自考国际商务英语学科考试复习要点 (2)

国际商务英语Lesson One考点解析1. 商务知识1) major differences between international business and domestic business (国际商务与国内商务的主要不同点)A.differences in legal system (法律体系的不同): The countries involved often have different legal systems, and one or more parties will have to adjust themselves to operate in compliance with the foreign law. 不同的国家通常拥有不同的法律体系，参与商务的一方或几方不得不根据外国的法律来调整自己的经营活动。

B.differences in currencies（货币的不同）: Different countries usually use different currencies and the parties concerned will have to decide which currency to use and do everything necessary as regards conversion etc. 不同的国家通常使用不同的货币，参与商务的有关方必须选择使用哪种货币，就兑换等事宜作好一切必要的工作。

C.differences in cultural background（文化背景的不同）: +Cultural differences including language, customs, traditions, religion, value, behavior etc. often constitute challenges and even traps for people engaged in international business. 文化差异包括语言、习俗、传统、宗教、价值观和行为方式的不同，往往给从事商务的人构成挑战甚至陷阱。

如何学好自考商务英语二
一、掌握基础知识
学习任何一门语言都需要先掌握基础知识，商务英语二也不例外。

首先要掌握英语的基本语法、词汇和听力能力，只有打好这些基础才能更好地学习商务英语。

可以通过各种英语学习APP、教材、网上课程等多种途径来巩固基础知识。

二、多听多读
提高商务英语二的听力和阅读能力是学习的关键。

可以通过看英语电影、听英语新闻、阅读英语文章等方式来提高自己的听力和阅读水平。

同时可以通过背单词、阅读英语书籍、练习写作等方式来提高自己的词汇量和写作能力。

三、练习口语和写作
商务英语二考试中口语和写作占据了很大比重，所以要重点练习口语和写作能力。

可以通过跟着英语口语教程模仿、找英语外教练习口语、多写商务邮件等方式来提高口语和写作水平。

四、刷题训练
刷题是提高商务英语二考试成绩的一个有效方法。

可以通过购买商务英语二的模拟试卷、参加在线模拟考试等方式来进行刷题训练。

同时可以通过每天定时刷题的方式来提高自己的应试能力。

五、制定学习计划
要学好商务英语二，一定要有一个科学合理的学习计划。

可以根据自己的学习时间和学习情况来制定学习计划，每天坚持按照计划进行学习。

同时也要及时调整学习计划，根据实际情况来调整学习的内容和进度。

总之，学好商务英语二需要坚持不懈的努力和付出。

希望以上分享的方法和技巧可以帮助大家更好地学习商务英语二，取得优异的成绩。

加油！。

国际商务英语学科考试复习要点Lesson 1 International Business商务术语：FDI GDP BOT patent copyright value chain franchising (紫色书10-11页)考点：国际商务贸易的主要类型（major types of international business）A．Trade（贸易）：a. commodity trade (商品贸易,也叫有形贸易visible trade )b. service trade (服务贸易, 也叫无形贸易invisible trade)B. Investment (投资): a. foreign direct investment (FDI 外国直接投资)b. portfolio investment (证券投资)C. Other types (其他类型): a. licensing and franchising (国际许可与特许经营)b. management contract and contract manufacturing (管理合同和承包生产)翻译练习:1.随着经济全球化的发展,无形贸易即使在发展中国家的国际贸易中所占的比例也逐渐增大With the development of economic globalization, invisible trade accounts for an increasing proportion of the world trade even in the developing countries2.BOT是“交钥匙”工程的一种流行的变通形式BOT is a popular variant of the turnkey projectLesson 2 Income Level and the World Market商务术语:GNP PPP ( purchasing power parity 购买力平价) Staple goods (大路货)creditor country ( 债权国) (紫色书25页)考点:国民生产总值和国内生产总值(GNP 和GDP)GNP: refers to the market value of goods and services produced by the property and labor owned by the residents of an economyGDP: refers to the market value of all goods and services produced within the geographic area of an economy.Per capita income (人均收入): It is calculated by dividing its national income by its population Triad and Quad (三方组合和四方组合): A. United StatesB. Western EuropeC. JapanD. Canada翻译练习:1.国民生产总值和国内生产总值体现了一个国家的全部收入,在衡量国民收入方面可以互换使用。

商务英语专业资格考试复习笔记分享商务英语专业资格考试（Business English Certificate，简称BEC）是国际上广泛认可的一项商务英语能力评估体系，旨在衡量个人在商务环境中的英语沟通能力。

