第一章绪论
1/ What is linguistics?
∙什么是语言学？
∙Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. It studies not any particular language, but languages in general.
2/ The scope of linguistics
∙语言学的研究范畴
∙The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. (普通语言学)
∙The study of sounds, which are used in linguistic communication, is called phonetics. [fəˈnetɪks]（语音学）
∙ The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology. [fəu ˈnɔlədʒi] （音系学）
∙ The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words are called morphology. [mɔ:ˈfɔlədʒi]（形态学）
∙ The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax. [ˈs ɪnˈtæks]（句法学）
∙ The study of meaning in language is called semantics. [sɪˈmæntɪks]（语义学）
∙ The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics. [præɡˈmætiks]（语用学）
∙ The study of language with reference to society is called socio-linguistics.（社会语言学）
∙ The study of language with reference to the working of mind is called psycho-linguistics. （心理语言学）
∙The study of applications (as the recovery of speech ability) is generally known as applied linguistics. （应用语言学）
∙But in a narrow([ˈnærəu] adj. 狭隘的；狭窄的；) sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second language.
∙Other related branches include anthropological([ˈænθrəpəˈlɔdʒɪkəl] adj. 人类学的) linguistics, （人类语言学） neurological [ˈnjʊərəˈlɔdʒɪkəl] linguistics, （神经语言学） mathematical linguistics, （数字语言学）and computational [ˈkɔmpju(:)ˈteiʃ(ə)n(ə)l] linguistics.（计算机语言学）
3/ Some important distinctions in linguistics
∙语言学研究中的几对基本概念
Prescriptive [priˈskriptiv] and descriptive [dɪˈskrɪptɪv]
∙描写与规定
∙If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive, if it aims to lay down rules to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.
∙Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar.
∙Traditional grammar is prescriptive while modern linguistics is descriptive.
∙The task of linguists is supposed to describe the language people actually use, whether it is “correct” or not.
Synchronic [siŋˈkrɔnik] and diachronic [ˈdaiəˈkrɔnik]
∙共时和历时
∙The description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. In modern linguistics, synchronic study is more important.
Speech and writing
∙口头语与书面语
∙Speech and writing are the two major media of communication.
∙Modern linguistics regards the spoken form of language as primary, but not the written form. ∙Reasons:
∙1. Speech precedes([ˈpriˈsi:d] vt.& vi.在……之前发生或出现，先于；在……之上，优于；给……作序；处于……前面的位置) writing;
∙2. There are still many languages that have only the spoken form;
∙3. In terms of function, the spoken language is used for a wider range of purposes than the written, and carries a larger load ([ləud] n. 负荷；负担；装载；工作量)of communication than the written.
Langue [lɑ:ŋɡ] and parole [pə'rəul]
∙语言和言语
∙The Swiss linguist( [ˈlɪŋgwɪst] n.通晓数国语言的人；语言学家)F. de Saussure made the
distinction between langue and parole early 20th century.
∙Langue refers to the abstract ([ˈæbstrækt] adj. 抽象的，理论上的)linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community( [kəˈmju:niti] n. 社区；社会团体；共同体；[生态] 群落), and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use.
∙Saussure made the distinction in order to single out one aspect of language for serious study. He believes what linguists should do is to abstract langue from parole, to discover the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subjects of study of linguistics.
语言能力和语言运用
∙Competence( [ˈkɔmpitəns] n.能力；技能；相当的资产)and performance
∙Proposed by American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s.
∙He defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. He believes the task of the linguists is to discover and specify( [ˈspesifai] v.指定；详述；提出…的条件；使具有特性)the language rules.
4/ What is language?
∙语言的定义
∙Language is a system of arbitrary([ˈɑ:bitrəri] adj.随意的，任性的，随心所欲的;主观的，武断的；霸道的，专制的，专横的，独断独行的)vocal( [ˈvəukəl] adj. 声音的，嗓音的；由嗓音发出或产生的；有声音的，能发出声音或语言的；畅所欲言的n.元音；[音乐]声乐作品)symbols used for human communication.
∙Sapir,Edward uses “ideas” “emotions” and “desires” in his definition.
