跨文化语用学crossculturalpragmatics

Cross-Cultural Communication: Definition, Strategies & ExamplesCross-cultural communication is imperative for companies that have a diverse workforce and participate in the global economy. It is important for employees to understand the factors that are part of an effective, diverse workforce.Cross-Cultural CommunicationCross-cultural communication has become strategically important to companies due to the growth of global business, technology and the Internet.Understanding cross-cultural communication is important for any company that has a diverse workforce or plans on conducting global business. This type of communication involves an understanding of how people from different cultures speak, communicate and perceive the world around them.Cross-cultural communication in an organization deals with understanding different business customs, beliefs and communication strategies. Language differences, high-context vs.low-context cultures, nonverbal differences and power distance are major factors that can affectcross-cultural communication.Let's take a look at how cross-cultural differences can cause potential issues within an organization. Jack is amanager at a New Mexico-based retail conglomerate. He has flown to Japan to discuss a potential partnership with a local Japanese company. His business contact, Yamato, is his counterpart within the Japanese company. Jack has never been to Japan before, and he's not familiar with their cultural norms. Let's look at some of the ways that a lack of cultural understanding can create a barrier for business success by examining how Jack handles his meeting with Yamato.High- Vs. Low-Context CultureThe concept of high- and low-context culture relates to how an employee's thoughts, opinions, feelings and upbringing affect how they act within a given culture. North America and Western Europe are generally consideredto have low-context cultures. This means that businesses in these places have direct, individualistic employees who tend to base decisions on facts. This type of businessperson wants specifics noted in contracts and may have issues with trust.High-context cultures are the opposite in that trust is the most important part of business dealings. There are areas in the Middle East, Asia and Africa that can be considered high context. Organizations that havehigh-context cultures are collectivist and focus on interpersonal relationships. Individuals fromhigh-context cultures might be interested in getting to know the person they are conducting business with in order to get a gut feeling on decision making. They may also be more concernedabout business teams and group success rather than individual achievement.Jack and Yamato ran into some difficulties during their business negotiations. Jack spoke quickly and profusely because he wanted to seal the deal as soon as possible. However, Yamato wanted to get to know Jack, and he felt that Jack spoke too much. Yamato also felt that Jack was only concerned with completing the deal for his own self-interest and was not concerned with the overall good of the company. Jack's nonverbal cues did not help the negotiations either.Nonverbal DifferencesGestures and eye contact are two areas of nonverbal communication that areutilized differently across cultures. Companies must train employees in the correct way to handle nonverbal communication as to not offend other cultures. For example, American workers tend to wave their hand and use a finger to point when giving nonverbal direction. Extreme gesturing is considered rude in some cultures. While pointing may be considered appropriate in some contexts in the United States, Yamato would never use a finger to point towards another person because that gesture is considered rude in Japan. Instead, he might gesture with an open hand, with his palm facing up, toward the person.Eye contact is another form of nonverbal communication. In the ., eye contact is a good thing and is seen as a reflection of honesty and straightforwardness.However, in some Asian and Middle Eastern cultures, prolonged eye contact can be seen as rude or aggressive in many situations. Women may need to avoid it altogether because lingering eye contact can be viewed as a sign of sexual interest. During their meeting, Jack felt that Yamato was not listening to his talking points because Yamato was not looking Jack in the eyes. However, Yamato did not want Jack to think he was rude, so he avoided looking directly into Jack's eyes during his speech.Language DifferencesThe biggest issue dealing withcross-cultural communication is the difficulty created by language barriers. For example, Jack does not speak Japanese, so he is concerned with his ability to communicate effectively withYamato. There are some strategies that Jack can use to help establish a rapport with Yamato. Jack can explain himself without words by using emotions, facial expressions and other nonverbal cues. He can also use drawings and ask for an interpreter.Additionally, companies that have to deal with cross-cultural communication can hire employees with proficiency in other languages. Fortunately for Jack and Yamato, they both had excellent translators who communicated their words. The next cross-cultural issue regards how individuals deal with power distance.Power DistancePower distance relates to how power is distributed within an organization. Typically, American companies utilize a low power distance and have more informal hierarchies that allow for interaction between executives and their subordinates. Managers ask for feedback from employees and will even socialize with subordinates. Companies with high power distance are typically very hierarchical in nature and have severe differences in authority. Some Japanese companies may utilize this power structure.。