对于商务英语专业的学生来说，通过BEC考试是提升自身竞争力的重要途径。

在这篇文章中，我将分享一些BEC考试的复习笔记，希望对正在备考的同学们有所帮助。

一、商务英语基础知识1. 商务词汇商务英语中常用的词汇非常重要，复习时可以通过制作词汇卡片进行记忆。

可以分为不同主题，如市场营销、财务、人力资源等，每天复习一定数量的词汇，并进行反复操练。

2. 商务写作商务英语写作是BEC考试的重要组成部分，需要掌握常见的商务信函、报告、备忘录等写作格式。

可以通过模拟真实场景，练习写作不同类型的商务文件，例如回复客户投诉、提出建议等。

3. 商务口语商务英语口语考察的是应对实际工作场景中的沟通能力，因此需要多进行角色扮演练习。

可以找一个学习伙伴，通过模拟商务谈判、电话沟通等场景进行对话练习，提高口语表达能力和应变能力。

二、商务沟通技巧1. 有效听力商务场景中的听力理解能力非常重要，需要能够听懂各种商务会议、电话交流等场景中的内容。

可以通过多听商务英语教材中的录音，同时注意提高听力速度和理解能力。

2. 跨文化沟通商务英语考试中也会考察跨文化沟通的能力，因此需要了解不同国家和地区的商务礼仪和文化习惯。

可以通过阅读相关书籍、观看纪录片等方式，了解不同文化之间的差异，提高应对跨文化沟通的能力。

3. 有效演讲商务英语考试中的演讲部分需要展示自己的表达能力和演讲技巧。

可以通过参加演讲培训班或者加入演讲俱乐部，提高自己的演讲能力和自信心。

三、备考技巧1. 制定合理的复习计划在备考BEC考试时，需要制定合理的复习计划，将复习内容分解为小目标，并合理安排每天的学习时间。

可以根据自己的实际情况，制定每天的学习计划，并坚持执行。

2. 多做模拟题BEC考试的题型比较固定，可以通过做模拟题来熟悉题型和提高解题能力。

L1 International Business1.商务知识1.1major differences between international business and domestic businessA. differences in legal systemB. differences in currenciesC. differences in cultural backgroundD. differences in natural and economic conditions1.2 major types of international businessA. tradea. commodity(visible) tradeb. service(invisible) tradeB. investmenta. foreign direct investment(FDI)b.portfolio investmentstocks, bonds or certificates of depositsC. other typesa. licensing(high customs duty and non-tariff barrier, strong intellectual property protection)franchising(hotel and restaurant business)In comparison with the relation between the licenser and the licenser, the franchiser has more control over and provides more suppoort for the franchisee.b. management contract and contract manufacturingc. turnkey project and BOTL2 Income Level and the World Market1.商务知识1.1 GDP and GNPA. GDP market value of all goods and services produced within the geographic area of an economy.B. GNP market value of all goods and services produced by the property and labor owned by theresidents of an economy.1.2 per capita income and per capita GDP1.3 high income, middle income and low income countriesA. H: annual per capita income of $9386 and above;1). OECD; 2). rich oil producing countries of the Middle East; 3). small-industrialized countries orregions;B. M: annual per capita income below $9386 but above $765;1). most East European countries; 2). most members of the Commonwealth of Independent States; 3). 6OECD countries; 4). quite a number of Latin America countries; 5). some Asian countries; 6). South Africa, Libya, Nigeria and Algeria;C. L: annual per capita income of $765 and below;1). most African countries; 2). some Asian countries; 3).a few Latin American countries;1.4 Triad and QuadA. Triad: US, Western Europe and JapanB. Quad:Triad and Canada1.5 other important markets for Chinathe Four Tigers, the ASEAN countries, Russia, India and AustraliaL3 Regional Economic Integration1商务知识1.1 major objectives of regional integrationto better enjoy the benefit of free flow of goods,services,capital,labor and other resources.1.2 four levels of regional economic integrationA. free trade areaabsence trade barriers;the North American Free Trade Agreement(NAFTA, formed by US,Canada and Mexico);B. customs unionabsence trade barriers; practice of common external policy;Southern Cone Customs Union (Mercosur, formed by Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay and Uruguay in 1991);C. common marketabsence trade barriers; practice of common external policy; free production factor mobility;the European Community(1967-1994,became a true common market in 1992);D. economic unionabsence trade barriers; practice of common external policy; free production factor mobility;integration of the domestic policies;European Union;1.3 European Union(EU)A. historythe European Coal and Steel Community(ECSC,1952);the Treaty of Rome(1957,signed by France, Germany, Italy and the Benelux countries);the European Economic Community(EEC,1957-1967);the European Atomic Energy Community(EURATOM,1957-1967);the European Community(formed by merging ECSC,EEC and EURATOM,1967-1994);the Single European Act(1992);the Maastricht Treaty(1994);the European Union(1994-);B. structurethe European Commission(executive body);the Council of Ministers(decision making);the European Parliament(membership application and trade agreement approval);1.4 Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC, has 21 members)A. the Seoul Declaration(1991);B. a five-layer organizational structure:the Informal Meeting of Economic Leaders(China,2001);the Dual-Ministerial Meeting;the Meeting for Ministers Responsible for Trade;the Senior Officials Meeting(SOM);Committee of Trade and Investment, Economic Committee, Economic and Technical Cooperation Subcommittee of SOM, and Budget Management Committee (four subordinate committees underSOM);C. objectives:trade and investment liberation and facilitation(TILF) and economic and technicalcooperation (ECOTECH);1.5 Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC,13 members,1960,Vienna)L4 Economic Globalization1. 商务知识1.1 economic globalization as an objective trendA. basic feature: free flow of commodity, capital, technology, service, and information inthe global context for optimized allocation;B. advantages and negative impactsa. advantages: 1).giving new impetus and providing opportunities to world economic development; 2),making the various economies more and more interdependent and interactive;b. disadvantage: making countries more vulnerable to the adverse events across the globe;1.2 multinational corporationsA. organization:parent MNC and affiliate MNCB. characteristics: 1). enormous size; 2). wide geographical spread; 3). longevity and rapid growth;C. two basic needs: profit and security;D. roles: as vehicles for cross-border transfer of resources;E. four types1). multi-domestic corporation(decentralized);2). global corporation(power and responsibility concentrated at the headquarters);3). transnational corporation(integrated in an independent network of affiliates);4). world company (internationalized)L5 International Trade (1)1. 商务知识1.1 the defintion of international tradethe exchage of goods and services produced in one country with those produced in anoother.1.2 two reasons for international tradeA. the uneven distribution of natural resources among countriesB. international specialization1.3 two theories for international specializationA. the theory of absolute advantagea commodity will be produced in the country where it costs least in terms of resources.B. the theory of comparative advantagea. contents of the theoryeven if a country is less efficient than another in the production of both commodities, there is still a basis for mutually beneficial trade.b. not a static conceptA country may develop a particular comparative advantage purely through its own actions.c. the cornerstone of modern thinking on international traded. David Ricardo, the economist who introduced the theoryL6 International Trade (2)1. 