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商业银行风险管理外文翻译文献

商业银行风险管理外文翻译文献
商业银行风险管理外文翻译文献

商业银行风险管理外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)

外文:

Commercial Bank Risk Management: An Analysis of the Process Abstract

Throughout the past year, on-site visits to financial service firms were conducted to review and evaluate their financial risk management systems. The commercial banking analysis covered a number of North American super-regionals and quasi±money-center institutions as well as several firms outside the U.S. The information obtained covered both the philosophy and practice of financial risk management. This article outlines the results of this investigation. It reports the state of risk management techniques in the industry. It reports the standard of practice and evaluates how and why it is conducted in the particular way chosen. In addition, critiques are offered where appropriate. We discuss the problems which the industry finds most difficult to address, shortcomings of the current methodology used to analyze risk, and the elements that are missing in the current procedures of risk management.

1. Introduction

The past decade has seen dramatic losses in the banking industry. Firms that had been performing well suddenly announced large losses due to credit exposures that turned sour, interest rate positions taken, or derivative exposures that may or may not have been assumed to hedge balance sheet risk. In response to this, commercial banks have almost universally embarked upon an upgrading of their risk management and control systems.

Coincidental to this activity, and in part because of our recognition of the industry's vulnerability to financial risk, the Wharton Financial Institutions Center, with the support of the Sloan Foundation, has been involved in an analysis of financial risk management processes in the financial sector. Through the past academic year, on-site visits were conducted to review and evaluate the risk management systems and the process of risk evaluation that is in place. In the banking

sector, system evaluation was conducted covering many of North America's super-regionals and quasi±money-center commercial banks, as well as a number of major investment banking firms. These results were then presented to a much wider array of banking firms for reaction and verification. The purpose of the present article is to outline the findings of this investigation. It reports the state of risk management techniques in the industry—questions asked, questions answered, and questions left unaddressed by respondents. This report can not recite a litany of the approaches used within the industry, nor can it offer an evaluation of each and every approach. Rather, it reports the standard of practice and evaluates how and why it is conducted in the particular way chosen. But, even the best practice employed within the industry is not good enough in some areas. Accordingly, critiques also will be offered where appropriate. The article concludes with a list of questions that are currently unanswered, or answered imprecisely in the current practice employed by this group of relatively sophisticated banks. Here, we discuss the problems which the industry finds most difficult to address, shortcomings of the current methodology used to analyze risk, and the elements that are missing in the current procedures of risk management and risk control.

2. What type of risk is being considered?

Commercial banks are in the risk business. In the process of providing financial services, they assume various kinds of financial risks. Over the last decade our understanding of the place of commercial banks within the financial sector has improved substantially. Over this time, much has been written on the role of commercial banks in the financial sector, both in the academic literature and in the financial press. These arguments will be neither reviewed nor enumerated here. Suffice it to say that market participants seek the services of these financial institutions because of their ability to provide market knowledge, transaction efficiency and funding capability. In performing these roles, they generally act as a principal in the transaction. As such, they use their own balance sheet to facilitate the transaction and to absorb the risks associated with it.

To be sure, there are activities performed by banking firms which do not have

direct balance sheet implications. These services include agency and advisory activities such as

(1) trust and investment management;

(2) private and public placements through ``bestefforts'' or facilitating contracts;

(3) standard underwriting through Section 20 Subsidiaries of the holding company;

(4) the packaging, securitizing, distributing, and servicing of loans in the areas of consumer and real estate debt primarily.

These items are absent from the traditional financial statement because the latter rely on generally accepted accounting procedures rather than a true economic balance sheet. Nonetheless,the overwhelming majority of the risks facing the banking firm are on-balance-sheet businesses. It is in this area that the discussion of risk management and of the necessary procedures for risk management and control has centered. Accordingly, it is here that our review of risk management procedures will concentrate.

3. What kinds of risks are being absorbed?

The risks contained in the bank's principal activities, i.e., those involving its own balance sheet and its basic business of lending and borrowing, are not all borne by the bank itself. In many instances the institution will eliminate or mitigate the financial risk associated with a transaction by proper business practices; in others, it will shift the risk to other parties through a combination of pricing and product design.

The banking industry recognizes that an institution need not engage in business in amanner that unnecessarily imposes risk upon it; nor should it absorb risk that can be efficiently transferred to other participants. Rather, it should only manage risks at the firm level that are more efficiently managed there than by the market itself or by their owners in their own portfolios. In short, it should accept only those risks that are uniquely a part of the bank's array of services. Elsewhere (Oldfield and Santomero, 1997) it has been argued that risks facing all financial institutions can be segmented into three separable types, from a management perspective. These are:

1. risks that can be eliminated or avoided by simple business practices;

2. risks that can be transferred to other participants;

3. risks that must be actively managed at the firm level.

