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Unit SevenText A BiopharmaceuticsBefore the reader can appreciate the meaning and clinical significance of biopharmaceutics, it is necessary to introduce the concept of drug bioavailability.1. appreciate [ə'pri:ʃ ieit] vt.欣赏；感激；领会；鉴别vi.增值；涨价2. bioavailability ['baiəuə,veilə'biləti] n.生物利用度；生物药效率为了使读者能够理解生物药剂学的含义和其对于药物临床应用的重要意义，有必要先给大家介绍一下药物生物利用度的概念。
BioavailabilityThe therapeutic response of a drug is normally dependent on an adequate concentration of the drug being achieved and then maintained at the site or sites of action of the drug. In the case of systemically acting drugs ( i. e. drugs that reach these sites via the systemic circulation) it is generally accepted for clinical purposes that a dynamic equilibrium exists between the concentration of drug at its site(s) of action and the concentration of drug in blood plasma. An important consequence of this dynamic equilibrium is that it permits a therapeutically effective concentration of drug to be achieved at its site(s) of action by adjustment of the concentration of drug in blood plasma. Strictly speaking, the concentration of drug in plasma water (i. e. protein-free plasma) is a more accurate index of drug concentration at the site(s) of action than the concentration of drug in whole plasma since a drug may often bind in a reversible manner to plasma protein. Only drug which is unbound (i. e. dissolved in plasma water) can pass out of the plasma through the capillary endothelium and reach other body fluids and tissues and hence its site(s) of action. Drug concentration in whole blood is also not considered to be an accurate indirect index of the concentration of drug at its site(s) of action since drug can bind to and enter blood cells. However, to measure the concentration of an unbound drug in plasma water requires more complex and sensitive assay methods than to measure the total concentration of both unbound and bound drug in total plasma. Thus, for clinical purposes, drug concentration in blood plasma is usually measured and is regarded as an index of drug concentration at the site(s) of action of the drug and of the clinicaleffects of the drug. However, it should be realized that this is a simplification and may not always be valid. Indeed one should not draw inferences about the clinical effects of a drug from its plasma concentration until it has been established that the two are consistently correlated. It has been assumed that the plasma drug concentration is directly proportional to the clinical effect of that drug.1. systemically [ sistə'mætikəli ] adv.有系统地，有组织地，有条理地，全身地systemic [si'stemik; -'sti:-] adj.系统的；体系的；全身的2. purpose ['pə:pəs] n.目的；用途；意志vt. 决心；企图；打算3. dynamic equilibrium [dai'næmik] [,i:kwi'libriəm] 动态平衡；动力平衡4. plasma ['plæzmə] n.等离子体；血浆5. reversible [ri'və:səbl] adj.可逆的；可撤消的；可反转的n. 双面布料6. capillary endothelium [kə'piləri, 'kæpi-] [,endəu'θi:liəm] 毛细血管内皮7. assay [ə'sei] n.化验；试验vt.分析；化验；尝试vi.鉴定；经检验证明内含成分8. simplification [,sɪmpləfə'keʃən] n.简单化；单纯化9. valid ['vælid] adj.有效的，有根据的；正当的10. draw inferences ['infərəns] 作出推论11. consistently [kən'sistəntli] adv.一贯地；一致地；坚实地12. proportional to [prə'pɔ:ʃənəl] 与……相称，与……成比例通常情况下，药物达到其作用部位、并维持足够的药物浓度，才能发挥疗效。
药学英语课文翻译Unit1药品依据他们的产品或来源药物能够被分为三种：Ⅰ、全合成Ⅱ、天然产物和Ⅲ、由局部合成产物〔半合成产物〕本书的重点是关于最重要化合物Ⅰ和Ⅲ——这类药物合成。
然而，这并不意味天然产物和其他的药物就不重要。
它们能够被用作有价值的先导化合物，同时它们通常被用作起始原料或作为重要合成产物的中间体。
而更加经济的。
在过往的几年里发酵，即微生物工程，差不多变得极其重要。
通过现代技术和基因的选择结果，导致了微生物高突变体演变的产生，发酵差不多变成了对物质广泛围的选择方式。
真核细胞〔酵母和霉菌〕和原核细胞〔单细菌细胞和放线菌〕都被用作微生物。
以下为可获得的生产形式:1.细胞原料〔单细胞蛋白质〕2.酶3.初级的落解产物〔初级酶代谢物〕4.次级的落解产物〔次级的代谢物〕在次级代谢物中，必先提起的是抗生素，以下五种药代表了每年世界范围内价值170亿美元的药物：青霉素，头孢菌素，四环素，红霉素，氨基糖苷类。
大约有5000种抗生素差不多从微生物中不离出来了，但在这些中仅有那些少于100种用于治疗使用。
然而，一定明白，那些衍生物通过局部合成被先进用于治疗。
在过往十年中，单单从β-内酰胺半合成的就有五万种药物。
发酵在容积大于400m3的不锈钠发酵罐中进行，防止了微生物噬菌体的污染等等，整个过程必须在无菌条件下进行。
〔倒数第五段开始〕大量使用的试剂不仅仅是酸〔盐酸、硫酸、硝酸、醋酸〕，还有无机和有机碱〔氢氧化钠、氢氧化钾、碳酸钾、重碳酸钾、铵碱、三乙胺、吡啶〕。
还有辅助化学物质包括活性炭和催化剂。
所有这些补充的化学物质〔比方中间体〕在最终产物中可能是杂志的来源。
在1969年，世界卫生组织出版了关于“药品平安质量保卫〞的论述。
名目2是有关“药品赔偿和平安保卫质量的规定〞〔世界卫生组织，1969年第418号技术报告，名目2；1975年第567号名目1A〕这同时变为众所周知的“药品质量治理标准〞或GMP标准，同时这些规定在现在药品生产中也应遵守。