商务知识1.1 other bases for trade among countriesA. patterns of demandB. economy of scaleC. innovation or style1.2 the reasons why complete specializtion may never occurA. strategic or domestic reasonsB. transport costC. protectionist measures1.3 tariff barriers-- the most common form of trade restrictiona tax levied on a commodity when it crosses the boundary of a customs area.A. export duty (tax levied on goods leaving an area)B. import duty (tax levied on goods entering an area)a. specific dutyb. ad valorem dutyc. compound dutyC. drawback: duties paid on imported goods that are returned if the goods are reexported.D. MFN treatment: a tariff treatment under which a country is required to extend to allsignatories any tariff concessions granted to any participating country.1.4 quotas--the most common form of non-tariff barriersin quantity or valume terms, on a country or global basis, unilaterally or be negotiated on "voluntary"basis1.5 invisible tradeA. transportation service across national boundariesmaritime ships is the most important means (Greece and Norway have large maritime fleets)B. insurance (Lloyd's of London is a leading exporter of this service)C. tourismD. immigrant remittance: the money sent back to home countries by people working in a foreign landL7 Incoterms 20001. 商务知识1.1 the neseeity and purpose of having Incoterms1). to eliminate any of misunderstanding and subsequent dispute;2). to provide a set of international rules for the interpretation of the most commonlyused trade terms in foreign trade.1.2 the reasons for the 2000 revision of IncotermsA. spread of customs-free zonesB. changes in transportation practicesC. increased use of electronic communication1.3 the four groups of InsotermsA. Group E: the seller makes the goods available to the buyer at the seller's own premises;EXW (Ex Works);B. Group F: the seller is called upon to deliver the goods to carrier appoined by the buyer;FCA (Free carrier);FAS (Free Alongside Ship);FOB (Free On Board);C. Group C: the seller has to contract for carriage, but without assuming the risk of loss or damage to thegoods or additional costs due to events occurring after shipment and dispatch;CFR (Cost and Freight);CIF (Cost, Insurance and Freight);CPT (Carriage Paid To);CIP (Carriage and Insurance Paid to);D. Group D: the seller has bear all costs and risks needed to bring the goods to the country of destination;DAF (Delivered At Frontier);DES (Delivered Ex Ship);DEQ (Delivered Ex Quay);DDU (Delivered Duty Unpaid);DDP (Delivered Duty Paid)1.4 the three most commonly used termsA. FOB (free on board)B. CFR (cost and freight)C. CIF (cost, insurance and freight)1.5 chandges to some areasA. the customs clearance and payment of duty obligations under FAS and DEQ;B. the loading and unloading obligations under FCA;L8 Business Contract1. 商务知识1.1 the definition of the contractan agreement which sets forth binding obligations of the relevant parties.1.2 two types of business negotiation: oral and written1.3 process of negotiation and conclusion of the contractA. inquiry (enquiry)a first enquiry should content: 1). how the name and address of the exporter have been abtained; 2). thebusiness line and usual practice of the importer;B. quotationa firm offer should made of: 1). the time of shipment and the mode of payment desired;2). an exact description of the goods; 3). the validity period;C. offer and acceptanceD. counter-offera counter-offer may be made in relation to: 1). price; 2). terms of payment; 3). time of shipment; or 4).other terms and conditions of the offer;1.4 the necessity of the written contract: 1). as the proof of the agreement; 2). as the basis for its execution.1.5 the types of contractsA. sales contractB. purchase contractC. sales (or purchase) confirmation (less detailed than a contract)1.6 the setting of a contractA. the title: 1). the type of the contract; 2). the number of the contract; 3). the date;B. the contract propera. the name and address of the buyer and the sellerb. the details of the commodity transactionc. the terms and conditions mutually agreedd. indication of the number of original copies, language(s) used, and the validityC. the signatures of the contacting partiesD. the stipulations on the back of the contractL9 Modes of Trade1. 商务知识1.1 origin and development of counter tradeorigined from pre-World War II years when clearing system was introduced between familiar trading partners exchanging unrelated goods.1.2 current counter tradeA. barter: the direct exchange of goods and services which is completed in a short period of time.B. counter purchase: the assumption by an exporter of a transferable obligation through separate butlinked contract to accept as full or partial payment goods and services from the importer or importing country.C. buyback: an agreement by an exporter of plant and equipment to take back in the future part of theoutput produced by these goods as full or partial payment. The goods and services taken back are tied to the original goods exported (different from B).D. features common to the three forms of counter trade: "bundling"1.3 major advantages of counter tradeA. helping to deal with foreign exchange shortageB. promoting exportC. reducing uncertainty regarding export receiptsD. bypassing international price agreementE. helping countries with debt problems to import goods1.4 the drawbacks of counter trade: it can be very risk business.L10 International Payment1. 商务知识1.1 the complexity of payment in international tradeA. risks faced by the exporter and the importerB. political factors, commercial factors, grographical factors and language barrier etc.1.2 two methods of payment used under certain conditionsA. cash in advance or partial cash in advanceB. open accountC. consignment transaction1.3 the draft (bill of exchange)A. definitiondraft: an unconditional order to a bank or a customer to pay a sum of money to someone on demand orat a fixed time in the future.drawer: the person who draws the draft, usually the exporterdrawee: the person to whom the draft is drawn)payee: the person receiving the payment, usually the drawerB. sight draft (calls immediate payment on presentation)usance draft (tenor draft or term draft, is payable at a later date)C. clean draft (without documents)documentary draft (is accompanied by the relevant documents)1.4 documentary collectionA. documents against payment (D/P): documents will not be released to the importer until payment iseffected.a. D/P at sightb. D/p after sightB. documents against acceptance (D/A): documents are handed over to the importer upon his acceptanceof the draft drawn by the exporter.L11 The Letter of Credit (I)1. 