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Chapter 2Peter NewmarkSemantic and Communicative Translation Guided ReadingPeter Newmark (1916) is an accomplished translation scholar as well as an experienced translator. He has translated a number of books and articles and published extaensively on translation. His publications on translation include Approaches to Translation (1981), About Translation(1983), Paragraphs on Translation 段落翻译 (1985), A Textbook of Translation翻译教程(1988), and More Paragraphs on Translation(1993).In his work Approaches to Translation, Newmark proposes two types of translation: semantic translation语义翻译and communicative translation 交际翻译 . Semantic translation focuses primarily upon the semantic content of the source text whereas communicative translation focuses essentially upon the comprehension and response of receptors. This distinction results from his disapproval of Nida's assumption 假定，假定，假想；假装；肩负，担当 that all translating is communicating, and the overriding 最主要的，最优先的 principle of any translation is to achieve "equivalent effect". For Newmark, the success of equivalent effect is "illusory", and that "the conflictof loyalties, the gap between emphasis on source and target languages will always remain as the overriding problem intranslation theory and practice"(1981:38). To narrow the gap, Newmark 系地述，切实地表达；划，构思出 formulateshis concepts of "communicative translation" and "semantic translation", which in a sense从某种意上 are similar to Nida's "dynamic equivalent translation" and "formal equivalent translation". Newmarks admits "communicative translation" is a common method and could be used in many types of translation. Nevertheless, he justifies 明⋯⋯正当 /有理，⋯⋯ thelegitimacy合法性，正当；合理性，稳当；嫡出，正of "semantic translation" in the following three aspects. Firstly, all translations depend on the three 一分二，二分法；本立dichotomies, namely, the foreign and native cultures, the two languages, the writer and the translator. Hence, it is unlikely to have a universal theory that could include all these factors. Secondly, previous discussions on methods of translation, either Nida's "dynamic equivalence" or Nabokow's "literal translation", does not reflect the actual reality of translation method, for each of them either recommends one or 低， disparages the other. Thirdly, the social factors, especially the readers of the second language, only play a partial 部分的；偏 /袒 /心的 role发挥部分作用in translation. Some texts, such as an expressive one, require a "semantic translation"(1981:62). It can be seen that 能够看出by proposing the coexistence of "communicative translation" and "semantic translation", Newmark suggests a correlation互相关系，关系；有关性between translation method and text type.It should be pointed out that应该指出的是Newmark's semantic translation differs from literal translation直译because the former "respects context", interprets and even explains while the latter sticks very closely to source text at word and syntax level(1981:62). Literal translation, however, is held to be the best approach in both semantic and communicative translation, "provided that 假如equivalent effect is secured, the literal word-for-word translation is not only the best, it is the only valid method of translation"(1981:39). Here Newmark seems to onlytake account of 考虑到，顾及，谅解literary translation rather than non-literary translation, which is often rendered more freely in order to communicate the meaning. But he also statesthat when there is a conflict between semantic and communicative translation, the latter would win out 胜出 . For instance, it is better to render communicatively the public sign 公共标记 bissiger Hund and chien mechant into beward thedog! in order to communicate efficiently the message, but not semantically as dog that bites! and bad dog!(1981:39). Nevertheless, it is difficult for a translator to follow Newmark's translation methods in practice, which should be adopted flexibly according to the specific context and text type.A Textbook of Translation is an expansion and a revision of Approaches to Translation in many aspects在好多方面 . In this book, Newmark, follwing the German linguist Karl Buhler's functional theory of language, proposes three main types of texts (i.e. expressive 有表现力的，富裕表情的, informative 供给大量资料或信息的，授与知识的and vocative 呼格的 ) as well as methods of translating them (Chapters 4 and 5). Although he lists many translation methods from word-for-word translation to adaptation, he insists that "only semantic and communicative translation fulfill the two main aims of translation, which are first, accuracy, and second, economy". While semantic translation is used for expressive texts, communicative translation is for informative and vocative texts although he admits that few texts are purely expressive, informative or vocative. By stressing the wide applicability of these two translation methods, Newmark seems to overlook the function of other translation methods frequently adopted in translationpractice.Newmark's semantic and communicative translation ahve been quoted frequently among translation scholars. His concern about the coexistence of semantic and communicative translation shows that in his view effect-oriented translation以成效为导向的翻译 such as Nida's dynamic equivalence should not be overstressed in translation practice, but is just one type of translation. Newmark's types of translation, however,are less influential than Nida's dynamic equivalence in the field of translation studies because they "raise some of the same points concerning the translation process and the importance of the TT reader 译文读者 " (Munday 2000:46). Further, his views and comments are still very traditional and prescriptive 规定的，指定的，规范的 , bearing some traces of traditional translation theories. The strength of his writing lies in that his discussion on translation covers a wide range of topics, and he always provides useful advice and guidance for translator 接受训练的人，实习生，培训生 trainees with a large number of interesting and useful examples, which are more convincing than abstract theoretical arguments 抽象的理论论证 . The following excerptis selected from Chapter 3 of Newmark's Approaches to Translation. In this chapter he 假定，要求 postulates his twomain methods of translation (i.e. Semantic and communicative translation), and tries to apply them into different types of text. Communicative and Semantic Translation1.A translation must give the words of the original.2.A translation must give the ideas of the original.3.A translation should read like an original work.4.A translation should read like a translation.5.A translation should reflect the style of the original.6.A translation should possess the style of the translation.7.A translation should read as a contemporary of the original.8.A translation should read as a contemporary of the translation.9.A translation may add to or omit from the original.10.A translation may never add to or omit from the original.11.A translation of verse should be in prose.12.A translation of verse should be in verse.(The Air of Translation, T.H. Savory, Cape, 1968, p.54)In the pre-linguistics period of writing on translation, which may be said to date from Cicero through St. Jerome, Luther, Dryden, Tytler, Herder, Goethe, Schleiermacher, Buber, Ortega y Gasset, not to say Savory, opinion swung between literal and free, faithful and beautiful, exact and natural translation, depending on whether the bias was to be in favour of同意the author orthe reader, the source or the target language of the text. Up to the nineteenth c entury, literal translation r epresented a philological 言学的，文件的，文学的academic exercise言学学活from which the cultural reformers 文化改革者were trying to rescue literature. In the nineteenth century, a more scientific approach was brought to bear on ⋯⋯有影响，和⋯⋯有关 translation, suggesting that certain types of texts must be accurately translated, while others should and could notbe translated at all!Since the rise of modern linguistics (philology 言学 was becoming linguistics言学 here in the late fifties), and anticipated by到 Tytler in 1790, Larbaud, Belloc, Knox and Rieu, the general emphasis, supported by communication-theorists as well as by non-literary translators, has been placed on the reader---on informing the reader effectively and appropriately, notably 著地，明地；特别，特 in Nida, Firth, Koller and the Leipzig School. In contrast相反 ,the brilliant essays of Benjamin,Valery and Nabokov (anticipated by Croce and Ortega y Gasset) advocating literal translation have appeared as isolated孤立的，被隔离的 , paradoxical phenomena自相矛盾的象, relevant only to 与⋯⋯有关translating works of high literary culture. Koller (1972)has stated that the equivalent-effect principle oftranslation is tending to rule out 把⋯⋯清除在外，清除⋯⋯的可能性；不把⋯⋯考在内 all others, particularly the predominance of any formal elements such as word or structure. The apparent triumph of the "consumer" is, I think, illusory. The conflict of loyalties, the gap between emphsis on source and target language will always remain as the overriding problem in translation theory and practice. However, the gap could perhaps be narrowed if the previous terms were replaced as follows:SOURCE LANGUAGE BIAS TARGET LANGUAGEBIASLITERAL FREEFAITHFUL IDIOMATICSEMANTIC / COMMUNICATIVECommunicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely asthe semantic and syntactic 造句法的，句子构的structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual 上下文的，前后关系上的meaning of the original.In theory, there are wide differences between the two methods. Communicative translation addresses itself solely to the second reader, who does not anticipate difficulties or obscurities, andwould expect a generous transfer of foreign elements into his own culture as well as his language where necessary. But even here the translator still has to respect and work on the form of the source language text as the only material basis for his work. Semantic translation remains within the original culture and assists the reader only in its 话中有话，涵意connotations if they constitute/构 /形成；立，成立，委任the essential human (non-ethnic 种族的，民族的，部落的) message of the text. One basic difference between the two methods is that where there is a conflict, the communicative must emphasize the "force" rather than the content of the message. Thus for Bissige Hund or Chien mechant, the communicative translation Bewareof the dog! Is mandatory 命令的；的，制的 ; the semantic translations ("dog that bite", "savage dog") would be moreinformative but less effective. Generally, a communicative translation is likely to be smoother, simpler, clearer, more direct, more conventional 依照例的，切合俗的，因循保守的；常的 , conforming to a particular register 域（在特定交际合或域中人使用的法等的范）of language, tending to （与名）在⋯⋯下边/之下；低于，隶属于（与形、）不足under-translate, i.e.即，而言之，也就是To use more generic 的，属的；一般的，通用的,hold-all terms in difficult passages. A semantic translation tends to be more complex, more awkward 不灵巧的，蠢笨的, more detailed, more concentrated, and pursues the thought-processes 思虑过程rather than the intention of the transmitter 传递 /递者；传输者；流传者；发射机，发射台 . It tends to over-translate, to be more specific than the original, to include more meaningsin its search for one nuance 意义上的细微差异of meaning. However, in communicative as in semantic translation, provided that equivalent-effect in secured, the literal word-for-word translation is not only the best, it is the only valid method of translation. There is no excuse for unnecessary "同义词synonyms", let alone v.