格林定律
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1 格林定律： 从1806年开始，格林兄弟就致力于民间童话和传说的搜集、整理和研究工作，出版了《儿童和家庭童话集》（两卷集）和《德国传说集》（两卷）。雅科布还出版了《德国神话》，威廉出版了《论德国古代民歌》和《德国英雄传说 》。1806～1826年间雅科布同时还研究语言学 ，编写了4卷巨著《德语语法》，是一部历史语法，后人称为日耳曼格语言的基本教程。在《德语语法》1822年的修订版中，他提出了印欧诸语言语音演变的规则，后人称之为格林定律。他指出 ，在印欧语系中日耳曼语族历史上，辅音分组演变，在英语和低地德语中变了一次，后来在高地德语中又再变一次。事实上，格林定律只是大体上正确，后来由K.A.维尔纳加以补充。1838年底格林兄弟开始编写《德语词典》，1854～1862 年共出版第一至三卷。这项浩大的工程兄弟俩生前未能完成 ，后来德国语言学家继续这项工作，至1961年才全部完成。 印欧语系含大部分欧洲语言和印度次大陆语言在内的约150种语言。英国语言学家Sir William Jones1786年指出梵语与希腊语和拉丁语可能来自同一个原始语，它们具有亲缘关系。1822年，Jacob Grimm发现了日耳曼语言中所发生的一系列的有规则的辅音变化。这些辅音的有规则变化后被称为格林定律： a. 浊爆破音变为清爆破音: bàp b. 清爆破音变为摩擦音: pàf c. 浊送气音变为浊不送气音:bhàb 通过比较法重建了被称为原始印欧语系的具有同一来源的语法，包括欧洲语言和印度次大陆的语言的许多亚语系都是以该原始语演化发展来的。 Grimm's law (also known as the First Germanic Sound Shift or the Rask's-Grimm's rule), named for Jacob Grimm, is a set of statements describing the inherited Proto-Indo-European (PIE) stops as they developed in Proto-Germanic (PGmc, the common ancestor of the Germanic branch of the Indo-European family) in the 1st millennium BC. It establishes a set of regular correspondences between early Germanic stops and fricatives and the stop consonants of certain other centum Indo-European languages (Grimm used mostly Latin and Greek for illustration). As it is presently formulated, Grimm's Law consists of three parts, which must be thought of as three consecutive phases in the sense of a chain shift:[1] Proto-Indo-European voiceless stops change into voiceless fricatives. Proto-Indo-European voiced stops become voiceless stops. Proto-Indo-European voiced aspirated stops become voiced fricatives; ultimately, in most Germanic languages these voiced fricatives become voiced stops. The chain shift can be abstractly represented as:
bʰ → b → p → f dʰ → d → t → θ gʰ → g → k → x gʷʰ → gʷ → kʷ → xʷ Here each sound moves one position to the right to take on its new sound value. The voiced aspirated stops may have first become voiced fricatives before hardening to the voiced unaspirated stops "b", "d", and "g" under certain conditions; however, some linguists dispute this. See Proto-Germanic phonology. Grimm's law was the first non-trivial systematic sound change to be discovered in linguistics; its formulation was a turning point in the development of linguistics, enabling the introduction of a rigorous methodology to historical linguistic research. The "law" was discovered by Friedrich von Schlegel in 1806 and Rasmus Christian Rask in 1818. It was elaborated (i.e. extended to include standard German) in 1822 by Jacob Grimm, the elder of the Brothers Grimm, in his book Deutsche Grammatik. Further changes following Grimm's Law, as well as sound changes in other Indo-European languages, can sometimes obscure its effects. The most illustrative examples are used here. Change Germanic (shifted) examples Non-Germanic (unshifted) cognates *p→f English: foot,, Dutch: voet, German: Fuß, Gothic: fōtus, Icelandic, Faroese: fótur, Danish: fod, Norwegian, Swedish: fot Ancient Greek: πούρ (pūs), Latin: pēs, pedis, Sanskrit: pāda, Russian: под (pod), Lithuanian: pėda, Latvian pēda *t→þ [θ] English: third, Old High German: thritto, Gothic: þridja, Icelandic: þriðji Ancient Greek: τπίτορ (tritos), Latin: tertius, Gaelic treas, Irish: trí, Sanskrit: treta, Russian: третий (tretij), Lithuanian: trečias, Latvian trīs *k→h [x] English: hound, Dutch: hond, German: Hund, Gothic: hunds, Icelandic, Faroese: hundur, Danish, Norwegian, Swedish: hund Ancient Greek: κύυν (kýōn), Latin: canis, Gaelic, Irish: cú, Welsh ci
*kʷ→hw [xw] English: what, Gothic: ƕa ("hwa"), Danish hvad, Icelandic: hvað, Faroese hvat, Norwegian: hva
Latin: quod, Gaelic: ciod, Irish: cad,
Sanskrit: ka-, kiṃ, Russian: ко- (ko-), Lithuanian: ką', Latvian kas *b→p English: warp; Swedish: värpa; Dutch: werpen; Icelandic, Latin: verber 2
Faroese: varpa, Gothic wairpan *d→t English: ten, Dutch: tien, Gothic: taíhun, Icelandic: tíu, Faroese: tíggju, Danish, Norwegian: ti, Swedish: tio Latin: decem, Greek: δέκα (déka), Gaelic, Irish: deich, Sanskrit: daśan, Russian: десять (desyat'), Lithuanian: dešimt, Welsh deg, Latvian desmit *g→k English: cold, Dutch: koud, German: kalt, Icelandic, Faroese: kaldur, Danish: kold, Norwegian: kald, Swedish: kall, Latin: gelū
*gʷ→kw English: quick, Frisian: quick, queck, Dutch: kwiek, Gothic: qius, Old Norse: kvikr, Danish: kvik, Icelandic, Faroese: kvikur, Swedish: kvick, Norwegian kvikk Lithuanian: gyvas
*bʰ→b English: brother, Dutch: broeder, German: Bruder, Gothic: broþar, Icelandic, Faroese: bróðir, Danish, Swedish, Norwegian: broder
