427S. Billett et al. (eds.), International Handbook of Research in Professionaland Practice-based Learning , Springer International Handbooks of Education,DOI 10.1007/978-94-017-8902-8_16, © Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2014A bstract T he dual system of vocational education and training (VET) in Germany is a specifi c training system that aims at systematically combining the advantages of training in a company and education in a vocational school. Germany’s dual system is expected to strongly support a successful transition of young people from school to work and to guarantee a skilled workforce as a prerequisite for a successful economy. In addition it plays a role in educating young people. The central goal of VET in the dual system is to help students attain and develop competence in action so that they can meet current and future professional challenges and participate in defi ning their voca-tional lives. Because of on-going changes in society, economy and at the workplaces, the dual system has been under pressure of adaptation in order to further maintain its effectiveness and effi cacy. Consequently, especially since the 1980s, many adjustment processes have taken place on different levels of the system, namely the institutions involved, the syllabi for the different venues, and the teaching-learning processes. The article will explain the dual system as well as highlight and comment on the different endeavours for its modernisation. It focuses on parity of esteem between general and vocational education and between different forms of vocational education. Furthermore it takes into account cost and benefi t of in-company training, modularisation of training occupations, and the relationship between learning and working. As a result, it will give some advice on what can be learnt about education for professions.K eywords V ocational education and training • D ual system • E ducation for professionsC hapter 16The Dual System of Vocational Education and Training in Germany– What Can Be Learnt About Education for (Other) ProfessionsB ärbel F ürstenau ,M atthias P ilz ,and P hilipp G onon B . F ürstenau (*)F aculty of Business and Economics ,T U Dresden ,D resden ,G ermanye -mail: baerbel.fuerstenau@tu-dresden.deM . P ilzF aculty of Economics ,U niversity of Cologne ,K öln ,G ermanyP . G ononI nstitute of Educational Sciences ,U niversity of Zurich ,Z ürich ,S witzerland428B. Fürstenau et al.16.1 O utlineD ual systems of vocational education and training (VET) are specifi c training systems that aim at systematically combining the advantages of training in a company and education in a vocational school. Dual systems in this form do exist to a con-siderable extent in Germany, Austria, Luxemburg, Switzerland, Denmark, and parts of the Netherlands. German-speaking regions of France and Italy also (often) fi t into this framework. This article focuses on the dual system of VET in Germany (hereafter only referred to as “dual system”).G ermany’s dual system is expected to strongly support a successful transition of young people from school to work and to guarantee a skilled workforce as a prerequisite for a successful economy. In addition it plays a role in educating young people. Consequently, the central goal of VET in the dual system is to help students attain and develop competence in action so that they can meet current and future professional challenges and participate in defi ning their vocational lives.I n order to meet this challenge and in order to further maintain its effectiveness and effi cacy, especially since the 1980s, many adjustment measures have been imple-mented. Reasons for the adjustment measures can be seen – besides others – in the demographic development, shift from industrial to service economy, or changes of workplaces and demands for the workforce. The demographic development has led to a drop in the demand for training places and thus to problems of recruiting a skilled workforce. The shift from industrial to service economy has required an increase in apprenticeships in the service sector and more service orientation of apprenticeships in other sectors of the economy. Workplaces have become more complex and require more intellectual skills such as systems thinking, and they require continuous learning. The measures taken refer to different levels of the dual system, namely the institutions involved (companies in the private sector, vocational schools, employers and employees, the F ederal Government, the German states etc.), the syllabi for the learning venues (schools and workplaces), and the working and/or learning processes at the different venues. The levels cannot be strictly separated. Accordingly, if a decision is taken on one level, the other levels are usually affected too.T his article will explain the dual system as well as highlight and comment on the different endeavours for its modernisation. As a result, we will point out what can be learnt about education for professions. The concept of profession here is understood in a broad sense, including professional practice and approaches to learning in and for professions as well as all kinds of initial and further professional education, whether it takes place in school settings or at the workplace or at both venues. Thus, we pick out aspects from education in the dual system which might be regarded in professional education in general. We explicitly do not aim at discussing a transfer of the dual s ystem to other s ystems of professional education in detail but only comment briefl y on it. Through our approach, we aim at contributing to solutions for the