&n. 释义，意译，改述 paraphrases, in any type of translation.Conversely 相反地 , both semantic and communicative translation comply with 依照，听从the usually accepted syntactic 造句法的，句子构造的equivalents (Vinay and Darbelnet's "transpositions") for the two languages in question正在讨论的 . Thus, by both methods, a sentence such as "II traversa la Manche en nageant" would normally be translatedas "He swam across the Channel". In semantic, but notcommunicative translation, any deviation 背叛，偏离；误差；离题 from SL 文体规范 stylistic norms 规范，标准 would bereflected in an equally wide deviation from the TL norms, but where such norms clash, the deviations are not easy to formulate 构思出，规划；系统地论述，切实地表达 , and the translator has to show a certain tension between the writer's manner and the 逼迫，强迫；激动，欲念 compulsions of the target language. Thus when the writer uses long complex sentences in a language where the sentence in a "literary" (carefully worked) style is usually complex and longer than in the TL, the translator may reduce the sentences somewhat, compromising between the norms of the two languages and the writer. If in doubt, however, he should trust the writer, not the "language", which is a sum of abstractions 抽象的总和 . A semantic translation is concrete. Thus when faced with:此处略去一段法语。
简述纽马克的语义翻译和交际翻译及其对汉英语篇翻译的影响一、引言彼得·纽马克是英国著名的翻译理论家和翻译教育家，长期从事翻译教学和翻译研究。
他的代表作包括《翻译问题探索》（1981）、《翻译教程》（1988）、《翻译论》（1991）和《翻译短评》（1993）。
其翻译理论中最主要、最有特色的部分就是语义翻译和交际翻译，这也是纽马克翻译理论的核心。
在纽马克之前，翻译方法一直处于传统的二分命题法之争，即直译与意译之争，和纽马克同时代的著名翻译理论家奈达也无法摆脱这种二分法模式。
一元论认为，翻译是一种交际手段，即人与人当面说话的方式；翻译和语言一样，纯粹是一种社会现象。
纽马克认为交际翻译和语意翻译就是针对这两个概念而制定的。
纽马克在其1988 年出版的《翻译教程》中提了八种翻译方法：逐字翻译、直译、忠实翻译、语义翻译、改写、自由翻译、习语翻译、交际翻译。
在这八种翻译方法中，纽马克认为，只有语义翻译和交际翻译符合翻译的两个目标，即准确与简洁。
根据纽马克自己的叙述，对奈达的“动态对等”和“读者反映”的反思促成了他的语义与交际翻译理论的建立。
因为他认为仅有“动态对等”和“读者反映”是不完整的，原作的语义结构和思维过程不能弃之不顾。
但是，纽马克不是抽象地决定采用语意或交际翻译，而是以特定的语篇参照框架决定的。
根据不同的内容和文体，同时根据布勒的语言功能理论将所有的文本划分为三大范畴：表达功能、信息功能和呼唤功能，进而将文本归为三类：表达型文本、信息型文本和呼唤型文本。
纽马克认为，根据不同的语篇的显著特征和主要困难，在翻译理论的指导下，选择不同的翻译方法，使翻译方法和语篇类型密切结合，翻译将更贴切原文，传达源语的思想和神韵。
二、语义翻译和交际翻译的概述和定义根据德国心理学家、功能语言学家布勒和雅各布森论述的三大语言功能，纽马克提出了语义翻译和交际翻译理论。
他还采纳了弗格茨基关于思维本质的观点区分这两种翻译。
Chapter 2纽马克的翻译理论一、纽马克翻译理论的类型纽马克把翻译分为四类1、交际翻译翻译交际中，目标文本所产生的效果应力求接近源文本；2、语义翻译语义翻译中目标文本应在目标语的语义和句法结构允许的情况下尽可能准确地再现原文的语境含义；3、直译在直译中原文本的基本意义被译过来目标文本虽合乎目标语的句法结构，但意思是孤立的，没有考虑源语用词的语境因素；4、死译在死译中，源文本所有词语的基本意思得到了翻译，但目标文本既不考虑源语用词的语境因素，句法也不合乎目标语要求就连词序也是按照源语文本排列的。
二、纽马克根据语言的三大功能表达功能（expressive function）传信功能（informative function）召唤功能（vocative function）分析了各种不同类型的作品。
他认为各类作品的功能的侧重点不同, 应采取不同的翻译方法。
有一些作品, 重点放在原文的语义内容上, 应采取“语义翻译”（semantic translation)的方法, 译文要尽可能接近于原文的语言形式, 以保持其语义内容, 有一些作品, 重点放在读者的理解和反应上, 应采取“交流翻译”的方法, 译文更倾向于译入语的语言形式, 使读者更容易接受和理解。
纽马克对“交流翻译”的定义是：“交流翻译试图用这样一种方式正确地传达原作的文中意义, 使其内容与语言都可以很容易地为读者所接受和理解。
”（communicative translation attempts to render the original in such a way that both content and language are readily acceptable and comprehensible to the readership)这种翻译可以摆脱原文语言形式的束缚, 更好地发挥译文语言的优势, 使译文流畅、自然、简洁、明了, 更容易为读者所接受和理解, 这样的译文必然会受到广大读者的欢迎, 用严复的话说, 就可以“言之有文,行之弥远” , 合乎“雅”的要求了。
汉英新闻翻译策略美国新闻学者约斯特认为: “新闻是已经发生或正在发生的事实的报道。
”从中可以看出新闻的根本特点：新闻是对信息的报道, 新闻的时效性很强, 客观性是新闻的灵魂。
新闻一般包括标题、导语和正文三个部分。
标题高度概况了整条新闻的主要内容, 被喻为“新闻的眼睛”, 是信息量最集中、最丰富的地方。
新闻标题的功能包括五个方面: 把最精彩的内容揭示给读者, 用最短的文字阐明内容主旨, 以特殊方式表达报纸的倾向性, 凭借特殊强势吸引读者, 选择让人震撼的语句激励读者。
导语简要交代整条新闻的人物、时间、地点、事件、原因等要素, 通常称为5W, 这些有时甚至用一句话表达。
正文则体现前重后轻的做法, 先提供重要的信息, 再补充必要的背景报道, 所谓“倒金字塔”结构。
纽马克认为,采取何种翻译方法取决于三个因素：文本类型(type of text) 、读者身份(nature of thereadership) 和翻译目的(purpose of the translation) 。
具体而言,译者可以打破新闻原文的形式上的束缚,在标题、词汇和句法结构上进行改写(rewriting) 。
在出发语和目的语之间发生矛盾时,要优先考虑目的语的表达习惯。
“好的翻译听起来不像是翻译”(奈达) ,而像译者用目的语写作的产物。
交际翻译法的实质是意译、归化、适度再创造。
1．标题改写新闻标题的功能是提炼内容、美化版面和吸引读者(郜书锴,2002) 。
好的新闻标题常常具有简约、醒目、概括、风趣的特点(刘宓庆,1998 :82) 。
标题翻译的好坏,直接影响着整篇新闻翻译的交际效果和读者的兴趣。
纽马克认为:“Normally, as a translator, you are entitled to ‘change’ the title of your text . ”(2001 : 156) 因此,除了极少数采用语义翻译外,译者都在标题翻译上下了很大功夫用交际翻译法处理。
纽马克的翻译理论主要是什么彼得•纽马克是英国著名的翻译理论家和翻译教育家。
纽马克在分析和总结各家各派的翻译思想的基础上，将文体论、话语分析、符号学、格语法的理论、功能语法和跨文化交际理论应用于翻译理论和研究，对于翻译理论、翻译教学、翻译语言学以及翻译技巧都进行了精辟的论述。
纽马克翻译理论的核心是语义翻译和交际翻译，这也是其翻译理论中最主要、最有特色的组成部分。
他的代表作包括《翻译问题探索》(Approaches to Translation, 1981) 、《翻译教程》(A T extbook of Translation, 1988)、《翻译论》(About Translation, 1991)和《翻译短评》(Paragraphs on Translation, 1993)。
在《翻译问题探索》一书中，纽马克提出，针对不同的文本类型应当采用不同的翻译方法——语义翻译(s emantic translation) 或交际翻译(communicative translation)。
根据不同的内容和文体，他将文本分为抒发功能(expressive function)、信息功能(inform ative function)、呼唤功能(vocative function)、审美功能(aesthetic functio n)、应酬功能(phatic function)和元语言功能(metalingual function)。
20世纪90年代他又提出“关联翻译法”，这标志着他的翻译理论渐趋系统。
下面本文将就纽马克的主要译论观点进行初步解读,以求对纽马克的翻译理论做更深层次的理解,并将相关翻译标准应用到英汉、汉英翻译中去。
一．语言功能与文本类型纽马克认为,翻译活动即是对文本的翻译,研究翻译不能离开文本。
在修正布勒(Buhler)、雅各布森(Jakobson)功能模式的语言理论基础上,根据不同的内容和文体,纽马克提出了一套自己的文本功能及其分类。
197Crazy English Teachers 收稿日期：2010-5-17；修改稿：2010-6-25*本文是河南省教育厅“2008年度河南省高等学校青年骨干教师资助计划”的阶段性成果之一。
李 治（开封大学国际教育学院，河南 开封 475004）摘 要：彼得·纽马克将语言功能分为六种，并依此将文本分为相应的六类，翻译的目的就是要表达文本的不同含义。
纽马克共提出了八种翻译方法，其中语义翻译与交际翻译是纽马克翻译理论的核心所在。
文本类型和翻译方法之间并无对应关系，翻译方法的选择不单单是由文本类型所决定的。
翻译过程中，必须理解文本功能与文本类型，以及文本类型与翻译方法之间的关系。
关键词：语言功能；文本类型；翻译方法［中图分类号］H315.9［文献标识码］A［文章编号］1006-2831(2010)09-0197-5彼得·纽马克（Peter Newmark ）是英国翻译理论语言学派的代表人物之一，他将跨文化交际理论和现代语言学的研究成果运用到翻译研究中，认为翻译既是科学，又是艺术和技巧，并提出了著名的“交际翻译”和“语义翻译”法。
其代表作《翻译问题探讨》（Approaches to Translation ，1981）、《翻译教程》（A Textbook of Translation ，1988）、《论翻译》（A b o u t Tr a n s l a t i o n ，1991）在翻译界有着深远影响。
下文将分别介绍他的文本类型观和翻译方法，并论述文本类型与翻译方法选择之间的关系。