∙Hall, like Sapir, treats language as a purely human institution.(purely [ˈpjʊəlɪ] adv.完全地，十足地；纯粹地；纯洁地，贞淑地) (institution[ˈɪnstiˈtju:ʃən] n.（大学、银行等规模大的）机构；惯例，制度，规定，建立；社会事业机构；<口>名人，名物)
∙Chomsky’s definition is quite different, it focus on the purely structural properties of languages and to suggest that these properties can be investigated from a mathematically precise point of view.
5/ Design features
∙语言的甄别性特征
∙Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any
animal system of communication.
∙American linguist Charles Hockett specified twelve design features.
1) Arbitrariness [ˈɑ:bitrərinis]n.
∙任意性（和约定俗成性）
∙ It means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.
∙For instance, there is no necessary relationship between the word dog and the animal it refers to. The fact that different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages and that the same sound may be used to refer to different objects is another good example.( instance [ˈinstəns] n. 例子，实例；情况；要求，建议；[法]诉讼手续vt.举…为例)
∙Although language is arbitrary by nature, it is not entirely ([enˈtaɪəli:] adv.完全地，彻底地)arbitrary. Some words, such as the words created in the imitation( [ˈɪmiˈteiʃən] n. 模仿，仿效；仿制品；赝品；[生]拟态)of sounds by sounds are motivated [ˈməʊtɪveɪtɪd] adj. 有动机的，有目的的；有积极性的v. 作为…的动机，激发，诱发（motivate的过去式和过去分词）in a certain degree. The arbitrary nature of language makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source [sɔ:s] n. 根源，本源；源头，水源；of expressions.
2) Productivity( [ˈprɔdʌkˈtiviti] n.生产率，生产力；[经济学] 生产率；[生态学]生产率)
∙能产性
∙Language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation( [ˈɪntə:priˈteiʃən] n.解释，说明；翻译；表演，演绎；理解)of an infinitely [ˈɪnf ɪnɪtlɪ]adv.无限地,无穷地；极其large number of sentences, including those that they have never said or heard before.
3) Duality ([dju(:)ˈæliti] n.二元性)
∙结构二重性
∙It means that language is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds at the lower level and the other of meanings at the higher level. At the lower or the basic level, there is the structure of individual and meaningless sounds, which can be grouped into meaningful units at the higher level. This duality of structure or double articulation([ɑ:ˈtikjuˈleiʃən] n. 清晰度，咬合，关节；发音；接合) of language enables its users to talk about anything within their knowledge.
4) Displacement
∙语言的移位性（突破时空性）
∙It means that language can be used to talk about what happened in the past, what is happening now, or what will happen in the future. Language can also be used to talk about our real word experiences or the experiences in our imaginary([iˈmædʒinəri] adj. 想像中的，假想的，虚构的；[数]虚数的；幻；虚幻) world. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate([iˈmi:diət] adj. 立即的；直接的，最接近的；目前的，当前的；直觉的) situations of the speaker.
5) Cultural transmission
∙文化传播性
∙While we are born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language are not genetically ([dʒe'netikəli] adv. 创始；遗传学；生殖；基因)transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned anew([əˈnu:, əˈnju:] adv. 再，重新).
Chapter 2 Phonology 音系学
1.The phonic([ˈfəunik] adj. 声音的，有声的，声学的) medium of language
∙语言的声音媒介
∙Speech and writing are the two media used by natural languages as vehicles([ˈvi:ɪklz] n. 运载工具；传播媒介；车辆；传播媒介；手段) for communication.
∙Of the two media of language, speech is more basic than writing. Speech is prior([ˈpraiə] adj. 优先的；占先的；在……之前) to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented” by its users to record speech whe n the need arises(arise [əˈraiz] vi.& vt. 产生；出现；起身，起立；起源于，产生于).
∙For linguists, the study of sounds is of greater importance than that of writing.
∙The limited ranges of sounds which are meaningful in human communication and are of interest to linguistic studies are the phonic medium of language (语言的声音媒介) .
∙The individual sounds within this range are the speech sounds （语音）.
2．What is phonetics([fəˈnetɪks] n. 语音（学）；发音学；语音学)?