跨文化语用失误与语境郑宏伟（广东茂名学院师范学院外语系，广东茂名 525000）摘要：跨文化交际语用失误是指在跨文化交际中由于交际者使用语言不得体而导致误解和冲突的现象。

在跨文化交际中交际者要进行成功的交际除了要掌握文化交际所需要的语言结构外还必须注意语境的因素，懂得如何联系语境根据交际对象的不同恰当地使用语言，否则可能引起语用失误。

本论文从语境角度讨论了由于没有充分考虑交际对象的社会角色、语体选择不当或不能正确选择语义而造成的跨文化交际语用失误现象。

关键词：跨文化；语用失误；语境1. 引言跨文化语用失误是近年来语用学和跨文化交际学研究的热点问题。

英国语言学家詹尼·托马斯（Jenny Thomas）对跨文化语用失误的研究具有开创性。

托马斯在1983年发表的《跨文化语用失误》一文中首次提出语用失误（Pragmatic Failure）这一概念。

托马斯认为语用失误是指“不能理解话语的含义，语用失误可分为语言的语用失误和社会语用失误”（J.Thomas, 1983: 91）。

跨文化交际中的语用失误是指不同文化的交际者在交际过程中出现语用失误而导致的误解、矛盾及冲突等现象。

语言的运用总是处在一定的语言环境中，语境涉及语言交际的现实环境或具体情景，它由一系列同语言交际密切相关的主客观环境因素构成。

这些因素为决定了语言表达的特定意义。

语境给我们提供了研究如何参与交际以及在交际中如何发挥作用的基础。

当词语进入到具体的语言活动后，它所具有的语义是非常丰富而又非常复杂的，有语言本身的意义，还有环境给予语言的意义。

这些丰富而又复杂的语义，不能只从词汇意义和语法意义去理解，而要联系语境进行分析。

语境因素在不同角度不同层次对具体语言手段的选择和组合产生影响，对语言运用起到制约作用。

我们在跨文化交际过程中应充分注意语境因素对语言运用的影响，否则容易导致语用失误现象的发生。

2. 语境1923年波兰籍人类语言学家马里诺夫斯基提出情景语境的概念，认为交际环境对于语言交际来说是不能缺少的部分。

跨文化交际中的语用失误Pragmatic Failures in Cross-cultural Communication内容提要英语学习者由于对英语国家的社会文化背景了解不足或者不能够结合语境来理解和使用英语，以致于在跨文化交际中产生语用失误，也就是措辞不得体甚至不达意。

近年来，大学英语教学在强调提高学生的语音、词汇、语法等语言能力的同时，也强调要培养学生在理解和使用英语时避免语用失误，从而进行成功有效的交际的能力。

关键词：语用失误社会文化背景语境英语教学一、什么是语用学和语用失误？语用学是研究语言的理解和使用的学问（Leech, 1983）。

要做到真正理解和恰当使用一门语言，仅仅懂得构成这门语言的发音、词汇和语法是不够的，我们还必须懂得这种语言与理解和使用这种语言的人之间存在的各种各样的关系，如词语的字面意义和隐含意义、话语的前提、说话人的意图、听话人的推断等等。

跨文化交际是指不同文化背景的人们之间的交际（Gudykunst, 1984）。

跨文化交际中有一个语言的文化差异的问题。

对于中国学生来说，英语是外语，说英语时往往或多或少的带有汉文化的痕迹。

英国语言学家Malinowski（1923）说过，语言深深地扎根于文化现实和该民族人民的习俗,语言研究离不开这一宽泛的语言行为环境。

要理解语言，归根到底要懂得说话人的整个文化背景和生活方式。

因此我们在英语使用过程中，无论是正确的理解或正确的表达，都需要注意根据语境选择合适的词句。

而在语言理解和表达中非常重要的一个问题就是要防止语用失误。

语用失误不是指一般的语言运用错误,而是说话不合时宜的失误，或者说话方式不妥、表达不合习惯等导致交际不能取得预期效果的失误。

Thomas（1983）认为，在言语交际中，说话人没能根据标准的语法模式去遣词造句，他顶多被认为是“说得不好”（speaking badly）；但没有按照语用原则来处理话语，他就会被认为是“表现不好”（behaving badly）。