problem of effectively developing professional (occupational) capacities that are important for fulfi lling both personal and societal needs.429 16 The Dual System of Vocational Education and Training in Germany…T he article starts with a description of the historical development of the dual system and its current structure in Germany. After that, an overview of current challenges and reform approaches will be taken into account. Consequently, we select relevant topics to be looked at in more detail. The selected topics address the different levels of the dual system and are – in our opinion – relevant both from a national and an international perspective. On the level of institutions, we discuss the parity of esteem between general and vocational education on the one hand and between apprenticeship in the dual system and full-time school-based vocational education on the other hand. Furthermore, on that level, costs and benefi ts of vocational education will be discussed. On the level of syllabi we examine/consider initiatives that have been taken to more closely relate teaching/educational goals and contents to practice and workplace reality as well as to regional or branch-specifi c needs. For that purpose, new apprenticeships have been developed and existing ones have been re-structured according to modules. On the level of teaching-learning processes we focus on measures aiming at preparing apprentices to effectively cope with modern work structures and organisations that have been implemented. For that purpose, the relationship between learning and working is reconsidered and combinations of learning and working, both at the workplace and in school, will be addressed. Though it would be possible and worthwhile to argue solely from a national perspec-tive, we also will discuss the topics from an international perspective, which allows us to consider the German approaches from other angles and integrate it in a broader context. As a summary, we will conclude what can be learned about education for other professions by taking into account the different levels and by regarding an international perspective.16.2 H istorical Development of the Dual Systemof Vocational Education and TrainingT he roots of the dual system can be traced back to the medieval ages, or even beyond, to the ancient Roman and Greek world (e.g. Münk 2010, p. 401). Based on early forms of apprenticeship, the dual system unfolds in three major phases:E arly forms of apprenticeship had been embedded in the craft system for both craftsmen and merchants. The apprentice worked together with his (or her) master craftsmen in his/her shop or travelled together with the master merchant to trade merchandise. Apprenticeship usually followed the so-called Imitatio Majorum prin-ciple, which refers to the sequence of observation, imitation, autonomous accom-plishment, and customisation (Kell 1995, p. 371). It aimed at providing the apprentice with abilities and skills matching the conventions and the accepted behaviour in the profession and the respective craft system (Bruchhäuser and Horlebein 2010, p. 408). Due to technological and cultural developments in industry and society, general knowledge, e.g. qualifi cations of reading, writing and accounting, became more and more important, and thus schooling became necessary in order to prepare apprentices for job requirements (Pahl 2012, pp. 25ff; Reinisch and Götzl 2013, p. 20).430B. Fürstenau et al.T he founding phase of the dual system in Germany can be dated back to the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries (Greinert 1995). The craft system decom-posed because of the advent of a more liberal trade law, as fixed in the Trade Regulations of the Northern German Confederation. However, the empire politics aimed at protecting craft by law in order to prevent middle-class, respectively small fi rms and traders from becoming proletariat (Greinert 1995, p. 21). Amendments for protecting retail trade, dated 1897, enabled the recovery of corporate structures and the apprenticeship model comparable to that of the former craft system.F urthermore, education of apprentices required a master’s certifi cate. Besides traditional apprenticeships, schools for further education with a specifi c focus on vocational subjects (in German: Fortbildungsschule) were established. In 1900 the German Pedagogue Georg Kerschensteiner had recommended gearing the Fortbildungsschule towards vocational education and, in so doing, to legitimise it by claiming that vocational education and professional work contributes to general human education. Through vocational education, non-academic youth should also be integrated into the national state (Gonon 2009). Between the end of the nineteenth century and the beginning of the twentieth century, the number of such vocationally oriented schools increased. To sum up, the formation of the Fortbil-dungsschule is result of the promotion of small- and medium-sized craft enterprises on the one hand and youth education in times of crisis at the turn of the twentieth century on the other (Harney 2006, p. 233).T he c onsolidation phase between 1920 and 1970 was infl uenced by the attempt of German industry to establish an own apprenticeship model under exclusive control of companies. This was motivated by qualifi cation needs of industry (engine building and electrical industry) that grew comparatively fast and used modern production methods. Consequently, workforce in industry had to learn to cope with new technology. For that, instruction at specifi c learning venues (e.g. apprenticeship workshops or factory schools), standardised