1. 纽马克的文本类型翻译理论必须研究语言的功能，因为翻译中许多理论问题，如对等翻译、变量和常量、理想的翻译单位、翻译过程等，如果不联系语言的功能来确定文本类型，讨论就失去了意义。
为此，纽马克根据语言哲学家比勒和雅各布森关于语言功能的论述，将语言的功能分为六种：表达功能（the expressive function ）、信息功能（the informative function ）、祈使功能（the vocative function ）、审美功能（the aesthetic function ）、人际功能（the phatic function ）、元语言功能（the metalingual function ）。
On Chinese New Words T ranslation from Newmark’s Dual TheoryApplicant: CHEN SiqiSupervisor: SHI ChunyanFaculty: College of Foreign LanguagesJishou UniversityMay 8, 2011摘要随着社会经济的发展，我国的政治、经济和文化生活等方面都发生了巨大的变化，新事物、新观念不断涌现，反映这些变化的新词也应运而生。
汉语新词就是一扇崭新的窗口，其英译在中国文化的对外宣传和传播中有很重要的作用。
纽马克的翻译二分法作为他本人翻译理论中最主要、最有特色的部分，对在翻译中如何逾越不同社会文化背景所造成的理解鸿沟有较强的指导性。
本文将二分法应用到汉语新词的翻译中，并结合新词的特点作探讨性的研究。
关键词：二分法语义翻译交际翻译汉语新词AbstractWith the development of society and economy, great changes appear in politics, economy, culture and daily life of China. New things and new concepts are springing up all over China and vocabulary that reflecting these changes are born at the right moment. The translation of Chinese new words plays an important role in Chinese external publicizing. Newmark’s dual theory is a dominant and special part in all his translation theory，and it mainly talks about the key to bridge the gap of different cultural backgrounds. This paper will apply dual theory to the Chinese new words translation and combine their features to make a tentative study.Key words: Dual Theory, Semantic Translation, Communicative Translation，Chinese New WordsContentsIntroduction (1)1 An Introduction to Dual Theory (2)1.1The Definition of Dual Theory (3)1.2The Nucleus of Dual Theory (4)2 Origins and Features of Chinese New Word s (5)2.1Origins of Chinese New Words (5)2.2Features of Chinese New Words (7)3The Application of Dual Theory to Chinese New Words Translation (7)3.1Semantic Translation (8)3.1.1 New Words with Referential Meanin g (9)3.1.2 New Words with C onnotations (10)3.2Communicative Translation (11)3.2.1 New Words with Equivalent Translation (12)3.2.2 New Words without Equivalent Translation (14)Conclusion (15)Bibliography (17)Acknowledgements (18)IntroductionAs we all know, words, the most active factor in one language, grow with the development of society. Since the policy of reform and opening up carried out in China at the end of 1970s, with new things and new notions appeared rapidly, a great deal of changes occurred in society and our lives. This kind of change is inevitably reflected in language, especially in vocabulary obviously.New words reflect the reality in society and the times spirit. They have close relationships with one country’s culture. When the cultural exchange between China and overseas become booming, Chinese new words play an important role as culture envoy. They are entrusted with the mission to let more people from different cultural backgrounds understand and share our Chinese culture together. This is an unavoidable trend in the world now. Therefore, for the foreign audience, it is through translation that they get the chance to understand other countries’ culture, people and way of life. So the importance and effect of new words translation should not be ignored by translators.Peter Newmark’s dual theory is a main part in all his translation theory. It refers to two kinds of methods: communicative translation and semantic translation. (Newmark,1982:39) Eugene A. Nida thinks that the communicative translation focus on the understanding and response of the readers, while the semantic translation focus on conveying the semantic meaning of the original .Both of them have a consideration for the difference of the different text.(Nida,2001:111)Addressing Newmark, he is a typical practical theorist. He aims at dealing with real problems in translation process by always discussing them in detail, and expects to conclude some rules to guide the translation practice. Considering Chinese new words' various forms and key role in intercultural communication, the translators should pay more attention to the relations between source language(SL), target language(TL), source reader, target reader and culture when translate them. But not adopting the same translation strategy in any environment. (Li,2004：92) Chinese new words translation actually is a challenge that translators have to face, though it hassome qualities in common with other translation in Chinese-English documents. It still owns distinct features, like creation, timeliness, hard in verification, etc. (Y ang, 2003:70) It is virtue of this fact that we seldom can translate new words in Chinese in one time, especially in easy-to-understand and idiomatic English. (Jin, 2007:39) Many translated versions of new words in dictionaries (This paper mainly chooses new words listed in Little Chinese-English Dictionary and Xinhua Dictionary of Chinese Neologisms with English Explanations) cannot convey the new concept and meaning accurately and fully that new words originally try to express, while the slang and colloquial meaning from Chinese new words are not reproduced vividly by their English explanation.