∙什么是语音学？
∙Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language；It is concerned with all the
sounds that occur([əˈkə:] vi. 发生；出现；闪现) in the world’s languages.
∙语音学研究的对象是语言的声音媒介，即人类语言中使用的全部语音。
three branches of phonetics
∙Articulatory phonetics （发音语音学）, it studies the speech sounds from the speaker’s point of view. It studies how a speaker uses his speech organs to articulate the sounds.
∙Auditory phonetics （听觉语音学），it studies the speech sounds from the hearer’s point of view. It studies how the sounds are perceived by he hearer.
∙Acoustic phonetics（声学语音学），it studies the speech sounds by looking at the sound waves. It studies the physical means by which speech sounds are transmitted through the air from one person to another.
a/i/o
3. Organs of speech
∙发音器官
∙The pharyngeal([ˈfærinˈdʒi:əl] adj. 咽的；咽音；咽部) cavity [ˈkæviti] 咽腔the throat
∙The oral cavity 口腔the mouth
∙The nasal([ˈneɪzəl] adj. 鼻的；鼻音的n. 鼻音字母，鼻音；鼻骨) cavity 鼻腔the nose 语音解剖图
发音器官图
∙4.Orthographic([ˈɔ:θəˈɡræfik] adj. 正字法的，拼字正确的；) representation([ˈreprɪzenˈteɪʃən] n. 表现；陈述；表现……的事物；有代理人) of speech sounds –broad and narrow transcriptions([trænˈskrɪpʃən] n. 抄本；抄写；录音；翻译)
∙语音的书写形式－宽式和窄式音标
IPA-International Phonetic Alphabet([ˈælfəbit] n. 字母表；字母系统；入门，初步)
∙国际音标
∙There are two ways to transcribe speech sounds. One is the transcription with letter-symbols (字母符号) only, called broad transcription (宽式音标). The other is the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics ([ˈdaiəˈkritik] adj. 可区别的，读音符号的)(变音符号), called narrow transcription (窄式音标).
p音的比较
∙对pit/spit中p音的比较：
∙pit中的p是送气音，在窄式音标中标为上标，写作：[phit]
∙spit中的p是不送气音，在宽式音标中不作标示，写作：[spit]
l音的比较
∙对leaf/feel/build/health中l音的比较：
∙Leaf中l 在元音前，叫清晰音，在宽式音标中不作标示，写作：[li:f]
∙Feel中l出现在单词结尾，叫模糊音，在窄式音标中加变音符号[~]
∙Build中l出现在另一个辅音前，也叫模糊音，在窄式音标中也加变音符号[~]
∙Health中l出现在齿音前，受其影响叫齿音[l]，在窄式音标中加变音符号[II]
5.Classification of English speech sounds
∙英语语音的分类
∙Consonants([ˈkɔnsənənt] n. 辅音,子音；辅音字母adj. 一致的；符合的；协和音的；和音的) ∙Vowels([ˈvaʊəl] n. 元音；母音adj. 元音的；母音的)
a)Classification([ˈklæsifiˈkeiʃən] n. 分类；分级；类别；（动植物等的）分类学) of English consonants
∙按发音方式分
∙Stop or plosive 塞音或爆破音: [p] [b] [t] [d] [k] [g]
∙Fricative 擦音：[f] [v] [s] [z] [W] [T] [s] [V] [h]
∙Affricate 塞擦音：[tF][dV]
∙Liquid流音：[l] [r]
∙Nasal鼻音：[m] [n] [N]
∙Glide滑音：[w] [j]
a)Classification of English consonants
∙按发音部位分
∙Bilabial双唇音：[p] [b] [m] [w]
∙Labiodental唇齿音：[f] [v]
∙Dental齿音：[W] [T]
∙Alveolar齿龈音：[t] [d] [s] [z] [n] [l] [r]
∙Palatal硬腭音：[V][tF][dV][i]
∙Velar软腭音：[k] [g] [N]
∙Glottal声门音：[h]
B) Classification of English vowels
∙按舌头在口中的位置分：
∙Front vowel前元音：[i:] [i] [e] [A] [a]
∙Central vowel中元音：[[:] [[] [Q]
∙Back vowel后元音：[u:] [u] [R:] [R] [a:]
B) Classification of English vowels
∙按口形的大小分：
∙Close vowel闭元音：[i:] [i] [u:] [u]
∙Semi-close vowel半闭元音：[e] [[:]
∙Open vowel开元音：[A] [a]
∙Semi-open vowel半开元音：[[] [R:] [Q] [R] [a:]
B) Classification of English vowels
∙按唇形是否为圆分
∙Unrounded vowel不圆唇元音：[i:] [i] [e] [A] [a] [[:] [[] [Q] [a:]
∙rounded vowel圆唇元音：[u:] [u] [R:] [R]
B) Classification of English vowels
∙按语音的长短分
∙Long vowel长元音[i:] [[:][a:] [u:] [R:]
∙Short vowel短元音[i] [e] [A] [a] [[] [Q] [u] [R]
6.Phonology 音系学
∙Phonology and phonetics
∙音系学和语音学
∙Both phonology and phonetics are studies of speech sounds.