Vitamins ---- Translation1.Researchers found that the level of vitamin C stored in the body of the victim with a common cold fell drastically and was close to the level of people suffering from scurvy.2.Minor degrees of vitamin C deficiency are common, though outright scurvy only occur when the diet is markedly deficient in fresh fruits and vegetables.3.Vitamins are organic compounds that must be supplied in the diet or injected into the body to maintain health.4.Vitamins produce no energy but play an essential role in the transformation of energy and in the regulation of metabolism.5.Vitamins are classified/distinguished by the letters of the alphabet, such as vitamins A, C, D, E, K and the B-complex.6.Vitamins and minerals are found in small amounts and are needed in minute quantities, as compared with the other nutrients.7.The diseases which develop from the absence of vitamins are known as vitamin deficiency diseases. For example, a lack of vitamin A brings about night blindness; a deficiency of vitamin D results in rickets.8.Some vitamins are soluble in fats whereas others are soluble in water. They are, therefore, termed fat-soluble and water soluble vitamins respectively.9.In addition to the general nutrients, another two groups of nutrients, vitamins and inorganic, or mineral, salts are also required by the body.10.Most nutrients contain more than one nutrient, but no single food contains all the nutrients in the amounts you need.食物抗癌1.Overwhelming statistical evidence shows that smokers are more likely to develop cancer of the lung, throat, and tongue than are non-smokers.2.Fruits and vegetables are chock-full of a variety of antioxidants which can snuff out oxygen free radicals, substances that are thought to make cells more susceptible to cancer.3.A well-balanced diet will give your body various nutrients of vitamins, minerals, proteins, starches, and sugars that it needs to operate smoothly.4.The risk of lung cancer is directly related to the number of cigarettes smoked each day--the higher the number, the higher the risk.5.Even smokers may be protected from developing lung cancer by a daily portion of carrots, spinach or any other vegetables and fruits.6.Some studies of animals and humans have suggested that vitamin A offers some protection against lung cancer.7.Further studies will be necessary before the link between lung cancer and carotene can be firmly established.8.Animal studies show that garlic blocks carcinogens that have been linked to colon and stomach cancer.9.A diet of more fruits and vegetables will undoubtedly play a major role in reducing cancer incidence as well as the number of deaths caused by the disease.10.Beta-carotene not only has a direct toxic effect on tumor cells, but also reduces the growth of lung-cancer cells and altered the proteins needed for tumors to grow.化学与物质----Translation1.Briefly speaking, a scientist differs from an artist mainly in that a scientist not only interprets the outer world, but also tries to transform it into a better one.2.Science begins with necessity, curiosity, and questions about the unexplained phenomena in nature.3.The ways in which an element or a compound combines or reacts with other things are its chemical properties.4.The chemist is interested in the composition and properties of substances and the transformations they undergo during a chemical reaction.5.It is very easy to fall into the habit of taking some painkiller when there is any slight pain.6.The delicate operations performed by surgeons today would not be possible without anesthetics.7.Today it is generally recognised that the human body is a chemical factory in which countless complex chemical and physicalchanges are constantly taking place.8.The substance salt is composed of the metal sodium and the corrosive gas chlorine, but its chemical properties are quite different from those of sodium and chlorine.9.Chemotherapy is the treatment of disease by the administration of chemical substances which kill or prevent the growth of pathogenic organisms within the body.10.Substances that lessen pain but do not affect other sensations are called pain relieving drugs.