英汉文化对比

1.Synthetic: characterized by frequent and systematic use of inflected forms to expressgrammatical relationships.2.Analytic: characterized by a relatively frequent use of function word, auxiliary verbs, andchanges in word order to express syntactic relations, rather than of inflected forms.3.表达语法关系三大手段：morphologic change(形态变化)，word order, function word(虚词)4.英汉表达方法的差异：英语有形态变化，汉语无。

(英语conjugation, declension, affixation, 有严格规则，汉语悟性思维)英语语序灵活，汉语相对固定。

（英语语序倒置现象：结构性，功能性，汉语功能性居多；汉语定语在名词前，英语定语灵活；英语充分利用三大语法手段，straight line, deductive, genera-to-specific,汉语circular line, inductive）英汉都有大量虚词，各有特点（英语常使用定/不定冠词；汉语常使用助词；英常用介词，汉少用；英用并列从属的连接词）英语是语调语言（intonation）,汉声调语言（tone）（intonation, stress,汉音节匀称，成双成对）5.Hypotactic(形合)：the dependent or subordinate construction or relationship of clauses withconnectives.英语常用6.Paratactic（意合）: the arranging of clauses one after the other without connectives showingthe relation between them.汉语常用7.Parataxis refers to the situation where the connection between words or clauses is realizedby meaning or the logical relation; while hypotaxis refers to the situation where the connection is realized by means of linguistic form.8.英语的形合法：relatives and conjunctions; prepositions; other means of connection;inflection(internal form, additive form, external form)作者责任型语言writer-responsible 9.汉语意合法：word order; repetition, parallelism, contrast; contracted sentences;four-character pattern; 读者责任型reader-responsible10.关于形合，意合和文体：英语形合句多，汉语意合句多，数量与文体密切相关；书面语形合句比口语多；现代汉语形合句比古汉语多；现代庄重文体科技文体论述文体形合句多。

11.英语impersonal, 汉语personal: 英语非人称主语inanimate subject/it：preparatory,unspecified, emphatic,汉语人称主语；英语常用被动式，非人称表达法impersonal passive,汉语主动式，人称泛称隐称表达法。

英客体意识，汉主体意识12.Euphemism(委婉语): a mild or vague or periphrastic expression as a substitute for bluntprecision or disagreeable truth. Vagueness is the soul of euphemism. (official/ occupational/educational/other fields: poverty, death, age, looks, physical defeats )13.Implicitness(含蓄)：汉语倾向于直截了当(敬辞，谦辞，婉言，委婉语)，英语常低调陈述（understatement: make big things seem trifle）,间接肯定（litotes: using a negative to emphasize the contrary）委婉否定（indirect negation）,婉转暗示（tactful implication: leave gaps in the development of a thought）14.Periphrasis（迂回）：the use of long or many words, phrases, or unclear expressions whenshort simple ones are all that is needed.15.替换substitution(an agreeable or inoffensive expression for one that may offend orsuggest something unpleasant. nominal/verbal/clausal) 省略ellipsis 变换variation常用于英语，重复repetition,重叠reduplication对偶antithesis排比parallelism常用于汉语。