商务知识1.1 the definition of the letter of credita letter issued by a bank at the request of the importer in which the bank promises to pay upon presentation of the relevant documents.1.2 the unique and characteristic feature of the letter of credit: bilateral security1.3 the relevant parties of the letter of credit and their roles in its process of operationA. the applicant (instructs his bank to issue an L/C)B. the opening bank (issues the credit and sends it to the advising bank)C. the advising bank (examines the credit and advises the beneficiary of its receipt)D. the beneficiary (examines the credit and requests the openerto make amendments to any discrepancies,then prepare the relevant documents and dispatch the goods)E. the negotiating bank (buys the exporter's draft submitted to it under the credit)F. the comfirming bank (adds its confirmation to the credit)1.4 the major contents of the letter of credit1). the number of the credit and the place and time of its establishment2). the type of the credit3). the contract on which it is based4). the major parties relevant to the credit5). the amount value of the credit6). the place and date on which the credit expires7). the description of the goods8). transportation clause9). stipulations relating to the draft10).stipulations concerning the shipping documents required11).certain special clause if any12).instructions to the negotiating bank13).the seal or signature of the opening bank14).whether the credit follows "the uniform customs and practice for documentary credits"1.5 the documents being the only concern of the banks in credit operation"in credit operations all parties concerned deal in documents, and not in goods, service and/or other performance to which the documents may relate"L12 The Letter of Credit (II)1. 商务知识1.1 major types of credits and their functions, forms and mechanismA. clean credit (only requirs clean draft for payment) and documentary creditB. revocable credit (commitments can be altered or even canceled without consulting with the beneficiary)and irrevocable creditC. confirmed credit (credit confirmed by a bank other than the issuing bank) and unconfirmed creditD. sight credit (payment can be made upon presentation of the draft and impeccable documents) andusance creditE. transferable credit (credit can be transferred by the original beneficiary to one or more parties) andnon-transferable creditF. non-draft credit (payment to be made by presentation of the documents without the formality ofdrawing and presenting a draft)a. payment creditb. deferred payment creditG. revolving credit (stipulated that its amount can be renewed or reinstated without specific amendment tothe credit being made)1.2 the limitations of the letter of creditA. inability to provide absolute securityB. being more expensive than other forms of paymentL13 Major Documents Required in Worlt Trade1. 商务知识1.1 the importance of correct documentation1).difficulties in taking delivery; 2).refusal by the bank to make payment,1.2 major types of documentsA. commercial invoicea. major contents1). invoice number and the date; 2). name and address of the buyer and the seller;3). contract number and credit number; 4). description of the goods;5). unit price, total price, price terms, and commission and discount if any;6). terms of delivery and terms of payment; 7). packing, shipping marks;8). seal or signature of the exporter;b. points to be noted: the description of the goods in the invoice must comply with the credit and thetotal invoice value should not exceed the total amount of the covering L/C.B. packing lista. major contents: the number, date, name and description of the goods, shipping marks, packing,number of packages, specific contents of each package and its net weight and gross weight etc.b. documents with similar function: specification list (emphasizes the description of specification of thegoods); weight list (also weight note or weight memo, emphasizes the weight of the goods and are used for goods which are based on the weight for price calculation)C. the bill of ladinga. 3 major functions1). as a cargo receipt2). constitutes a contract of carriage between the carrier and the consignor3). a document of title to the goodsb. major contents1). the carrier (shipping company); 2). the shipper or consignor (exporter);3). the consignee (the importer or made out "to order);4). the notify party (the agent of the consignee or the consignee himself);5). a general description of the goods; 6). shipping marks; 7). the freight;8). the port of shipment and the port of destination; 9). the place where the bill of lading is issued;10). the date when the bill of lading is issued;c. clean bill of lading (states that the goods have been shipped in apparent good order and condition)and on board bill of lading (indicates that the shipment has been actually loaded on the carrying vessel bound for the port of destination)d. ocean bill of lading,airway bill and railway bill, cargo receipt;D. insurance policy and insurance certificatea. major contents1). the insured; 2). cargo description; 3). the amount insured and the risks covered; 4). contentsconcerning transportation; 5). the place where claims are to be settled;6). the date on which the document is issued;b. the difference between the two: the latter is a bit simpler than the formerE. various certificatescertificate of quality, certificate of weight, certificate of quantity, certificate of health, certificate of disinfection, certificate of origin, veterinary certificate etc.F. other documentscustoms invoice, consular invoice, consular visa, shipping advice etc.L14 International Transportation1. 商务知识1.1 definitiontransportation: the movement of freight and passengers from one location to another. freight transportation: the economic movement of commodities and products and the effect of such movement on the development and advancement of business.1.2 the five major modes of transportation: water, rail, truck, pipeline, and air.1.3 three types of carriersA. common carriersB. contract carriersC. private carriers1.4 importance, role, and contribution of transportationtransportation plays a major role in the production process; it moves raw material, inter-mediate product between producers and finished products to consumers; by widening the market areas that a producer canreach, it encourages the introduction of more efficient, larger-scale production techniques;1.5 the four factors that are substantially changing transportationA. transportation deregulationB. just-in-time inventory systemC. competition based on high levels of customer serviceD. globalization of business2.生词与短语primitive, in a broad/formal sense, grocery, stringent, shackle, limelight, logistics, committed to, thrusted sb./sth. into the limelight, dockside, at an ever-accelerating pace, innovation,3. 