麻醉药Translation1.It is not many years since a man who had to have an operation felt all its pain.2.It is attributable to the discovery of anesthetics that surgeons can now perform all kinds of operations without causing pain.3.Spinal anesthesia produces excellent anesthesia and relaxation for the performance of many operations on the lower parts of the body.4.The exact mechanism in which the general anesthetic drugs exert their effect on the brain is still unknown, although many theories have been proposed.5.The introduction of anesthetics to surgery has made possible much more delicate and lengthy operations, thus greatly extending the field of surgery.6.Narcotics are applied to those drugs which are sedative in their action upon the body but which also produce insensibility to pain.7.Contrary to what one might think, it’s only 50 years or so since penicillin, the antibiotic once regarded as the wonder drug, came into being.8.Scientists point out that since the sedative action of a drug results from its effect on the nerves, it must possess solubility in the fluids of the body which surround the nerves.9.An anesthetic must be volatile if it is to be administered through oral inhalation, while those which can be administered through the rectum or injected into the spine do not have to be volatile.10.In spite of the danger of a patient’s contracting pneumonia after the use of ether as an anesthetic, ether is still widely employed because the anesthesia it produces is one of deep relaxation.绿色药房-草药Translation1.The plant kingdom was once man’s only pharmacy. Yet when you enter a modern chemist’s shop today, you can hardly find a sign of the use of plants in medicine.2.Today the number of plants used in medicine has decreased, but hidden away in many pills, capsules, and medicine bottles are the active chemicals originally found in the plant kingdom.3.Some chemicals which plants make may be poisonous, others may be chemicals that are extremely valuable to us as medicines.4.During the many thousands of years that man has been on the earth, he has been trying out various plants that grew around him.5.There has existed for many years mistrust, suspicion or hostility between the orthodox and the herbal practitioner which threatens the possibility of a good working relationship.6.When one considers the therapeutic impact of quinine, it is evident how great is the debt of medicine to plant-derived drugs.7.However, the past few decades have witnessed an obvious diminution in the number of plant-derived drugs introduced into medicine.8.The legacy of traditional Chinese medicine is a treasure house with an inexhaustible supply of new potential drugs which is to be explored with an introduction of new approaches.9.Had pharmacological approaches not been introduced into the investigation of Vinca rosea, the discovery of vincalcukoblastine would have been postponed by many years.10.Western practitioners find it difficult to believe that someone who knows nothing of a disease mechanism could still be capable of curing it.Natural Products1. One of the oldest of human activities is the study of plants and animals, particularly as sources of food.2.From the earliest times man had to distinguish between those plants which were poisonous and those which were not and there graduall y developed a knowledge of natural drugs.3. As late as the beginning of the present century pharmacognosy had developed mainly on the botanical side, being particularly concerned with the description and identification of drugs.4.Undoubtedly the plant kingdom still holds many species of plants containing substances of medical value which have yet to be discover ed.5. As a result of modern isolation and pharmacological testing procedures, new plant drugs usually find their way into medicine as purified substances.6. Many of the botanical, chemical and physical techniques employed in pharmacognosy are also applicable to the analysis of other comm odities, such as foods, spices and cosmetics.7. While pharmacognosy has been generally studied for practical purposes and may thus be called an applied science it has played an imp ortant role in the development of the pure sciences.8. Recent phytochemical examination of plants which have a suitable history of use in folklore for the treatment of cancer has, indeed, oft en resulted in the isolation of principles with antitumour activity.9. The growth of knowledge of biochemistry and physiology, which led to the concept of the chemical control of biological processes, has been of particular importance for pharmacology.10. Primitive man depended on preventive use of nature’s stock of plants and herbs to avoid disease and to maintain health and vigor.