In the first of these cases, the practice of risk avoidance involves actions to reduce the chances of idiosyncratic losses from standard banking activity by eliminating risks that are superˉuous to the institution's business purpose. Common risk-avoidance practices here include at least three types of actions. The standardization of process, contracts, and procedures to prevent inefficient or incorrect financial decisions is the first of these. The construction of portfolios that benefit from diversification across borrowers and that reduce the effects of any one loss experience is another. The implementation of incentivecompatible contracts with the institution's management to require that employees be held accountable is the third. In each case, the goal is to rid the firm of risks that are not essential to the financial service provided, or to absorb only an optimal quantity of a particular kind of risk.

There are also some risks that can be eliminated, or at least substantially reduced through the technique of risk transfer. Markets exist for many of the risks borne by the banking firm. Interest rate risk can be transferred by interest rate products such as swaps or other derivatives. Borrowing terms can be altered to effect a change in their duration.

Finally, the bank can buy or sell financial claims to diversify or concentrate the risks that result from servicing its client base. To the extent that the financial risks of the assets created by the firm are understood by the market, these assets can be sold at their fair value. Unless the institution has a comparative advantage in managing the attendant risk and/or a desire for the embedded risk which they contain, there is no reason for the bank to absorb such risks, rather than transfer them.

However, there are two classes of assets or activities where the risk inherent in the activity must and should be absorbed at the bank level. In these cases, good reasons exist for using firm resources to manage bank level risk. The first of these includes financial assets or activities where the nature of the embedded risk may be complex and difficult to communicate to third parties. This is the case when the bank holds complex and proprietary assets that have thin, if not nonexistent, secondary

markets. Communication in such cases may be more difficult or expensive than hedging the underlying risk. Moreover, revealing information about the customer may give competitors an undue advantage. The second case includes proprietary positions that are accepted because of their risks, and their expected return. Here, risk positions that are central to the bank's business purpose are absorbed because they are the raison of the firm. Credit risk inherent in the lending activity is a clear case in point, as is market risk for the trading desk of banks active in certain markets. In all such circumstances, risk is absorbed and needs to be monitored and managed efficiently by the institution. Only then will the firm systematically achieve its financial performance goal.

4. How are these risks managed?

In light of the above, what are the necessary procedures that must be in place in order to carry out adequate risk management? In essence, what techniques are employed to both limit and manage the different types of risk, and how are they implemented in each area of risk control? It is to these questions that we now turn. After reviewing the procedures employed by leading firms, an approach emerges from an examination of large-scale risk management systems. The management of the banking firm relies on a sequence of steps to implement a risk management system. These can be seen as containing the following four parts:

1. standards and reports,

2. position limits or rules,

3. investment guidelines or strategies, and

4. incentive contracts and compensation.

In general, these tools are established to measure exposure, define procedures to manage these exposures, limit individual positions to acceptable levels, and encourage decision makers to manage risk in a manner that is consistent with the firm's goals and objectives. To see how each of these four parts of basic risk-management techniques achieves these ends, we elaborate on each part of the process below. In section 4 we illustrate how these techniques are applied to manage each of the specific risks facing the banking community.

1.Standards and reports.

The first of these risk-management techniques involves two different conceptual activities, i.e., standard setting and financial reporting. They are listed together because they are the sine qua non of any risk system. Underwriting standards, risk categorizations, and standards of review are all traditional tools of risk management and control. Consistent evaluation and rating of exposures of various types are essential to an understanding of the risks in the portfolio, and the extent to which these risks must be mitigated or absorbed.

The standardization of financial reporting is the next ingredient. Obviously, outside audits, regulatory reports, and rating agency evaluations are essential for investors to gauge asset quality and firm-level risk. These reports have long been standardized, for better or worse. However, the need here goes beyond public reports and audited statements to the need for management information on asset quality and risk posture. Such internal reports need similar standardization and much more frequent reporting intervals, with daily or weekly reports substituting for the quarterly GAAP periodicity.

2.Position limits and rules.

A second technique for internal control of active management is the use of position limits, and/or minimum standards for participation. In terms of the latter, the domain of risk taking is restricted to only those assets or counterparties that pass some prespecified quality standard. Then, even for those investments that are eligible, limits are imposed to cover exposures to counterparties, credits, and overall position concentrations relative to various types of risks. While such limits are costly to establish and administer, their imposition restricts the risk that can be assumed by anyone individual, and therefore by the organization as a whole. In general, each person who can commit capital will have a well-defined limit. This applies to traders, lenders,and portfolio managers. Summary reports show limits as well as current exposure by business unit on a periodic basis. In large organizations with thousands of positions maintained, accurate and timely reporting is difficult, but even more essential.