商务术语freight transportation, freight system, natural product provinces, volume loading and unloading machinery, common carrier, contract carrier, private carrier, production process, intermediate products, production techniques, economies of scale, per-unit production costs, commercial intercourse, service packages, just-in-time inventory system, production approach, production input, globalization of business, distribution manager, logistics system,L15 Insurance (I)1. 商务知识1.1 definitiona social device in which a group of individuals transfer risk and provides for payment of losses from funds contributed by all members who transferred risk.1.2 the idea of a known premium vs. the uncertainty of risk1.3 the common pool and the advantages enterprises can gain from it the main stimulus to enterprise is the release of funds.1.4 insurance for overseas tradeA. necessityIn bridging both the geographical gap and the time lag serious risks have to be run.B. functionmoving the burden of risk from the shoulders of the exporters and importers, and placing it upon the shoulders of specialist risk-bearing underwriters,it is the handmaiden of commerce.L16 Insurance (II)1. 商务知识1.1 three main principles of insuranceA. insurable interest: no one may insure anything unless he has an interest in it.B. utmost good faith: the people who decide what premium is fair for a particular cover do so on the basisof written statements made in a proposal form.C. indemnity (not apply to life or personal accident insurance): a contract of insurance is one whichrestores a person who suffered a loss into the same position as he was in before the loss occurred.1.2 two sub-principles of insuranceA. contribution: a person cannot be allowed to insure twice for the same risk, and claim compensationfrom both insurers.B. subrogation: when the cargo A insured with B is damaged by C's negligence, B will be substituted for Ain any legal action against C.1.3 the doctrine of proximate cause (the direct cause of the loss): when an insurance policy is made out to cover a certain risk, a claim becomes payable only if that risk occurred as the proximate (closest) cause of the loss suffered.1.4 three basic types of marine insuranceA. free from particular average (F.P.A.)B. with particular average (W.A. or W.P.A)C. all risksL17 International Monetary System and Exchange Rate1. 商务知识1.1 the international monetary systemA. sterling-based gold standard (19C--1918)B. dollar-based gold standard (1945--1971.8)C. the floating system (1971.8--)1.2 exchange rateA. fixed exchange rateby which each country pegged its currency to gold to establish its par valueB. flexible exchange ratemajor currencies float in the foreign exchange market; other currencies follow a fixed exchange rate by pegging themselves to a major currency and float with it.C. major factors influencing exchange ratea. international balance of paymentthe value of one's own currency will go up with favorable balance of payment;b. inflationwhen inflation intensifies, the value of the currency will drop;c. interest ratehigh interest rate will increase the exchange rate of one's own currency;D. common measures for intervention in exchange ratea. buying or selling foreign currencywhen the price of a foreign exchange goes too high, the central bank may sell it out of its foreign exchange reserves;b. raising or lowering discount ratewhen the price of a foreign exchange goes too high, the government may raise the discount rate to absorb foreign fund;c. foreign exchange controlwhen the exchange rate fluctuates violently, a government may have to resort to foreign exchange control to make up its BOP deficit and lower the demand for foreign exchange;E. the pros and cons of the two different kinds of exchange ratethe fixed exchange rate system reduces the riskiness of international business and curbs inflation, but it is vulnerable to disorderly changes in currency value; the flexible exchange rate system protects domestic currency from the impact of foreign idle funds and fluctuations of exchange rate, and is helpful to the stability of the economy, but frequent wild swings of the value of currencies will increase the riskiness of trade and affect international investment.F. direct quote (the price of a foreign currency in terms of the home currency)indirect quote (the price of home currency in terms of a foreign currency)G. buying price (the rate by which a commercial bank buys a currency)selling price (the rate by which a commercial bank sells a currency)medial price (the average of the buying price and the selling price)L18 International Financial Organizations1. 商务知识1.1 the World Bank GroupA. constituent parts: IBRD, IDA, IFC, MIGAB. objectives: to help raise standards of living in developing countries by channelingfinancial resources to them from developed countries.1.2 the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD,1945)A. source of its capital1). subscribed by its members;2). comes from its retained earnings and the flow of repayments on its loans;B. financing of its lending operations (from its own borrowings in the world capital market)C. operation of loans grantinga. repayment time (15-20 years) and grace period (5 years)b. target countries (developing countries)c. interest rate (calculated according to a guideline related to its cost of borrowing)D. basic rules governing its operation1). must lend only for productive purposes and must stimulate economic growth in the developingcountries;2). cannot finance a trade deficit, but can finance an infrastructure project;3). must pay due regard to the prospects of repayment;4). the decisions to lend must be based on economic considerations alone;1.3 the International Development Association (IDA,1960)A. relation with IBRD and membershipaffiliated to IBRD;membership in IDA is open to all members of the IBRD.B. objective: providing assistance for the poorer developing countries with soft loansC. source: 1).subscriptions, general replenishments from developed members;2). transfers from the IBRD;D. terms of credits: only to governments; 10Ys grace periods and 35-40Ys maturities; without interest.1.4 the International Finance Corporation (IFC,1956)A. function: to assist the economic development of LDCs by promoting growth in the private sector oftheir economies and helping to mobilize domestic and foreign capital;B. relation with IBRDa separate entity, affiliated to IBRD and draws upon the Bank for administrative and other services;membership in the IBRD is a prerequisite for membership in the IFC;1.5 Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA)A. mandate: to encourage equity investment and other direct investment flows to LDCs through themitigation of noncommercial investment barriers;B. ways for carrying out the mandate。