∙Phonetics is of a general nature, it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages;
∙Phonology is interested in the system of sounds of a particular language, it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication. Thus([ðʌs] adv. 于是，因此；如此，这样，像这样，例如；到这程度，到这地步，这么；如下;conj. 因此) these two are at once related and distinct branches of linguistic studies.
7.Phone, phoneme, and allophone([ˈæləfəun])
∙语音（音素）、音位、音位变体
Phone
∙Phone can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a language. A phone is a phonetic unit or segment([ˈseɡmənt] n. 部分，段落；环节；[计算机]（字符等的）分段；[动物学]节片;vt.&vi. 分割，划分；[生]使分裂). It does not necessarily distinguish meaning. ∙语音是语言学研究的单位，是一个个具体的声音。
语音是一个语音单位或一个切分成分，它并不一定能区分意义。
Phonology
∙Phonology is concerned with the speech sounds which distinguish meaning. The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme, it is a unit that is of distinctive value. But it is an abstract unit. A phoneme is not a sound, it is a collection of distinctive phonetic features.
∙音位是音系学研究的单位，是抽象的概念，每一个音位是一组语音特征的集合体，音位具有区别意义的作用。
一个音位在语音上被具体体现为一个特定的语音（音素）。
按照惯例，音位被置于两斜线之间，如/p/ /t/，而语音被置于方括号内，如[p] [t].
allophones
∙The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.
∙音位变体是一个音位在特定的语音环境里的具体体现，同一个音位在不同的语音环境里体现为不同的变体，也就是语音。
∙8.Phonemic contrast([ˈkɔntræst] n. 对比，对照；差异；对照物，对立面；[摄]反差vi. 对比；形成对照vt. 使对照，使对比；和……形成对照), complementary ([ˈkɔmpləˈmentəri:, -tri:] adj. 互补的；补充的，补足的)distribution([ˈdistriˈbju:ʃən] n. 分配，分布；[法]（无遗嘱死亡者的）财产分配；[无线]频率分布；[电]配电), and minimal pair
∙音位对立、complementary distribution互补分布、最小对立对
∙Phonetically similar sounds might be related in two ways. They might form a contrast if they are two distinctive phonemes, or they do not form a contrast in meaning if they are allophones of the same phoneme.
∙相似的语音之间可能有两种关系。
两个相似的语音如果是两个区别性音位，它们在意义上形成对立，如果是同一音位的变体，在意思上不形成对立。
phonemic contrast
∙The former（they are two distinctive phonemes ）is called phonemic contrast, they can occur in the same environments and they distinguish meaning.
∙音位对立是指不同音位之间的关系，它们可以出现在不同的语音组合的同一位置，产生意义差别，如rope和robe中的/p/和/b/。
complementary distribution
∙The latter（they do not form a contrast in meaning ）is called complementary distribution; they are two allophones of the same phoneme. They only occur in different environments.