(Jin,2007:39) Therefore, it is high time that Chinese new words translation paid more attention to the dual theory field. So this paper will make a tentative study of Chinese new words translation with an attempt to formulate the dual theory.Dual theory serves as the theoretical base of this paper due to its apparent applicability to this newly developed field. Chapter one gives the important introduction to dual theory. Chapter two states the origins and features of Chinese new words. Chapter three studies the application of dual theory to Chinese new words translation, which includes typical examples of new words translation by combining new words’features. The conclusion summarized what have been discussed in this paper and gives a definite answer to the assumption in introduction. By applying this theory, Chinese new words will be better translated.1 An Introduction to Dual TheoryPeter Newmark is a famous theorist and educationist of translation in Britain. He is very familiar with the literature on translation theory and he has many years of experience in teaching translation techniques and obvious expertise as a translator. His major contribution to translation field is dual theory: Semantic translation and Communicative translation. The former focuses primarily upon the semantic content of the source text, while the latter focuses essentially upon the comprehension and response of receptors. This distinction becomes especially relevant for the widediversity of text types which Newmark considers. (Newmark,1988：vii)1.1 The Definition of Dual TheoryThe dual theory comes to exist against the background of a heated debate between literal translation and free translation which lasts a long period of time in translation field. In Newmark’s view,the argument whether to translate literally or freely has been going on since at least the first century BC. The argument is theoretical: the purpose of the translation, the nature of the readership, the type of text, has not discussed. Too often, writers, translators and readers are implicitly identified with each other. Now the text has changed, but the basic problem remains. He admits that whether to be loyal to the original text or the translation text is a huge contradiction in translation theory and practice. But the contradiction could be mediated.For this reason, he puts various translation methods in the form of a flattened V diagram (Newmark, 1988:45):SL emphasis TL emphasis Word for word translation adaptationLiteral translation Free translationFaithful translation Idiomatic translationSemantic translation Communicative translation Based on the diagram above, we can see “word for word translation”and “adaptation”have the biggest difference, “literal translation”and “free translation”rank the second place, “faithful translation” and “idiomatic translation” rank the third place, finally “semantic translation” and “communicative translation” has the smallest difference. The eight methods are a consecutive group, they supplement and complement each other. In addition, they also cannot be separated easily. However, semantic translation has the advantages of word for word translation, literal translation and faithful translation; while communicative translation has the advantages of adaptation, free translation and idiomatic translation. Therefore, in order to get better translation, translators could use semantic translation and communicative translation to deduce several appropriate translation strategies.1.2 The Nucleus of Dual TheoryFor Newmark, translation theory’s main concern is to determine appropriate translation strategies for the widest possible range of texts or text-categories. Furthermore, it provides a framework of methods, restricted rules and hints for translating texts and criticizing translations as well as a background for problem-solving (Newmark, 1988:19). Translation theory also attempts to give some insight into the relation between thought, meaning and language and can show the reader all that is or may be involved in the translation process. For him, then translation is a craft. A translator acquires a technique in which the process to be followed takes into account the acts of comprehension, interpretation, formulation and recreation.The dual theory: semantic translation and communicative translation is put forward by Peter Newmark. He stated its general position in his A Text of Translation, and explained it in detail in the book Approaches to Translation. Dual theory is a relatively new approach based on the previous research and development to translation studies that considers translation. In general, a semantic translation is written at the author's linguistic level and communicative translation at the readership's. Therefore, both of them are the nucleus of his translation theory which playing the most important role in it. Before probing into the details of the discussion in the following chapters, it is necessary for us to grasp general ideas of this theory to avoid some unintended misunderstandings. The main ideas of dual theory can be summarized respectively as follows:Newmark defines the “semantic translation”and “communicative translation”individually. The former attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact textual meaning of the original; the latter attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Besides he states that the majority of texts require communicative rather than semantic translation.However, in theory, there are wide differences between the two methods.In Newmark's A Textbook of Translation, he classifies text into different typesbased on the main functions of language: the expressive function, the informative function, the vocative function, the aesthetic function, and so on. The expressive function is centered to the mind of the speaker, writer. Expressive text-types contain serious imaginative literature, autobiography, essays, authoritative statements, and the like. The core of the informative function of language is the facts of a topic, reality outside language. Informative texts are those concerned with any topic