3.Investment guidelines and strategies.

Investment guidelines and recommended positions for the immediate future are the third technique commonly in use. Here, strategies are outlined in terms of concentrations and commitments to particular aras of the market, the extent of desired asset-liability mismatching or exposure, and the need to hedge against systematic risk of a particular type.

4.Incentives schemes.

To the extent that management can enter incentive compatible contracts with line managers and make compensation related to the risks borne by these individuals, then the need for elaborate and costly controls is lessened. However, such incentive contracts require accurate position valuation and proper internal control systems.

译文:

商业银行的风险管理:一个分析的过程摘要

在过去一年里,我们通过现场参观金融服务公司来进行审查和评估其金融风险管理系统。商业银行的分析涵盖了大量的北美超地区性和准货币中心机构,以及一些美国以外的公司获得的信息包括了一些理念和财务风险管理的做法。本文概述了本次调查的结果,并报告了该行业风险管理技术的状况。它报告了行业的执业标准和评价方式,以及为什么特定选择的方式进行。此外,本文提出了一些适当的批评。我们讨论这些问题,包括业界认为最难处理的、现行风险分析方法中的缺点以及现行风险管理程序中一些缺失的元素。

1、介绍

在过去十年中,银行业经历了一场惨痛的损失。由于信贷风险承担情况变差、利率变动和一些金融衍生工具理论上可能发生的对冲资产负债表风险,一些表现良好的公司突然宣布了自己的巨额亏损。在针对这种情况,商业银行己开始了一项对风险管理和控制系统的升级。

在某种程度上来说,这次活动是出于我们对行业财务风险弱点的认识。在斯隆基金会的支持下,沃顿商学院金融机构中心,一直在金融部门中参与对金融风险管理的分析。通过过去的一年的时间,实地考察的审查方法贯穿于评估风险管理制度和风险评估所定的过程中。在银行部门,系统进行了评估,包括很多北美超地区性和本土货币中心的商业银行,以及大量的大型投资银行公司。这些结果被提交给银行公司,继续参与更广泛的反应和验证。

本文的目的是概述本次调查的结果。它报告了行业风险管理技术情况,包括问题的提出,问题的回答,以及受访者遗留问题的解决。此报告没有列举行业内普遍采用的方法,也没有提供对这些方法的评价。相反,它报告的是执业标准和评价方法,以及它为什么选择特定的方式进行。但是,在某些领域,甚至连一些最佳方法也并不适用。因此,批评也将在适当情况下给出。文章最后提出了当前未答复的,或回答比较复杂、银行采用的现行做法尚不严密的问题清单。在这里,

我们讨论的包括业界认为比较难处理的、现行风险分析方法中的缺点以及现行风险管理程序中一些缺失的元素。

2、我们应该考虑什么类型的风险

商业银行正承担着业务风险。在提供金融服务的过程中,他们承担各种金融风险。在过去十年中,我们对商业银行在金融部门的地位的认识已大大提高。在这段时间,商业银行在金融部门扮演的什么样的角色已经众所周知,无论是在学术文献或者金融新闻上都有体现。在本文中,这些参数这里既不会审查,也不会列举。我只想说,市场参与者寻求这些金融机构的服务,因为这些机构有能力为客户提供市场知识,交易效率和资金的能力。在履行这些职责时,他们一般充当交易的主体。因此,他们用自己的资产负债表,以方便交易和承受与它相关的风险。

可以肯定的是,这些银行业金融机构进行的活动不会直接受资产负债表的影响。这些服务包括代理和咨询活动,如:

(1)信托及投资管理;

(2)通过“最大努力”促进私人和公共存款合同;

(3)通过第20条标准承保该控股公司的附属公司

(4)包装,证券化,分发,以及为消费和房地产领域的贷款债务提供服务。

这些项目是在传统的财务报表之外的,因为后者依赖丁飞如今普遍接受的会计程序,而不是一个真正的经济资产负债表。然而,银行业所而临的风险,绝大多数是来自于企业的资产负债表。在这里,我们对风险管理以及风险管理与控制的必要程序需要集中探讨。因此,在这里,我们必须把风险的管理程序的审查集中起来。

3、何种风险将被吸收?