∙互补分布是指音位变体之间的关系，同一个音位的不同变体在语音组合中永远不会出现在相同的位置上，它们没有区别意义的作用，如top中的送气的[p]和stop中不送气的[p]。
The way
∙A basic way to determine the phonemes of a language is to see if substituting(substitute[ˈsʌbstitju:t] vt.& vi. 代替，替换，代用n. 代替者；替补（运动员）；替代物；[语法学]代用词vi. 用…替代) one sound for another one results in a change of meaning. If it does, the two sounds then represent different phonemes. An easy way to do this is to find the minimal pairs.
∙确定一种语言的音位的一个基本途径是，看如果用一个语音代替另一个是否会产生不同的意义。
如果产生了，那么这两个语音就代表不同的音位。
为此，一个简单的办法就是找出最小对立对。
a minimal pair
∙When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair.
∙最小对立对是指除了出现在同一位置上的一个音之外其余都相同的两个语音组合，如[pen]和[ben]。
9.Some rules in phonology
∙几条音系规则
A) sequential ([sɪˈkwenʃəl] adj. 按次序的，相继的，构成连续镜头的；时序；序贯)rules
∙系列规则
∙The rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called sequential rules.
∙在一种特定的语言中，语音的组合是受规则制约的，这些规则叫做系列规则。
∙重要的规则：
∙I. 如果单词以[l] 或[r] 为首，其后的一个语音必定为元音，如rude, last, leap
∙II. 如果三个辅音同时出现在单词词首，则：第一音位必定为/s/，第二音位必定是/p//t//k/，第三音位必定是/l//r//w/，如strict, splendid, spring
∙III. 塞擦音[tʃ][dv]和咝音[s] [z] [F] [V] 后不能紧跟另一个咝音，如teach变复数为teaches[[ti:tʃiz]。
∙IV. 制约音位模式的规则是随语言的不同而不同的，英语中适用，其它语言却不适用。
B) assimilation([əˈsɪməˈleɪʃən] n. （食物等的）吸收；消化；（被）吸收或同化的过程；[生理]同化作用) rules
∙同化规则
∙The assimilation rule assimilates(assimilate[əˈsimileit] vi. 吸收，消化；同化vt. 透彻理解；使吸收) one sound to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus ma king the two phones similar.
∙同化规则即通过“模仿”一个系列音位的一个特征使一个语音与另一个语音相似，从而使两个音素变得相似。
∙重要的规则：
∙I. 元音后紧跟一个鼻音时，该元音要鼻音话。
如bean/ green 中的[i:]音。
∙II. 在一个单词中，鼻音[n]所处的发音部位和紧随其后的辅音的发音部位变得一样。
如correct –incorrect。
∙III.语音同化规则也体现在有关单词的拼写中。
如possible的否定形式是impossible，是因为[n]音同化成了[m]音。
C)deletion rules
∙省略规则
∙The rule tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented.
∙省略规则告诉我们什么时候一个语音尽管在拼写中存在，但在发音中却省略了。
∙重要的规则：
∙如[g]音出现在位于词尾的一个鼻辅音前时要省略。
如sign中的[g]音不发音。
而在加了后缀的signature中，[g]却要发音的。
10. Suprasegmental([ˈsju:prəseɡˈmentəl] adj. 超切分的，超音段的n. 超切分（或音段）特征，上缀) features- stress, tone, intonation([ˈɪntəˈneɪʃən,-təʊ-] n. 语调，声调；[乐]发声，转调；[宗]吟诵；语音的抑扬)
∙超切分特征：重音、声调和语调
∙Distinctive features can also be found running over a sequence of two or more phonemic segments. The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features. The main suprasegmental features include stress, intonation, and tone.
∙区别性特征也可以在由两个或多个音位切分成分所组成的系列中体现出来。
出现在切分层面之上的音系特征叫做超切分特征。
它们时音节、单词和句子等语言单位的音系特征。
主要的超切分特征包括重音、音调和语调。
A) Stress 重音
∙重要的规则：
∙I. 一个单词如果既可以作名词，又可以作动词，则名词重音在第一个音节上，相应的动词重音则在第二个音节上。
如import。
∙II. 英语复合词的重音常在第一个成分上，第二个成分是次重音。
如hotdog。
B) Tone 声调
∙汉语的声调
C) Intonation
∙语调
∙When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation([ˈaɪsəˈleɪʃən] n. 隔离；隔离状态；孤独；孤立状态adj. 孤立主义的；孤立主义者的), they are collectively known as intonation.