of knowledge and the format of such texts is often standard, such as text books, technical or scientific reports and theses. The center of the vocative function is the readership, the addressee. Notices, instructions, publicity, persuasive writing and popular fiction whose purpose is to sell the book or entertain the reader are typical vocative texts. The aesthetic function of language is designed to please the senses, firstly through its actual or imagined sound, and secondly through its metaphors. After considering main text categories，he suggests that semantic translation is used for 'expressive' texts, while communicative for 'informative' and 'vocative' texts.Besides，communicative translation must emphasize the effect rather than the content of the message, and semantic translation would be more informative but less effective. Semantic translation attempts to recreate the precise flavor and tone of the original and it relates to the “expressive” function of language, whereas communicative translation responds to the representational and vocative functions. Thus for “Wet Paint!” , the communicative translation “Don’t touch the wet paint” is mandatory; the semantic translation(“paint is wet”) would be more informative but less effective.2 Origins and Features of Chinese New WordsChinese new words emerge in an endless stream. On one hand, it is a need to adapt to the social reform and development; on the other hand, it is a mirror to reflect characteristics of the times as well as manifest the achievement of human beings’progress and pluralism in social life. In this chapter, the origins and features of Chinese new words will be discussed.2.1 Origins of Chinese New W ordsThe most important feature of the growth in a language is the development of its vocabulary. The origins of various Chinese new words attribute to the several following main reasons.Firstly, the global political circumstance is flexible after the end of World War II, while China and western countries face different situations. Our Chinese choose to take big strides on the road to socialism with Chinese characteristics. Especially in recent 20 years, the domestic political situation is stable and the political role is improving in international stage. Lots of Chinese new words in this field emerge in an endless stream, For example, some words could reflect Chinese history and political issue:一国两制(One Country, Two systems),入世(entry to WTO),特别行政区(SAR).Take another as example, some words could reflect domestic political construction: 以人为本(human-oriented),反腐倡廉(combat corruption and advocate an honest)，小康社会(a well-off society) ,etc.Secondly, economy is a mainstream in the process of development. To some degree, the growth of language benefits from economic growth. Particularly, when China carries out “focusing on the central task of economic construction” basic state policy, new phenomenon in this field also all reflected in Chinese new words. Such as 下海(plunge into the commercial sea),反倾销(anti-dumping),软着陆(soft landing),引资(import outside funds),保税区(bonded area),etc.Thirdly, science and technology have no national boundary. It is not only that any country’s technology are researched and developed on the basis of their forefathers, but also owing to every new technology that caters to global human being. Since the twentieth century, the world science and technology have advanced briskly, new invention, new discovery, new product, new technology never cease. Therefore they are naturally reflected in Chinese new words.克隆(clone),信息高速公路(information superhighway),数码相机(digital camera),个人数字助理(PDA, Personal Digital Assistance ),全球通(GSM, Global System for Mobile Communication), 变性术(sex reassignment),etc.Fourthly, as mankind's communication tool and information carrier, mass media, like the air we breathe, is something which the society and its members cannot dowithout it, not even for a short period of time. In the process of transmitting information, it plays an important part in the spread of Chinese new words. Generally, we find it effective to use the mass media to transmit new words as they are penetrating and far-reaching. Like无厘头(wulitou culture),作秀(show),搞笑(amuse),触电(begin work in film or television),写真(portrait),信骚扰(mail harassment ),etc. 2.2 Features of Chinese New W ordsDespite the fact that Chinese new words translation has something in common with other Chinese-English document translation, its translation is still quite different from the translations of novels, dramas, poems and movie subtitles. This is determined by its own features. Then what are its features? Generally speaking, there are four prime aspects.The first one is new words that translators could understand easily. Their meanings are on the surface. Usually, translators could adopt literal translation.Then, some new words have little difference to the first one. It is not enough for them to only adopt literal translation. They have connotations and need translators develop and tell readers some meaning under the meanings.Besides, the meaning of some new words could not make sure at first sight, but translators can find equivalent translation in English as these kinds of words usually reflect some notion or phenomenon in common with Chinese.Finally, if translators are careful enough, they will find some new words both come to exist for the first time and could not find the equivalent translation in English. There is no one fixed way to translate them and all translators need to do is to consider both the source language text and target language text.Chinese