高等教育自学考试商务英语专业商务英语（二）自学考试大纲黑龙江大学应用外语学院目录编写前言编写说明一、课程性质和学习目的1、本课程的性质2、本课程设置的目的3、总体课程教学要求4、本课程与其它专业课程的关系5、学时安排二、自学考试大纲有关说明和实施要求1、考纲与教材关系2、考核目标3、命题原则4、学习要求5、自学教材6、自学方法7、社会助学8、网络支持9、本课程训练内容及方法三、课程内容和考核目标第一章工作方式与联络第二章公司福利与公司报告第三章创业与留言记录第四章广告和工作委任第五章工作地点和参与会议第六章招聘和电子邮件第七章销售与售货第八章培训和表现专注第九章品牌和接通电话第十章管理和解决问题第十一章道德的经济和讨论趋势第十二章商法和应对质疑编写前言为了适应社会主义现代化建设事业对培养人才的需要，我国在20世纪80年代初建立了高等教育自学考试制度，经过20多年的发展，高等教育自学考试已成为我国高等教育基本制度之一。

高等教育自学考试是个人自学，社会助学和国家考试相结合的一种新的高等教育形式，是我国高等教育体系的一个组成部分。

实行高等教育自学考试制度，是落实宪法规定的“鼓励自学成材”的重要措施，是提高中华民族思想道德和科学文化素质的需要，也是造就和提拔人才的一种途径。

应考者通过规定的考试课程并经思想品德鉴定达到毕业要求的，可以获得毕业证书，国家承认学历并按照规定享有与普通高等学校毕业生同等的有关待遇。

从80年代初期开始，各省、自治区、直辖市先后成立了高等教育自学考试委员会，开展了高等教育自学考试工作，为国家培养造就了大批专门人才。

为科学、合理地制定高等教育自学考试标准，提高教育质量，全国高等教育自学考试指导委员会（以下简称全国考委）组织各方面专家对高等教育自学考试专业设置进行了调整，统一了专业设置标准，全国考委陆续制定了几十个专业考试计划。

在此基础上，各专业委员会按照专业考试计划的要求，从造就和选拔人才的需要出发，编写了相应专业的课程自学考试大纲，进一步规定了课程学习和考试的内容与范围，有利于社会助学，使自学要求明确，考试标准规范化、具体化。