∙当音高、重音和音长依附于一个句子而不是单个单词时，这些音素合起来叫做语调。
∙English has four basic types of intonation: the falling tone, the rising tone, the fall-rise tone, and the rise-fall tone. The most frequently used are the first three.
∙英语中有四种基本语调：降调、升调、降升调、升降调。
最常用的是前三种。
Chapter 3 Morphology([mɔ:ˈfɔlədʒi] n. 形态学（尤指动植物形态学或词语形态学）)
形态学
What is Morphology?
∙Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal([inˈtə:nəl] adj. 国内的；内部的；体内的；内心的prep. （机构）内部的n. 内脏，内部器官；本质，本性) structure of words and
the rules by which words are formed.
∙形态学是语法的一个分支，研究词的内部结构和构词规则。
two sub-branches
∙Morphology is divided into two sub-branches: inflectional([inˈflekʃənəl] adj. 抑扬的，屈曲的，屈折的) morphology and lexical([ˈleksɪkəl] adj. 词汇的；具词典性质的，词典的) or derivational ([,deri'veiʃənl] adj. 诱导的，得来的)morphology. The former studies the inflections and the latter is the study of word formation.
∙形态学可分为两个分支科学：屈折形态学和词汇或派生形态学。
前者研究词的屈折变化，后者研究词的构成。
1. Morpheme([ˈmɔ:fi:m] n. 形态素，词素) 语素
∙The smallest meaningful unit of language语言最小的意义单位。
∙The meaning morphemes convey may be of two kinds: lexical meaning and grammatical([grəˈmætɪkəl] adj. 语法上的，符合语法规则的) meaning.
∙语素表达的意义有两种：词汇意义和语法意义。
2.Types of morphemes 语素的分类
∙Free
∙Bound
a) Free morphemes
∙自由语素
∙Free morphemes are the morphemes which are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves or in combination([ˈkɔmbiˈneiʃən]) with other morphemes.
∙自由语素是独立的意义单位，能够独自自由使用，当然也可以和其它语素结合使用。
b) Bound morphemes
∙黏着语素
∙Bound morphemes are the morphemes which cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.
∙黏着语素是那些不能单独使用，而必须和其它语素－自由语素或黏着语素－结合在一起以形成一个单词的语素。
3. Types of bound morphemes
∙黏着语素的分类
∙Bound morphemes include two types: roots and affixes([əˈfɪksiz]) 词根和词缀。
Root
∙A root is often seen as part of word; it can never stand by itself although it bears clear, definite meaning; it must be combined with another root or an affix to form a word.
∙词根被看作是词的一部分，它有清楚、明确的意思，但不能单独存在，它必须和另一个词根或词缀组合构成单词。
Affixes
∙Affixes are of two types:
∙1. inflectional
∙2.derivational
∙屈折词缀和派生词缀
Inflectional(Inflectional[inˈflekʃənəl] adj. 抑扬的，屈曲的，屈折的)affixes
∙Inflectional affixes or inflectional morphemes manifest([ˈmænifest] vt. 显示，表明；证明；使显现adj. 明白的，明显的) various([ˈvɛəriəs] adj. 各种各样的；多方面的；许多的；各个的，个别的) grammatical relations or grammatical categories(category [ˈkætiɡəri] n. 类型，部门，种类，类别，类目；[逻，哲]范畴；体重等级) such as number, tense, degree, and case.
∙屈折词缀或屈折语素表明各种不同的语法关系或语法范畴，如：数、时态、形容词和副词的级和格。
The English inflectional affixes
∙-(e)s, indicating plurality of nouns 表示名词复数
∙-(e)s, indicating third person singular, present tense 表示现在时的第三人称单数
∙-(e)d, indicating past tense for all three persons 表示过去时
∙-ing, indicating progressive aspect 表示进行时
∙-er, indicating comparative degree of adj. and adverbs表示形容词和副词比较级
∙-est, indicating superlative degree of adj. and adverbs 表示形容词和副词最高级
∙-‘s, indicating the possessive case of nouns 表示名词的所有格
Derivational affixes
∙Derivational affixes are added to an existing form to create a word. This is a very common way to create new words in English. Such a way of word-formation is called derivation and the new
word formed by derivation is called a derivative. The existing form to which a derivational affix can be added is called a stem. A stem can be a bound root, a free morpheme, or a derived form itself.