courses, curricula, and test requirements were necessary (Herkner 2013, p. 16; Pahl 2012). However, industry could not implement its own apprenticeship model but instead implemented a new qualifi ca-tion type for skilled workers/technicians that compares with the level of assistant in craft (Benner 1997, p. 56). Since the 1930s, the Fortbildungsschule has been renamed V ocational School (in German: Berufsschule). In 1938, (empire-wide) 3 years of compulsory VET was enacted and, in the beginning of the 1940s, the weekly hours of schooling were fi xed while curricula and both school authorities and fi nancing were harmonised. In the 1950s, the craft was successful in enforcing comprehensive regulations for VET established by the Handicrafts Regulations Act (in German: Handwerksordnung). However, a VET law was not enacted until 1969, the so-called Berufsbildungsgesetz (Wahle 2007, p. 195).T he f urther development phase since the 1970s is characterised by rationalisation of the dual system and by enhanced state infl uence. The Berufsbildungsgesetz regulates the responsibilities of Federal Government, the German States, the repre-sentatives of employers, the trade unions and, to some extent, the teachers for voca-tional education. Furthermore, a reporting system aimed at making the developments on the apprenticeship market transparent was established in form of the vocational431 16 The Dual System of Vocational Education and Training in Germany…education report, which is published yearly. In addition, since 1972 inter- c ompany vocational training centers were established to compensate apprenticeship shortcomings, especially for small fi rms. Almost every apprenticeship now also had a structure that separates 1 year of basic vocational qualifi cation from 2 years of specifi c vocational education (Greinert 1995, p. 32).16.3 T he Dual System of V ocational Educationand Training – Basic FeaturesW orldwide, different systems of VET exist. In order to differentiate between these systems, the role of the state can be taken into account. In market economy systems (e.g. USA, Japan, Great Britain) the state is not involved in vocational education. In school systems (e.g. France) the state plans, organises, and controls vocational education. In state-controlled market economy systems (e.g. the dual systems in Germany, Austria, and Switzerland), the state defines regulations for vocational education, but the private sector is responsible for the supply of training places. All other systems can be interpreted as variation of these three basic types.S tudents can enter the dual system after fi nishing 10 years of compulsory schooling on the secondary level I at a grammar school, a comprehensive school, an intermediate school, or a secondary general school. Entering the dual system means entering the secondary II level. As an alternative to the dual system, students can choose to complement senior classes in grammar school, to attend a specialised grammar school, to attend a full-time vocational school, or to remain in the transi-tion system to receive preparation for an apprenticeship in the dual system. After fi nishing one of these alternative tracks, it is also possible to apply for an appren-ticeship training place. Currently, about two-thirds of students leaving school start their professional career by beginning an apprenticeship in the dual system (BMBF 2013, p. 9). Overall, the dual system can be regarded as bridge from school to work-life.A pprenticeship in the dual system is only possible for state-recognised training occupations (Greinert 1995, p. 35), of which currently approximately 350 exist, ranging from baker, boat-builder, hairdresser, optician, and precision mechanic to sales associate or clerk. Successful completion of an apprenticeship programme entitles the trainee to practise an occupation as a qualifi ed skilled worker in either the training occupation ( H ippach-Schneider et al. 2007, p. 25) or an occupation which requires the knowledge and skills of the training occupation. Training occu-pations and occupations/professions in the labour market in general do not neces-sarily correspond. In contrast, compared to the number of training occupations, multiple occupations/professions exist. Occupations can be grouped according to areas, main groups, groups, sub-groups, and genres. Currently, 10 areas, 37 main groups, 144 groups, 700 sub-groups, and 1,286 genres exist. Areas are, for example, agriculture, forestry, and gardening or raw materials production, production and manufacturing, or commercial service, trade, sales, hotel and tourism. Main groups432B. Fürstenau et al.in the latter area are purchasing, sales, and trade occupations or sales, tourism, hotel- and restaurant occupations. Groups in the purchasing, sales, and trade occu-pations are purchasing and sales or trade. Sub-groups within purchasing and sales are occupations in purchasing or clerks in trade. Genres within purchasing and sales are occupations are, for example, specialised trade clerks and unspecialised trade clerks (Bundesagentur für Arbeit 2012). Consequently, an apprentice who completed a training occupation as a clerk can apply for numerous occupations and work as a clerk or as specialised or unspecialised trade clerk, or even as a secretary.T he dual system is not the only possibility for complementing an apprenticeship. Full-time vocational education in schools is offered as well, but it is not as established and appreciated as vocational education in the dual system. Furthermore, the dual system has to be strongly distinguished from the general education system. It has its own vocational education