在银行的主要业务,即那些涉及其自身的资产负债表和其基本的商业贷款和借款中的风险,并不完全由银行自身所承担.在许多情况下,机构将通过适当的商业行为的交易来消除或减轻金融风险与关联,在其他情况卜,将通过定价和产品设计的结合把风险转移给其他缔约方。

银行业认识到,一个机构并不需要以从事经营的方式,对自己施加不必要的风险。同时,银行也无需承担风险,它只需要把风险有效地转移给其他参与者。

美国中小商业银行信贷风险管理经验的启示

内容提要:美国是世界上中小银行数量较多市场化运作较为成熟的国家。因为市场竞争的残酷性,美国中小银行为了生存和发展,对风险管理极为重视,特别是在信贷风险管理上形成了一系列较为成熟的经验。这些经验对我国中小银行尤其是城市商业银行具有很大的借鉴意义。美国是世界上中小银行数量较多、市场化运作较为成熟的国家。在美国约8 000家商业银行中,资产超过100亿美元的还不足10%,资产不超过10亿美元的银行,在全美共有5 000多家。在美国,由于银行业市场的激烈竞争,每年都有一些中小银行被兼并重组,一些中小银行被关闭,但同时也会新增一些中小银行。目前,信贷业务依然是美国中小银行的主要资产业务。因为市场竞争的残酷性,美国中小银行为了生存和发展,对风险管理极为重视,特别是在信贷风险管理上形成了一系列较为成熟的经验。这些经验对我国中小银行尤其是城市商业银行具有很大的借鉴意义。 1 ?中国城市商业银行与美国社区银行对比 中国城市商业银行与美国的社区银行相似,规模普遍较小(多数资产不足10亿美元),在所属的 区域内通过低成本的分销工具为客户提供基本简单的金融服务。专门为低收入的个人消费者 提供小额贷款;支持小型企业以为本地经济发展提供便利;将存款作为贷款资金;并致力于提高个人客户和企业客户的生活质量。但是,它们又有着不同点。美国的社区银行既不是开发 银行,也不是政府的福利机构。因此,它们不会提供有政府导向性的业务;不会在政府机构的影响下经营;不会优先运作基础设施的项目;不提供特许的利率;也不会把社会的目标置于银行 的财务目标之上。一般来说,虽然规模在一定程度上起着决定性的影响作用,然而一家银行的规模大小并不是银行赢利的最主要因素。因此社区银行仍然可以是一种赢利性很高且具有长 期稳定性的商业模型。根据美国的情况,赢利性最好的是那些资产在10亿~100亿美元的银行(相当于国内杭州、南京以及大连等的城市商业银行资产规模)以及资产在3亿~5亿美元的银 行(相当于葫芦岛、焦作以及马鞍山等的城市商业银行资产规模)。令人惊讶的是,最稳定(亏损企业百分比最小)的银行仍然是资产在3亿~5亿美元的那些小型银行。 2?美国中小商业银行信贷风险管理的特征 2?1美国中小商业银行普遍建立了完善的信贷风险管理 组织构架美国的中小商业银行实行董事会、高级管理层相互独立的、立体的风险管理体系。 董事会通过下设的风险审计委员会对全行的风险进行全面监测,尤其是高级管理层的道德风险。银行的高级管理层也建立另一套风险体制框架,实行风险的自我控制与管理:设立对业务风险进行控制的管理部门,对业务部门、管理部门的各类风险进行全面管理,这些部门对首席执行官负责。美国中小商业银行银行实行风险集中管理体制,风险控制在总行层面实现集中化管理,总行对所有风险都具有强大的监控能力。即使像住房抵押贷款一类的零售贷款也实现了由总行集中审批。美国各中小商业银行都设有风险管理部。风险管理部门负责日常风险 管理工作,对所有风险管理人员实行“垂直管理”,业务部门所需要的风险管理人员由风险管 理部派驻,派驻人员可参与业务经营的整个过程,并与业务部门共同承担责任。贷款风险管理 委员会不负责审批贷款,只负责贷款风险监测。贷款的审批按照相互制约的原则进行,单人无法对贷款业务进行决策。对信贷审批的授权主要考虑两个因素:职务高低、业务性质(如批发 业务与零售业务就不同)和个人经验。风险管理派驻人员具体负责各业务条线的风险管理,这 些人员直接向风险管理部门报告,但对与风险有关的业务决策有发言权,可对风险进行实时控制,寓风险管理于业务经营过程之中。 2?2美国中小商业银行拥有先进的风险管理工具和监测 技术科学的分析是做好风险管理工作的前提,商业银行信贷风险管理中的分析工作必须依赖 于一定的管理工具。普遍使用的信用分析系统为中小商业银行提供了在线信贷文件系统,

财务管理外文翻译

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