有机化学Translation1. The remarkable advances made in modern medicine would not have been possible without the aid of chemistry.2. Since the body is essentially a chemical machine, a knowledge of the chemistry of bodily functions seems essential to the physician.3. The production of food by plants and animals involves the rearrangement of atoms in molecules.4. Fortunately, few kinds of work seem to urge people on to success more effectively than does the pursuit of chemistry.5. So far the motive behind the search for synthetics has been a wish to produce better things for less money, and for more people.6. Isolation of increasing numbers of purified materials from living forms and recognition of the fact that all contained carbon gave birth to organic chemistry.7. When coal is burned in a furnace it combines with oxygen to give carbon dioxide, a new substance with different composition and properties from coal and oxygen.8. Many specific chemical reactions are important because of the energy which they use or supply.9. In the study of organic chemistry, students are expected to use familiar symbols which are constructed into two- or three-dimensional molecular formulas.10.From the food we eat, the clothes we wear to the buildings we live in, all have been fashioned to a considerable extent by organic chemistry.新药研制1Translation1.Formerly, drugs were extracted from natural plants and animal sources, and therapeutic use was based on traditional experience.2.Drug development strategies involve serendipity, molecular roulette, programmed basic research with synthesis of specific chemical, etc..3.Though it’s the most satisfying in the development of new drugs, the approach is expensive and there is no guarantee of success.4.When a drug is used by millions, there are certain to be adverse reactions even though the risk to any individual is small.5.Most drugs have a safe upper limit of dosage; beyond this toxic effects may be expected to occur.6.Penicillin, one of the most powerful killers of bacteria was discovered quite by accident by Alexander Fleming.7.Pharmacological experiment on a new drug determines whether the drug has the desired profile of action in model system.8.The increase in knowledge of biochemical mechanisms results in a more rational approach to the development of new drugs.9.Extensive formal toxicological tests are required before a new drug can be used on patients.10.Chemists and biologists have now attached great importance to such fields of research as molecular biology and biochemicalpharmacology.新药研制 2 Translation1.The rationale for the development of new drugs should be provide better drugs; better in the sense of being either more effective, safer or cheaper.2.The representative of the pharmaceutical manufacturer has been specially trained to promote his particular new product.3.Only after animal studies have proved efficacy can clinical evaluation of new drugs be undertaken.4.New drug evaluation in man can be divided into four phases each of which should be conducted under strict supervision.5.A dose-ranging study should only be performed on volunteers who are informed about the implications of the tests, and who give their consent freely.6.Dose-ranging studies should only be performed under medical supervision, as there exist some possible risks during the test.rge scale clinical trials in Phase 3 are to establish new drug’s profile of action and frequency of adverse effects.8.The expensive cost in drug development is borne by the pharmaceutical manufacturer, which justifiably expects to recoup it when the product is finally marketed.rmation about the new drug published in well-established journals is more reliable than that offered by the medical representative whose livelihood depends on the ability to promote the product.10.Heavy investment in promotion has not simply led to the use of undistinguished new drugs, but to a higher cost of the drugs as well.