legislation as fi xed in the Berufsbildungsgesetz (Greinert 1995, p. 10).T he name dual system refers to the fact that two learning venues in two institutions, namely vocational schools and workplaces in companies, cooperate in order to qualify apprentices for a profession (Greinert 1995, pp. 10–16). Depending on the state-recognised training occupation, the course of the apprenticeship takes 2–3.5 years. The apprentices spend approximately three fourths of this time in the companies, one fourth in vocational schools. The different learning venues are embedded in different systems formed by a different history, i. e. the vocational training system on the one hand and the school system on the other. Both systems aim at cooperating in qualifying the apprentices (Harney 2006, p. 232). From a legal point of view, the young people are both student and employee. The most important features of the dual system can be described as follows.16.3.1 C ompa nies/Workpla cesT raining places are offered by companies in the private sector (industry, craft, and agriculture), institutions of the public sector, offi ces or institutes of the liberal professions and, to a limited amount, by private households (Greinert 1995, p. 35; Hippach-Schneider and Hensen 2012, p. 16). A provider of training places, e.g. a company, has to be approved by the respective chamber or guild. In the dual system, “the state delegates regulatory competence for training system to corporatist bodies. […] They have the status of ‘competent bodies’ ( z uständige Stellen)and play a crucial role in the organisation, administration and examination of vocational training” (Ertl and Sloane 2004, p. 3). Chambers and guilds as corporatist bodies regulate apprenticeships by supervising final exams, by registering training contracts, by establishing inter-company vocational training centers, by allocating training warranties to companies, by reforming apprenticeships, and by controlling the training quality (Harney 2006, p. 232; Rebmann et al. 2011, p. 13). The in-company training follows mandatory training regulations legal for the respective state- r ecognised training occupation and valid for all companies independent of433 16 The Dual System of Vocational Education and Training in Germany…branch or size. The development and remittal of the training regulations is the responsibility of the federal government and should guarantee comparable standards for in- c ompany training nationwide. However, representatives of trade unions as well as of employers’ and employees’ head organisations are involved in the development of training regulations. Every training regulation comprises denomi-nation, length (duration) of the apprenticeship, occupational profi le, framework plan, and examination requirements (Rebmann et al. 2011, p. 13).T rainers only complete a basic course on pedagogical eligibility (AEVO 2009), or sometimes even none. Usually trainers work as full-time employees and not as full-time trainers. Thus, they often suffer from heavy work pressure and, conse-quently, time limits for taking care of trainees. Big companies usually are more likely to offer systematic training compared to small and medium size companies.T he companies fi nance the apprenticeships by paying training remunerations to the trainee on a monthly basis (Greinert 1995, p. 16). The individual company decides autonomously whether and what training is provided and how many apprentices they take (Hippach-Schneider et al. 2007, p. 59).I t should be mentioned that sometimes companies are not able to offer full apprenticeships. They either do not have enough trainers or suffi cient technical resources. In that case, parts of the apprenticeship can be relocated from the individual company to an inter-company vocational training center. Alternatively several com-panies can form an apprenticeship network, thereby jointly taking care of an apprentice (Hippach-Schneider and Hensen 2012, p. 17).16.3.2 V oca tiona l Schools/Cla ssesV ocational schools have the task of complementing in-company training by imparting both general knowledge and job-specifi c knowledge to the students. The students (=apprentices) attend the vocational school 8–16 h a week. Education in schools complies with a framework curriculum that is developed for every state- r ecognised training occupation (Hippach-Schneider and Hensen 2012, p. 16) by the Standing Conference of the Ministers of Education and Cultural Affairs of the Länder in the Federal Republic of Germany (in German: Kultusministerkonferenz), or rather its subcommittee, and is valid nationwide. As is true for the in-company training regu-lations, the framework curriculum aims at guaranteeing a uniform national standard for education in vocational schools. Because education in schools is the responsibil-ity of the individual states (and not of the federal government), each of the German states can modify the framework curriculum according to specifi c needs but must adhere to central aims and contents. F urthermore, each state issues school laws which regulate kinds of schools (e.g. vocational schools, commercial high schools), educational plans, and lesson plans. In addition, each state issues regulations concerning tests, giving marks, promotion to the next class, and exams (Rebmann et al. 2011, pp. 9–10).434B. Fürstenau et al.T eachers for vocational schools take 5 years of university education and graduate with a master’s degree or a state examination. After that they have to complete a 1–2 year (depending on the regulation of the respective German State) internship in a vocational school. Only after completing these