时间和空间进行交流。

答案：传递性7. 语言的________性是指它能够表达复杂的概念。

答案：表达性8. 语言学中，研究语言在大脑中如何被处理的学科是________。