(一)名词解释题1.non-finite clauses:The non-finite clauses are the ones that leave subjects unsaid and verbs in non-finite forms.plex sentence:The complex sentence is a sentence that contains more than one clause that are joined together by subordinating one to another.3.statements:Statements in the form of simple sentences are the foundation stone of all the English sentences.Their primary function is to convey information,in a positive way or in a negative way.There are two major types of statements on a polarity―positive statements and negative statements.4.non-assertion:A non-assertive sentence is either an interrogative sentence or a negative sentence.It is associated to non-assertive words and negative words.5.semi-negatives:Semi-negatives refer to words which are negative in meaning but not in appearance.They include seldom,rarely,hardly,barely,little,few,etc.Th eir similarities to the ordinary negative items are such that they are followed by non-assertive rather than assertive words and that they are followed by positive rather than negative tag questions.6.transferred negation:T ransferred negation refers to the shift of negation from the subordinate clause,where it senmantically belongs,to the main clause.It normally occurs with such verbs as think,believe,suppose,imagine and expect,that is,verbs that express“opinion”.7.WH-questions:They cover all questions that normally begin with WH-series of word,i.e.what,when,where,why,who,who se,which and how.Spoken with a final falling tone,they are sometimes called “information questions”because they require some specific information in the reply.Rather,they ask for details about apart of it.8.alternative questions:They fall intotwo subclasses:one is forned on the basisof YES-NO questions;the other on thebasis of WH-questions.They suggest twoalternatives and usually imply that one ofthem could be true.They expect one of thesuggested answers.mands:Commands are alsocalled directives.It is used by the speaker orwriter when they intend to get thingsdone.They typically take the form of animperative sentence and the main verb inan imperative sentence takes the baseform and the sentence generally goeswithout a subject.10.How-exclamations:Thisexclamation is introduced by how.“How”is an adverb.It highlights theadjective,adverb,or verb in exclamations.11.tag question:Atag question is aquestion that normally consists of astatement and a question tag.The tag is aYES-NO question cut short into anoperator and a subject that mirror thesubject and auxiliary of thestatement.Contraction is the norm in anegative tag.e.g.Y ou went to see a film lastnight,didn’t you?12.countable nouns:They refer to thenouns that can take plural forms.13.number；Number is the importantcriteria in distinguishing classes ofnouns.In terms of number,some nouns arevariable and some are usually not.14.proper nouns:They denoteindividual persons,places,etc.A propernoun normally begins with a capitalletter,has no plural form and cannot occurafter an article.These are general rules.15.mass nouns:According to thistextbook,mass is preferred to uncountablenoun,to avoid the ambiguous meaning ofthe latter word.Mass nouns refer to thenouns that can not take plural forms ascountable nouns do.16.irregular plurals:Bydefinition,irregular plurals areunpredictable from the form ofcorresponding singulars,which means thatgeneralization is usually not applicable andthat the plurals have to be listed andlearned as individual lexical units.Thegeneral types of irregular pluralsinclude:nouns with irregular speeling orpronounciation or both,nouns with zeroplurals and nouns that take foreign plurals.17.foreign plurals:W oeds that areborrowed from other languages oftenhave foreign plurals.Many such wordshave become naturalized and so take theregular plural forms.W ords that still keepforeign plural forms include nouns endingin-a(Latin),in-eau(French),in-ex-ix(Latin) ,in-is(Greek),in-on(Greek) ,in-um(Latin)and in-us(Latin).18.unit nouns:Unit nouns,also referredto as“partitives”,are a very special class ofwords that are used to specify thequantities of the modified noun.They areespecially used to indicate the plural notionof a mass noun.But unit nouns alsomodify countable nouns by referring tonumber,measure,shape,etc.19.zero article:Generic reference canalso be realized by a plural countable nounthat goes without an article-a usage that istermed in modern grammar“zero article”.20.forms of genitive:The genitive isgenerally formed in writing by adding“’s”to singular nouns and to the plural nounsthat do not end in-s.Plural nouns that endin-s take apostrophe as genitive marker.21.local genitive:The genitive issometimes used alone without a followingnoun.Nouns used in the local genitive areinvariably nouns referring to persons anddenoting residence,public buildings,places where business is conducted,etc.Unless this is a case of ellipsis,the meaning is usually a place.22.double genitive:It is also referred to as the“post genitive”.The double genitive is so called because it is a combination of the genitive and the of-phrase.23.tense:T ense usually points to temporal locations.English verbs have two tenses―the present tense and the past tende,which are termed the simple present tense and the simple past tense if the verb is not premodified by any auxiliary. 24.the simple present:It is primarily used to express the present time and typically implies the sense of permanence.Other uses of the simple present include reference to the past and to the future in appropriate contexts.25.aspect:According to quirk,aspect generally marks the state of an action-whether it is completed or not. 26.the present perfect:It is basically used to denote a relation between the past and the present,i.e.to refer to a past occurrence as conceived to be related with the present.27.the present perfect progressive:It is used to reinforce the unfinished use of the present perfect.28.the past perfect progressive:It is to strengthen the sense of future continuation and to replace the past perfect in its unfinished use.The past perfect progressive in its finished use also carries the implication of recency or immediacy of an early state of affairs.29.the present progressive:The present progressive may refer to different temporal distinctions in different contexts with a variety of semantic overtones such as duration,simultaneity,temporariness,inco mpleteness,vividness,emphasis,etc. 30.voice:V oice is a grammatical categorythat makes it possible to view the action ofa sentence in either of the two ways thatis,one that performs the action and theother affected by the action,withoutchange in the facts rported.31.the be-subjunctive:Thebe-subjunctive is formally marked by theuse of the verb;that is,the verb invariablyoccurs in the base form free from theconcord constraints with the subject andfrom the tense agreement with otherverbs.The be-subjunctive is furtherdivided into the formulaic subjunctive andthe mandative subjunctive.32.predicative meaning of modalauxiliaries:The predictive meaning,isconcerned with the speaker’s assumptionor assessment of probability and,in mostcases,indicates the speaker’s confidenceor lack of confidence in the truth of hisstatement.e.g.It must be John.33.non-predictivemeaning:Non-predictive meaning ofmodal auxiliaries,are very heterogeneousin nature;that is,this category covers avariety of meanings,except“prediction”.34.the-ing participle:The-ing participleused to be called“the present participle”or“the gerund”.Now the two“participles”have merged into one because,whateverfunction they may perform in a givencontext,they take the same form,which isthe foundation stone for presentgrammatical categorization.35.dangling participle:It refers to thesubject of a participle which is notexpressed,it is normally understood to bethe main clause.It is usually poorgrammar,and sometimes absurd.But therule is often broken when the subject isvaguely understood to be“one”, “we”,“you”,people in general.36.subjectcomplement:Semantically,subjectcomplements denote what the subject is orwhat the subject becomes the two notionsthat are most typically expressed by beand become.37.adjectives:The adjective,according tothe modern grammar,is defined by theirpositions,their functions,and their formsfour features are identified to becharactenistic of adjectives:attributivefunction,predicativefunction,premodification