new words always have their distinct features. It seems that it is a tough task for the translators to handle. But the methods used may vary, the principle is the same. Genuine knowledge comes from practice. So in the next chapter, the author will combine their features to translate them.3 The Application of Dual Theory to Chinese New Words TranslationThrough the discussion of the definition and nucleus of dual theory and the introduction to Chinese new words in different angles, it is obvious to translators that the translation of Chinese new words is no easy task. Owing to its different origins and features, especially in this changing and growing world, more difficulties are unpredicted. Though the translation road is full of thick and thin, translators still have a light that provide us with a guide.In the process of Chinese new words translation, translators should persist in two basic methods for the purpose to make the effect of culture exchange. The two methods are the semantic translation and communicative translation. These are the concrete centerpieces in dual theory. By combining the features of new words, now it is advisable that translators give dual theory a full play in Chinese new words translation.3.1 Semantic TranslationAccording to Newmark, semantic translation is one of the two main methods to guide the translation. In general, semantic translation requires accuracy and submits to the original culture and original authors. But it also tries to convey some information to readers. If necessary, the translators could add another interpretation to the translation of original text.Firstly, semantic translation is more objective than communicative translation. That means by observing this method, the translation will not influenced by personal feelings or opinions and only consider facts. It stressed the content of the message itself. Like菜单(menu),邓小平理论(Deng Xiaoping Theory),笔记本电脑(Notebook computer) etc., these kinds of new words are very objective. And they refer to either an object or an existed situation. In this case, sometimes word for word translation cannot avoid.Secondly，the translation should be faithful to the original text based on this method. Meanwhile, the translated words should offer as much information of the words in source language as possible. Due to the fact that the semantic translation would be more informative, the translated words must have some information, which may be the first information the readers can get. So the translator must know thesubstance and much more information of the new words before he translates them. The translation of 福利房(welfare-oriented public housing) is an example. From the translated word we can understand what the word exactly mean, and the translated word offers the most information of the original one. There are a lot of this kind of translated new words, such as护绿(protect green land)，韩流(South Korea trend)，and so on. These translations not only tell readers the specific information of new words, but also successfully achieve the aim of being faithful.Thirdly, semantic translation remains within the original culture and assists the reader only in its connotations if they constitute the essential message of the text. As many Chinese new words are of great value of our culture, custom, habit, tradition etc, there is no doubt that we should comply with this method if we want to keep our flavor as much as possible. For example, 第三产业(tertiary industry), 买单(pay bill) etc.3.1.1 New Words with Referential Meaning“Referential meaning”is the basic meaning of language which is the dictionary meaning of language if these words are not in the specific text. Though some words belong to this kind come to exist for the first time, they are what they really mean on the surface. And the meaning they try to express is usually objective. In this situation, translation is easy to handle. Translators do not have to add their own ideas or thoughts to the translation Literal translation is suitable for them(this case is useful only when the words do not contain some connotations). And the word order of the original text is well preserved as usual.When translators translate them, they do not need any existed examples to refer as long as they not breach English idioms and cultural tradition. For example, 数码相机(digital camera),面膜(facial mask),电子邮件(E-mail; electronic mail),福利彩票(welfare lottery), 菜单(menu; list of service items)etc.Although semantic translation should be loyal to original text, it is not advisable that the translators totally overlook the target language’s habitual form of expression and misinterpret words by translating them too literally. The author finds two typicalcases like that, such as短信(SMS, short message service). This term belongs to electronic and telecommunication industry, the corresponding correct translation should be “text message service”.text messag e ①n [C] a written message that is sent or received on a MOBILE PHONE or PAGERtext message②also text [T] to send a written message on a MOBILE PHONE or PAGER: She is always text messaging her friends (Jin, 2007:39).