跨文化语用学理论述评作者：杨东焕来源：《新校园·上旬刊》2016年第07期摘要：跨文化语用学是语用学领域的重要分支，源于语用学，是研究不同文化、不同语言之间的跨语言、跨文化的交叉学科。

本文梳理了语用学基本理论、跨文化语用学的概念及相关理论，以期促进跨文化语用学理论研究逐步趋于完善，研究方法更客观、更科学。

关键词：跨文化语用学；理论；述评一、语用学基本理论1.语用学的定义从诸多的语用学著作不难看出，视角不同，语用学定义也不相同。

英国学者托马斯（Thomas，1995）认为，语言交际、意义生成等都是一个动态过程，意义不只是词义，也不只是由说话人单方面生成的，或由听话人单独解释的。

她提出了动态语用学的新概念。

从托马斯的定义可知，托马斯强调语用学研究既要考虑说话人，又要考虑听话人，顾及话语的作用、意义以及语境因素，同时又强调语用研究的动态特征。

因此，托马斯的语用学定义更客观、更全面。

我国著名学者冉永平（2006）把语用学定义为：语用学就是关于语言使用的实用学。

语用学就是研究话语在使用中的语境意义，或话语在特定语境条件下的交际意义，包括意义的产生与理解，也包括交际中语言形式或策略的恰当选择与使用。

冉永平的语用学定义全面、透彻概括了语用学的研究内容，强调了语境在交际中的重要性，暗含了语言使用的灵活性、多变性和动态性。

2.语用学研究的分支语用学与其他学科结合，形成了数个跨学科的研究分支，如语用语言学、社会语用学、认知语用学、语际语用学、跨文化语用学、计算机语用学、实验语用学等。

李捷、何自然、霍永寿（2011）对语用学研究的分支情况进行了详细的阐述。

（1）语用语言学（Pragmatic-linguistics）是语法与语用的界面研究，探讨语言结构及其语用意义之间的关系，主要对相同或相似的语言结构在语境不同的情况下所具有的不同语用功能进行研究。

（2）社会语用学（Societal Pragmatics）研究社会各组织结构与语用之间的关系，包括社交语用学（Sociopragmatics）。

跨文化语用学概述摘要：跨文化语用学是语言学研究的一个新兴学科，其形成是不同文化下的人类交际的结果，该文对跨文化语用学的兴起和发展，学科性质、研究方法和内容以及功能对等问题等进行梳理和概述。

关键词：跨文化语用学；人际交际；研究；功能对等一引言语用学(pragmatics)作为一门独立学科是从20世纪70年代开始的。

人们对其研究的范围有不同的看法，有的语言学家认为语用学研究的是“使用中的意义”，有的语用学家认为语用学研究的是“相互作用中的意义”。

大家普遍认为语用学研究的是说话者的意义，而不是词或者是句子的意思。

也就是说，语用学研究一般都是以某种文化为背景的。

20世纪80年代以来，语用学研究有了新的发展，开辟了许多新领域。

跨文化语言学(cross-cultural pragmatics )是在语言学和对比语言学研究的基础上发展起来的一门新兴学科，是将文化因素引入跨文化交际中意义研究的一种宽泛的语用学，主要研究不同文化背景的人进行交际的语用问题。

跨文化语用学着眼于不同语言的表层形态，结构方式和话语意义等的比较，深入到语言的深层文化内涵，关注动态语用的文化差异，语用主体的语用策略等，体现出较强的理论性和系统性。

概括来说，跨文化语用学重点在于分析不同文化背景的人之间直接交际过程中的语用现象及规律。

在英语文献中，跨文化通常用inter-cultural和cross-cultural两个术语来表示。

就跨文化交际而言, inter-cultural communication的研究不只对言语交际感兴趣, 它还力图对影响跨文化交际的各种因素作出解释。

它研究的重要是在非语言的文化因素上, 尽管不否认语言在体现文化差异上的重要性, 但文化问题似乎比语言问题更为重要。

而跨文化语用学( cross- cultural pragmatics) 强调不同文化背景的人之间的交际研究。

所以, 跨文化语用学中的跨文化我们用cross-cultural 而不用inter- cultural。