∙派生词缀加在一个原有的单词上以构成一个新词。
这是英语中的一个很常见的构成新词的方式，这样的方式叫派生法，用派生法构成的新词叫派生词。
能够加上一个派生词缀的原有语素叫做词干。
词干可以是一个黏着词根、自由语素或者本身就是一个派生词。
Example
∙Tolerate 词根toler- ＋词缀-ate
∙Quickly 自由语素quick ＋词缀-ly
∙Carelessness 自由语素care ＋词缀-less 形成的派生词careless ＋词缀-ness
Prefixes and Suffixes
∙Affixes are divided into two kinds:
∙-prefixes(prefix[ˈpri:fiks] n. <语>前缀；人名前的称谓；前置代号（置于前面的单词或字母、数字）[pri:ˈfiks] vt. 在…前加前缀；在…前加上)
∙-suffixes (suffix[ˈsʌfɪks] n. 后缀，词尾vt. 加后缀，加词尾)
∙前缀和后缀
Prefixes
∙Prefixes modify ([ˈmɔdifai] vi. 被修饰；修改vt. 改变；减轻，减缓；[语]修饰，（用变音符号）改变)the meaning of the stem, but usually do not change the part of speech of the original word. Exception are the prefixes “be-” and “en (m)-”.
∙前缀改变词干的意思，但通常不改变原词的词性。
“be-” 和“en (m)-”是例外。
Suffixes
∙Suffixes are added to the end of the stem, they modify=y the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech.
∙后缀加在词干的末尾，改变原词的意思，并且在多数情况下，改变原词的词性。
4. Morphological rules 形态学规则
∙Morphological rules are the rules that govern which affix can be added to what types of stem to form a new word.
∙形态学规则主要指英语中通过派生方式构成新词的构词规则，即将词缀加到词干上去构成新词的规则。
学习者必须掌握这些规则，但又要注意不能过分概括这些规则，以免生造出不存在的单词。
5. Types of compound words
∙复合词的类型
∙Noun + noun 名词＋名词如：handbook, sunshine
∙Adjective +noun 形容词＋名词如：highway, sweetheart
∙Adjective +noun +ed 形容词＋名词＋ed 如：white-haired, green=eyed
∙Verb +noun 动词＋名词如：pickpocket, driveway
∙Adverb +noun 副词＋名词如：downtown, upgrade
∙Noun +verb 名词＋动词如：toothpick, snowfall
∙Verb +adverb 动词＋副词如：follow-up, kick-off
∙Noun +adjective 名词＋形容词如：world-famous, life-long
∙-ing form +noun -ing形式＋名词如：dining-room, reading-glasses
∙Other forms 其它形式如：go-between, father-in-law, upbringing, have-nots, thank-you note 6. Features of compounds
∙1) Orthographically(orthographic [ˈɔ:θəˈɡræfik] adj. 正字法的，拼字正确的；正射), a compound can be written as one word with or without a hyphen in between, or as two separate words.
∙在拼写上，复合词既可以写成一个词，中间加连字符或不加连字符，也可以分开写。
如armchair, follow-up, thunder bird
∙2) Syntactically, the part of speech of the compound is generally determined by the part of speech of the second element.
∙在语法上，复合词的词性一般取决于复合词中第二个成分的词性。
如icy-cold是形容词，head-strong也是形容词，greenhouse是名词。
而例外的情况有：follow-up, crackdown, kickoff都是名词而不是副词，而toothpick, snowfall, facelift都是名词而不是动词。
∙3) Semantically, the meaning of a compound is often idiomatic([ˈɪdi:əˈmætɪk] adj. 符合语言习惯的，成语的；含有习语的adv. 符合语言习惯地n. 符合语言习惯), not always being the sum total of the meaning of its components.