nguage: a tool for human communication,system of arbitraryvocal symbols used forcommunication,a means to express and exchange thoughts, concepts, knowledge, and information as well as to fix and transmit experience and knowledge, the vehicle for cultural information, which refers to the experience and knowledge,used to understand and describe the world, naming things, classifying things, describing the relation between things.17.Culture: what a society does and thinks,the ideas and the standards they have in commonwhich binds men together,a collection of beliefs, habits, living patterns, and behaviors which are held more or less in common by people who occupy particular geographical areas, the total way of life of particular group of people.18.五大需求：1) The physiological needs. 2) The safety needs. 3) The belongingness needs. 4)The esteem needs. 5) The self-actualization needs19.Categoriesof culture：Substantial/System /Behavior /Psychoculture20.Nida E. A(尤金·奈达):1) Ecological culture2) Material culture3) Social culture4) Religiousculture5) linguistic culture21.External:Behaviors--language, gestures, customs;Products--literature, folklore, arts, music,artifactsInternal:ideas– beliefs, values, morals22.Features of culture:Only human beings have culture(Culture is social heritage, notphysiological heredity.); Culture is learned, not born with;Most part of culture is covert;Culture is the guide to people’s behaviors;Culture is subject to change.23.Innovation:the discovery of new practices, tools, or concepts that many members of theculture eventually accept and that may produce slight changes in social habits and behaviors.24.Diffusion: the borrowing by one culture from another. It is part of cultural contact.扩散25.Acculturation: It occurs when a society undergoes drastic culture change under the influenceof a more dominant culture and society with which it has come in contact.文化适应26.Culture is ethnocentric: non-natural，non-individual，non-innate，regional and trans-regional，epochal and trans-epochalyers of culture: beliefs, values, behaviors, products or symbols28.The relationship between language and culture:Language is a part of culture,influencedand conditioned by culture,influences culture.nguage and thinking:Language helps thinking, influenced and restrained by thinking,influences and restrains thinking.30.Perception is the means by which we make sense of the physical and social world,theprocess of selecting, organizing, and interpreting sensory data in a way that enables us to make sense of our world.31.Hofstede’s Value dimensions:Individualism—Collectivism,Uncertainty Avoidance,PowerDistance,Masculinity and Femininity.32.Strodtbeck’s Orientations:Human Nature Orientation, Relationship of Humankind toNature,Time Orientation,Relational Orientation33.Worldview:Western(linear division, one dividing into two,independence and opposition)Chinese(circular enclosure,two combining into one,interdependence and integration)34.Core Values: Western(Linear individuality, individualism-oriented and right-based,developingindividual potentials, realizing individual objectives,seeking individual interests) Chinese(circular integrity,collectivism-oriented and duty-based,harmonizing community relationships, actualizing communityobjectives, safeguarding community interests.)35.Individualism:Everybody taking care of himself, “I” consciousness,Independence fromorganizations, Emphasis on individual initiative, Privacy important,Belief in individual decisions36.Collectivism:People protected byfamilies or clans,“We” consciousness,Dependence onorganizations,Emphasis onaffiliation withorganizations,Sharing important,Belief in communitydecisions37.The features of Chinese characters:The gap between written and spoken forms,Writing as anart,Musical feature38.Form:All aspects of language are tied in some way or other to words, which have two aspects,their forms and their meanings.Form concerns the way an expression sounds (for spoken language) or looks (for written or signed language) or how an expression is produced.39.The relation between form and meaning:For every form of unit in a language, there is somemeaning associated with it, such as the meaning of words, phrases and sentences.40.The meaning of a word:Dictionary definition,Mental image,Referent,Contextual meaning41.The features of word meanings:The stability and changeability of word meanings,Two typesof word meanings(conceptual / literal / denotative meaning,extended / associative meaning)42.The principle of modern linguistics: non-motivation43.Types of motivation:phonological音韵学的morphological形态学的semantic语义学的44.Difference in motivation of Chinese & English words:English:core extension---affixation Chinese : plane extension;attitude towards foreign words45.Cause of motivation difference:natural environment,economic factornguage and reality:phonological level,lexical level,structural level47.Distance iconicity距离象似性:If the meaning of form A affects the meaning of form B, then,the CLOSER form A is to form B, the STRONGER will be the effect of the meaning of A on the meaning of B.48.Criterion:the smallest sound unit that can be used to differentiate the meaning of words49.Difference in stress：word stress，Sentence stress（Grammatical stress，Logical stress）50.Difference in juncture：Words as the context（Linguistic context:Situational context:Culturalcontext）Background knowledge as the context（Subjective context）51.Subject:nouns, pronouns, etc. which is most closely related toverbs in forming asentence.the concern of the message，something is being predicated，doer of the action52.Predicate: The part of a sentence which makes a statementabout the subject.53.Psychological Subject is the part that is the concern of the message. It was called‘psychological’ because it was the departure in the speaker’s mind to start the production of the clause.54.Grammatical subject meant ‘that of which something is predicated. It was called‘Grammatical’ because at that time the construction of Subject and Predicate was thought of as a purely formal grammatical relationship; it was seen to determine various other grammatical features but not thought to express any particular meaning.55.Logical Subject meant ‘doer of the action’. it had to do with relations between things while‘grammatical’ relations we re relations between symbols.56.Topic:the initial word of a clause(broad sense); that which is predicated(narrow sense)57.Markedness:concerned with the distinction between what is neutral, natural and expectedand what departs from the neutral along some parameter.58.Unmarked elements:exhibits the following characteristics: they are expressed by simplermeans, they occur more frequently in the languages of the world, they are learned earlier in first language acquisition.59.整体思维:事物总体把握归纳强调群体重悟性善形象思维诗人的气质宇宙是一个整体中医60.个体思维:条分缕析演绎强调个体重理性善逻辑思维科学家的头脑宇宙像原子西医61.林同济：汉语特点是动词优势,英语特点是关系词丰富62.郭绍虞：西方语法以动词为重点, 汉语以名词为重点。