高新技术(high and new technology): The translation here is right, no matter from the angle of grammar or words and there is no taste of chinglish. But the order is against English habitual form. The correct one is: new and high technology (Y ang, 2003: 71).From the above analysis, what the translators should do is simply do not distort the features of the original text and try to be faithful to the form while it conveys the meaning, even if a literal translation is not always the closest to the original meaning. It will be easily seen that the literal translation is in keep up with the requirements of semantic translation: to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact textual meaning of the original.3.1.2 New Words with C onnotationsAccording to Newmark, we opt for semantic translation, because it’s more objective and cater to the SL readers and source text. But there is no rule without exception. If just semantic translation is not enough for TL readers to understand, we need to add some interpretation words as well. That means to some degree, when dealing with this kind of word, translators add some explaining words properly on the basis of semantic translation. Somehow it could create an ideal effect for both the SL readers and TL readers.Generally speaking, the words are the field of political and professional. Usually, they contain some information of culture. Besides, this kind of words belong to informative text, the content is of more importance than the form. For translators, their primary intention is to convey designated information to foreign readers instead of presenting writing styles and language manners. Therefore, they both need a literalmeaning and an exact, specific explanation. For examples, 菜篮子工程（shopping basket programme --- a programme for increasing food production）, 三通（three direct links of mail, trade and air and shipping services across the Taiwan Straits）(Zhong,2010:66).However, the author has found many new words in the Xinhua Dictionary of Chinese Neologisms with English Explanations are just using literal translation singly. Needless to say, it must have been causing much confusion to the foreign readers. Like三无产品(three-no-products),三无企业(three-no-enterprises), 三险(three social insurances)etc. If Chinese readers do not check the Chinese explanation following, even them, no one is 100% sure what these words exactly refer to, not to speak of the foreign readers.It is thus clear that sometimes only has semantic translation is not enough and translators need a new way to solve the problem. Therefore, these examples above should be translated as follows, 三无产品three-no-products---a product without production license, production inspection certificate and producer name and address,三无企业---three-no-enterprises:enterprises with no capital, no plant, and no administrative structure, 三险---three social insurances:Pension, unemployment and basic health care insurance.Through the above analysis, it is shown that translators add some interpretation words do not obey the rule of semantic translation. Based on Newmark, if misunderstanding can clear up, it is necessary to add other words to make readers understood. Due to the fact that the essence of the source text is well reflected and the aim for the target readers is better achieved.3.2 Communicative TranslationAs another important translation method, communicative translation pays attention to reconstruct the essence of the source language and it centers about readers. It values the influence in society and considers the possible acceptance of readers. Newmark's communicative translation suggests that readers are the center of translation, so TL texts should be eventually accepted and evaluated by them.To begin with, contrary to the semantic translation, communicative translation is subjective. The translation always lies on translators own ideas or opinions, understandings. Therefore, word for word translation is impossible. Take 辣妹子(bold girl) as an example. It has two meanings: the first is to refer to girls from Hunan or Sichuan province; the second is to describe a girl’s bold and uninhibited character.Besides, communicative translation is social. It tends to under-translate, to be simple, clear and brief. In addition, it is always written in a natural and resourceful style. Compared to semantic translation, a communicative translation is often better than its original and it often explains something. 剩女is a good case in the following discussion.Most of all, language translation is not simply the conversion process, but also cultural exchanges between the two kinds of social phenomena. In the translation process of new words, translators are not only bounded by the source language, but also are given certain creativity, because there is a huge difference of different ethnic groups in the cultural background. According to communicative translation, the translator should correctly grasp the cultural information in the target language, and try his best to produce the same effect (or one as close as possible) on the readership of the translation as was obtained on the readership of the original. Here三级片(blue film), 傍大款(find a sugar daddy) is a typical example.In a word, Chinese new words translation is one of the biggest problems to the non-literary scholars and the professional translators. New objects and processes are continually created in science and technology. New ideas and variations on feelings come from the media. Terms from the social sciences, slang, dialect coming into the mainstream of language, transferred words, make up the rest. Therefore, an endless series of new words needs different translation strategies due to their features we have discussed before.3.2.1New Words with Equivalent TranslationTo put it simply, here “equivalent translation”is the similarity between a word (or expression) in one language and its translation in another. Or it is tempting to view the notion simply as a corresponding word or expression in another language (Their。