∙在语意上，复合词的意义具有习语特性，许多复合词的意义都不是其构成成分的意义的总和。
如hotdog, greenhouse等。
∙4) Phonetically, the stress of a compound always falls on the first element, while the second element receives secondary stress.
∙在语音上，复合词的重音总是在第一个构成成分上，而次重音在第二个构成成分上。
∙这一点可以帮助我们用来区分两种-ing的形式，一种是作为名词前修饰语的-ing形式，另一种是作为复合词的前一部分。
如running dog 重音在running上，表示“走狗”这一-ing形式＋名词的复合词。
如重音在dog上，则表示running用来修饰dog，意为“还在跑的狗”。
Chapter 4 Syntax ([ˈsɪnˈtæks])句法学
1.What is Syntax?
∙Syntax studies the sentence structure of language. The term syntax came originally from Greek. It literally meant arrangement. It means that sentences are structured according to a particular arrangement of words. Well-arranged sentences are considered grammatical sentences. Grammatical sentences are formed following a set of syntactic rules.
∙句法学研究语言的句子结构。
该术语来自希腊语，字意是排列。
句子是根据一种特定的排列词的方式构成的。
排列正确的句子被认为是合乎语法的句子。
合乎语法的句子是根据一套句法规则构成的。
句法是一个规则系统。
2. Syntax as a system of rules
∙句法是规则系统
∙Syntax consists of a set of abstract rules that allow words to be combined with other words to form grammatical sentences. A sentence is considered grammatical when it is in agreement with the grammatical knowledge in the mind of native speakers. Universally found in the grammars f all human languages, syntactic rules comprise([kəmˈpraiz] vt. 包含，包括；由……组成；由……构成) the system of internalized([inˈtə:nəˈlaizd] v. 使内在化（internalize的过去式和过去分词）) linguistic knowledge of a language speaker known as linguistic competence.
∙句法是一个由一套数量有限的抽象规则组成的系统，句子由单词组合而成。
句子的语法性是指句子的合成必须符合操本族语者头脑中的语法知识。
任何一种语言的句法规则都包含了说话者的头脑中的语言知识系统（称为语言能力）。
Finite and no limit(finite [ˈfainait] adj. 有限的；[语]限定的；[数]有穷的，有限的n. 有限性；有限的事物)
∙The syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, and yet there is no limit to the number of sentences native speakers of that language are able to produce and comprehend([ˈkɔmpri ˈhend] vt. 理解，领会；包含).
∙任何语言的句法规则的数量是有限的，但说话者可以理解和表达的句子的数量是无限的。
3. The basic components of a sentence
∙句子的构成
∙A sentence is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement, question or command. Normally, a sentence consists of at least a subject （主语）and its predicate（谓语）which contains a finite verb or a verb phrase.
∙句子是一个结构独立和完整的语法单位，这一单位通常由一些单词组成一个完整的陈述句、问句或命令。
一个句子至少包含一个主语和一个谓语，而谓语又包含一个限定动词或一个动词词组。
subject
∙The referring expression（被指称的对象）, such as a person, a place, a thing, an idea, or an event, is grammatically called subject. A subject is usually a noun or a noun phrase.
∙主语是指句子中被指称的对象，如人、物、事、概念等。
主语通常由名词或名词词组构成。
predicate
∙The part of sentence which comprises a finite verb or a verb phrase and which says something about the subject is grammatically called predicate. A finite verb, informally called the main verb of a sentence, expresses existence, action or occurrence which is limited by person, number, tense and mood.
∙谓语是指对句子中主语进行表述或判断的部分。
谓语通常由限定动词或动词词组构成。
限定动词常被称为句子的中心动词，表述存在、动作或出现，限定动词送人称、数、时态和情态的限制。
4．Types of sentence
∙句子的类型
a) The simple sentence
∙简单句
∙A simple sentence consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence.
∙简单句由一个子句构成，该子句包含一个主语和一个谓语，且独立构成句子。
b) The coordinate([kəuˈɔ:dineit] adj. 同等的；[语法学]并列的；同等级的；带有同等性质的) sentence
∙并列句
∙A coordinate sentence contains two clause joined by a linking word called coordinating。