requirements are they fully certifi ed to teach.T he respective German state, or specifi cally the local authorities’ public funds, covers the costs for in-school education (Greinert 1995, p. 16). The German states “bear the costs of internal school affairs (e.g. supervision of schools, laying down of curricula, teacher training, teachers’ pay), and the local authorities are responsible for fi nancing external school affairs (e.g. construction, maintenance and renovation of school buildings, ongoing management, procurement of teaching and learning resources)” (Hippach-Schneider et al. 2007, p. 59).16.3.3 C oordina tion of Schools a nd Compa niesT he coordination of in-company training and school-based learning is strictly regulated by a procedure to develop and harmonise training regulations and school curricula in order to jointly accomplish a central aim. As defi ned in every framework curriculum, the central aim of education in vocational schools is to support students in developing competence in action, which means possessing the willingness and ability to act deliberately and be socially and individually responsible in the workplace as well as societal and private situations. Competence in action develops in three dimensions, namely in professional competence, individual competence, and social competence (KMK 2011, p. 15; Dilger and Sloane 2012, p. 32). The same aim is true for in-company training. The coordination on the local level between individual schools and companies is not regulated and often either happens by chance or is instigated for specifi c reasons, e.g. misbehavior of the apprentice in matters such as daily attendance.16.4 C urrent Challenges and Reform Approaches of theDual System of Vocational Education and TrainingT he most important asset of the dual system is seen in the fact that it comes with a low rate of youth unemployment compared to other European countries. In Germany, the rate was about 9 % in 2011 (Esser 2011, p. 3; Hippach-Schneider and Hensen 2012, p. 10) and has remained low even during the latest economic crisis. Countries that implemented school-based vocational training or have no VET system are typically confronted with high rates of youth unemployment (Busemeyer 2012, pp. 6, 9). The dual system effectively enables the transition from apprenticeship to employment because vocational and occupational systems are closely linked (Bosch 2010, p. 37).435 16 The Dual System of Vocational Education and Training in Germany…By offering apprenticeships, companies can easily support young workers in their commitment to professional development and thus recruit from a skilled workforce (Busemeyer 2012, p. 16).I n order to guarantee a skilled workforce, the dual system is under constant pressure to change or adapt in response to economic, societal, and educational developments. Those developments comprise, for example demographic change, the shift to the service sector, the development of a European work and education market, or new forms of work organisation (BMBF 2012). They lead to challenges in multiple areas: the availability and suitability of training places, the integration of low-skilled youth in VET, the establishing of a European framework for education and training, the training of a highly-qualifi ed future workforce.16.4.1 A vailability and Suitability of Training PlacesT aking the big picture of the apprenticeship market into account, the demand for apprenticeship training places exceeded the supply until 2007. In 2008 the global fi nancial crisis negatively infl uenced economic growth and led to a drop in training places. Since 2011, the amount of training places has again increased (Bosch 2010, p. 37; Deutscher Bundestag 2010, p. 1; Hippach-Schneider and Hensen 2012, pp. 9, 18). Due to demographic change, companies lack skilled personnel. The age group of young people between 17 and 25 is expected to diminish about one-fi fth (BMBF 2012, p. 5). Consequently, companies face the increasing problem of recruiting suitable apprentices (BMBF2012, pp. 4, 7, 24; Autorengruppe Bildungsberi-chterstattung 2012, pp. 101, 107). The percentage of vacant apprenticeship training positions increased about 30 % (Esser 2011, p. 3). More than one-third of compa-nies could not fill one or more apprenticeship training positions. Dependent on branch, size of the company, and the region, the imbalance of supply and demand on the apprenticeship market varies. Concerning the branch, problems mainly occur in the largest sector of the economy, the service sector (BMBF 2012, p. 5; Hippach-Schneider and Hensen 2012, p. 29), e.g. the hotel and catering industry, or the health care and welfare sector. In addition, a qualifi ed workforce is missing in science and technical fi elds. In contrast, banks and insurance companies are less likely to run into problems. Concerning the size, small enterprises have more problems fi lling positions than large fi rms. And concerning the region, big cities in the western part of Germany with a balanced labour market and high dynamics are more likely to have a balanced apprenticeship market than big cities, also in the western part of Germany, which already have a high rate of unemployment and regions in the eastern part of the country (Krone 2010, p. 27f.; BMBF 2012, p. 33). Resulting from demographic changes, companies cannot afford to be as selective as before when hiring apprentices. Thus, the group of apprentices for one state-recognised training occupation in one company, and also across companies, sometimes may be very heterogeneous. That, in turn, may cause problems for both the trainers and the apprentices.。