药理学范畴Translation1.The science of the effects of drugs on the body is called pharmacology, and the scientists who study it are pharmacologists.2.Pharmacology is not a science that can be studied on its own, but that closely related to other branches of science.3.Pharmacologists should not only understand the normal processes that take place in the body, but know how the functions of the body are affected by disease.4.Properly used, drugs are great blessing to mankind; improperly used, they could destroy the race.5.During the first part of the twentieth century there have been enormous strides in the field of pharmacology.6.Man continues to strive, not only for a longer life span, but for a healthier one as well.7.With the frequent use of more than one therapeutic agent by a patient, particularly the elderly, drug interactions that result in toxicity are likely events.8.The clinician is interested primarily in drugs that are useful in the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of human diseases.9.Most of the natural drugs are now highly purified and differ little from synthetic chemicals, the interests of the clinician in pharmacognosy are correspondingly decreased.10.As a border science, pharmacodynamics borrows freely from both the theories and experimental techniques of physiology, biochemistry, immunology, pathology, etc..良药滥用-----Translation1.Although the development of antibiotics has been of incalculable benefit to mankind, it has also given rise to serious complications.2.The widespread use of antibiotics has resulted in the natural evolution of strains of disease germs which are resistant to such medications.3.A new multidrug-resistant tuberculosis, now prevalent in the world, causes serious infections that may not respond to chemotherapy.4.Some antibiotics are effective against a large range of microorganisms, they are, therefore, known as broad-spectrum antibiotics.5.Some drugs may not cause physical dependence, or addiction, but many persons do become habituated to their use.6.Drug abuse is thought of as the misuse of drugs potentially harmful to the individual user or to society.7.Many persons, believing that antibiotics can cure any disease, press their doctors for a dose of penicillin for such virus ailment as influenza.8.Addiction is the body’s continued need for drugs because of their physiological effects after they are first taken.9.In comparison, the inadequacies and potential dangers of antibiotics are much less widely known.10.Antibiotics are used so carelessly around the world that they are creating a new health threat to mankind.抗癌的食物（全文翻译）现在饮食开始被考虑作为抵抗癌症的主要武器。
谈英译汉中的词类转译
邓芳
【期刊名称】《荆楚理工学院学报》
【年(卷),期】2003(018)005
【摘要】在英译汉的过程中,为使译出的句子符合汉语表达习惯,经常需要进行词类转译.文章主要讲述了英语名词、形容词、副词、动词和介词在英译汉过程中进行的转换.
【总页数】3页(P64-66)
【作者】邓芳
【作者单位】荆门职业技术学院,外语系,湖北,荆门,448000
【正文语种】中文
【中图分类】H314.2
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4.英译汉中词类的转译 [J], 李海燕
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英译汉的词类转译法在英译汉过程中，有些句子可以逐词对译，有些句子则由于英汉两种语言的表达方式不同，就不能用"一个萝卜一个坑"的方法来逐词对译。
在很多情况下，需要转换词类，才能使译文通顺自然。
常见的词类转译法有：一、名词的词类转译（一）名词译成动词英语中具有动作意义的名词和由动词派生出来的名词以及某些表示身份特征或职业的名词（如teacher，singer等）在句中并不指身份或职业而含有较强的动作意味，英译汉时须译成动词。
1、The sight and sound of our jet planes filled me with special longing．看到我们的喷汽式飞机，听见隆隆的机声，令我特别神往。
2、The next news bulletin，shorter than usual，made no mention of the demonstration．下一个新闻节目比通常短，没有提到游行。
3、The operation of a machine needs some knowledge of its performance．操作机器需要懂得机器的一些性能。
4、Peter proved to be an excellent storyteller．彼得故事讲得很出色。
5、Some of my class-mates are good singers．我同班同学中有些人歌唱得很好。
（二）名词译成形容词Independent thinking is an absolute necessity in study．独立思考对学习是绝对必需的。
The security and warmth of the destroyer's sickbay were wonderful．驱逐舰的病室很安全也很温暖，好极了。
（三）名词译成副词It is our great pleasure to note that China has made great progress in economy．我们很高兴地看到，中国的经济已经有了很大的发展。
药学英语Unit 1Inflammatory reaction induced by local ischemic injury is one of the important pathophysiological characteristics after ischemic stroke, so anti-inflammatory therapy may be an effective strategy for acute ischemic stroke. Enlimomab, an anti-ICAM-1 murine monoclonal antibody, can inhibit the recruitment and activity of polymorphonuclear leukocytes, reduce their adhesion and decrease cerebral infarct size in experimental stroke models. However, a much larger efficacy trial including 625 acute ischemic stroke patients has shown that enlimomab was ineffective on ischemic stroke patients even with a worsening outcome. The therapeutic time window of rt-PA is within 3 hours of ischemic onset. Administration of the drug after more than 3 hours of ischemic onset has no significant therapeutic implications and may even end up with an increased hemorrhagic risk. A study using the animal ischemic model indicated that combination of anti-inflammatory therapy and rt-PA could significantly and might as well extend the therapeutic time window of thrombolysis.局部脑缺血损伤引起的炎症反应是缺血性脑卒中发生后的重要病理生理特征，因此，抗炎治疗策略可能是治疗急性缺血性脑卒中的一种有效方法。
Introduction to PhysiologyIntroductionPhysiology is the study of the functions of living matter. It is concerned with how an organism performs its varied activities: how it feeds, how it moves, how it adapts to changing circumstances, how it spawns new generations. The subject is vast and embraces the whole of life. The success of physiology in explaining how organisms perform their daily tasks is based on the notion that they are intricate and exquisite machines whose operation is governed by the laws of physics and chemistry.Although some processes are similar across the whole spectrum of biology—the replication of the genetic code for or example—many are specific to particular groups of organisms. For this reason it is necessary to divide the subject into various parts such as bacterial physiology, plant physiology, and animal physiology.To study how an animal works it is first necessary to know how it is built. A full appreciation of the physiology of an organism must therefore be based on a sound knowledge of its anatomy. Experiments can then be carried out to establish how particular parts perform their functions. Although there have been many important physiological investigations on human volunteers, the need for precise control over the experimental conditions has meant that much of our present physiological knowledge has been derived from studies on other animals such as frogs, rabbits, cats, and dogs. When it is clear that a specific physiological process has a common basis in a wide variety of animal species, it is reasonable to assume that the same principles will apply to humans. The knowledge gained from this approach has given us a great insight into human physiology and endowed us with a solid foundation for the effective treatment of many diseases.The building blocks of the body are the cells, which are grouped together to form tissues. The principal types of tissue are epithelial, connective, nervous, and muscular, each with its own characteristics. Many connective tissues have relatively few cells but have an extensive extracellular matrix. In contrast, smooth muscle consists of densely packed layers of muscle cells linked together via specific cell junctions. Organs such as the brain, the heart, the lungs, the intestines, and the liver are formed by the aggregation of different kinds of tissues. The organs are themselves parts of distinct physiological systems. The heart and blood vessels form the cardiovascular system; the lungs, trachea, and bronchi together with the chest wall and diaphragm form the respiratory system; the skeleton and skeletal muscles form the musculoskeletal system; the brain, spinal cord, autonomic nerves and ganglia, and peripheral somatic nerves form the nervous system, and so on.Cells differ widely in form and function but they all have certain生理学简介介绍生理学是研究生物体功能的科学。
医学英语术语汉译策略及方法在医学英语术语汉译过程中，恰当的汉译策略及方法可以准确、完整、有效地传达英语原词信息，并且便于译词的传播及使用。
当然了，这还需要译者了解医学英语术语的相关知识、中西医之间的差异、中英文语言上的差异。
以下是医学英语术语汉译策略及方法：一、音译。
这是英语和汉语中都存在的一种常见的借词法。
音译利用读音与英语发音近似的汉字进行直接地转译，汉译文字最大程度地保留原文语音，并失去汉字自身的意义。
在原英语术语没有对应中文或人们对新事物颇为陌生的情况下，许多译者往往采用音译的策略对外来英文术语直接借用，从而有利于新事物的快速传播。
二、意译。
一般是指将构成英语术语的词素用对应的汉语词素进行翻译。
意译强调事物的本质、用途、特点等，让读者能够快速、直接地理解把握术语的含义。
同时避免了音译术语冗长难读、读者容易产生错误联想等不足之处。
就目前而言，意译而来的医学术语占外来术语的大部分。
三、音译与意译结合。
一方面保留了英文原词的风格及读音，另一方面也让读者能更清楚把握词意。
医学术语汉译音译结合多应用于翻译包含有特殊地名、人名冠名的术语。
医学英语术语特点之一是冠名词的大量使用，对这些特定冠名词进行汉译时，首先需要了解术语的词源及原文真正的含义，再根据术语的构成，多数情况下对人名、地名进行音译，对术语中表示词性及类别的词素进行意译。
通过音译与意译结合，既保留了原词的音和形，同时兼顾其词意。
但当英语术语的词源对译词的影响较小时，为了让读者更准确、更直接地把握术语含义，译者应选择意译来直观表达，也就是省略了对英文原词中特定名词的转译，采取直接完全意译的策略表达术语含义。
四、形译与借用。
所谓形译，即在汉译过程中借助英语原文，或通过汉语加工，选择形象生动的词素转译原词中对事物形状、形态特点的描述。
比如T-bandage（丁字带）中均具有对事物形状的描述。
通过形译，译词最大限度保留对形状的一致地、形象地描述。
另外，医学英语术语中具有大量的首字母缩写词，这些缩写词具有特殊、固定的含义。