by the intensifier“very”,and comparative forms.38.gradable adjectives:They refer toadjectives which can take comparativeforms,inflectional or periphrastic,or theycan be modified by intensifies like“very”and “so”and graded on a scale ofintensity.39.non-inherent adjective s:Theyidentify qualities in an indirect way.A bigeater,for example,does not refer to the sizeof the eater.40.restrictive adjectives:Restrictiveadjectives help identify the referent of thenoun by describing its distinctivequalities,e.g.fat in a fat woman isrestriotive.parison:Comparison is relatedwith to adjectives,adverbs and somedeterminers that aregradable.Grammarians have generalizedthree degrees of comparison:positivedegree,comparative degree andsuperlative degree,which are neatlycorrelated with three grammaticalconstructions.42.prepositions:A preposition is a closedword class.Its major function is to connectwords of the noun,verb and adjectiveclasses to other parts of the sentence.Inform,prepositions are either simple orcomplex.A preposition is usuallymeaningful in its own right,but sometimesit is rendered meaning less when attached to a noun,a verb,or an adjective to form a fixed collocation.43.forms of prepositions:Prepositions can be divided into two types:simple prepositions and complex plex prepositions can be further divided into prepositions consisting of two words and those of more than two words.plex prepositions:A complex preposition consists of two words or more than two words.In principle,a complex preposition is an unalterable,fixed form.45.free prepositional phrases:A free prepositional phrase also consists of two words or more than two words.In principle,a free prepositional phrase is a changesble un fixed prepositional phrase.46.non-durative prepositions:It refers to prepositions which denote temporal positions.47.coordinators:They can be divided into central coordinators,correlative coordinators,semi-coordinators and quasi-coordinators.The functions of coordinators are to be used to join units in coordination.48.correlative coordinators:They are almost invariably found conjoining two parallel units.49.subordination:Subordination is typically realized by subordinators,which involves the linking of two units,usually two clauses,at different syntactic levels and results in a complex sentence.50.the main clause:In a complex sentence,the inclusive clause on the higher level is termed the main clause.51.subordinate clauses:In a complex sentence,the attached clauses on s lower level is termed the subordinate clause.The majority of the subordinate clauses bear a status marker―the subordinator. 52.the relative clause:The relativeclause is often defined as a clausalmodifier of preceding noun or nounphrase.It occurs in the form of a finiteclauses or a non-finite clause.53.a restrictive clause:A restrictiveclause provides essential information forthe identification of what its antecedentrefers to.54.antecedent:The antecedent is thatpreceding item which the relative clausemodifies.It has two kinds:nominalantecedents and non-nominal antecedents.55.relative adverbs:Where,when,andwhy play a special role inpostmodification.They serverbials in therelative clause.56.integrated adverbials:They arecommonly referred to as adjuncts,whichtypically modify the verb.57.adjuncts:An adjunct is a word or agroup of words which we add to a clauseto say something about the circumstancesof an event or situation.W e have a varietyof adjuncts such as time adjuncts,placeadjuncts and manner adjuncts.58.disjuncts:They are sometimes called“sentence adjuncts”or“sentenceadverbials”.They are peripherallyattached to the main clause rather thanmerged into it like adjuncts.They aresyntactically“superordinate”because theyseem to have a scope that extends over thewhole sentence.They fall into two types insemantic terms:style-disjuncts andcontent-disjuncts.59.conjuncts:Adverbial which functionas conjuncts do not modify;nor do theycomment.Their sole function is to putsentences together by establishing a logicalconnection between the clause to whichthey are attached and the precedingcontext.60.concord:Concord,also termed“agreement”,can be defined as“therelationship between two grammaticalunits such that one of them displays aparticular feature that accords with adisplayed feature in the other”.61.given information:The giveninformation is assumed to be familiar tothe receiver because it was explicitlyprovided in the preceding linguisticcontext or implicitly provided in view ofthe situational context or the sharedcultural background.rmation focus:It is usually themost important part of the newinformation and is the content which thespeaker trys to stress.63.discontinuity:It is a special subtype ofpostponement.It moves only part of aclause element.64.cohesion:Cohesion is a semanticconcept referring to the relation ofmeaning within the text.This relation doesnot come into being until we have tointerpret a certain element by recouse toanother.65.substitution:It is a structuralcorrespondence,and it can be divided intothree types in accordance with thegrammatical functions of substitutionitems:nominal substitution,verbalsubstitution,and clausal substitution.66.parallelism:It is in fact a kind ofrepetition―a special kind,as it were,forwhat is repeated is not a particular word orphrase,but the structure of a precedingsentence.67.ellipsis:The basic principle of ellipsisis leaving out something understood andhence produces incomplete sentenceswith such a structure as to presuppose apreceding item.Ellipsis,somehow likesubstitutions,sets up cohesion on the basisof structural recoverability with referenceto the linguistic context.(二)简答题 at least five methods of word-formation and cite examples for each.①affixation e.g.unfair ②composition e.g.manservant ③conversion e.g.answer ④blending e.g.motel(motor+hotel) ⑤back-formation e.g.advise(from advisor) ⑥shortening e.g.ad(advertisement) ⑦acronyms e.g.UN(the United Nations) 2.What are the seven clause patterns?①SV The baby is crying.②SVC He is innocent.③SVO She bought a skirt.④SVOO He gave her a rose.⑤SVOC All of us believed him honest.⑥SV A They live in Los A ngeles.⑦SVOA He put the coin in his mouth.3.Why do we need to go beyond the sentence and study the text? Because to express a clear and complete idea or thought,we need more than one sentence.It is quite rare that we only use one sentence to express our ideas.When an idea or thought is expressed in more than one sentence,we have a text,which relates sentences together.In other words,sentences in a text are coherent so that they help each other in expressing a complete idea.The study of the text is to know how sentences can be joined together coherently so that they can best express ideas.4.What is the primary function of WH-question?The primary function of a WH-question has two: ⑴the require some specific information in the reply.They do not query the truth of the statement as a YES – NO question does.⑵they ask for details abouta part of it.5.How do we reinforce a command？There are two ways in reinforcingcommand:one is that the subject you isretained for emphatic effect;the other is toadd initial do.6.What’s the difference betweencountable nouns and uncountablenouns?Nouns that can take plural are calledcountable nouns (a book∕books)andthose that cannot take plural are calledmass nouns (butter∕butters).The term“mass”is preferred to“uncountable”because the latter word is usedambiguously.Sometimes it is used as asynonym for“mass”and sometimes itincludes words which are pluralonly,though some of these arecountable:three people.Concrete nounscan be either countable (book,desk)ormass (butter,cheese);abstract nouns caneither be countable (speech,problem)ormass (homework,music),too.7.What are the difference betweendeterminers and adjectives?⑴Determiners usually precede adjectivesin premodification.⑵The choice ofdeterminers is often determined by thehead word but not that of adjectives.⑶Adjectives describe the head word byshowing its characteristics,but determinersdetermine the head word by identifying orquantifying.⑷Adjectives can postmodifythe head word,but not determiners (exceptenough).⑸Adjectives have comparativeforms,inflectional or periphrastic,but notdeterminers (except few,little,many andmuch).8.What are generic reference andspecific reference?Generic reference denotes classmembership and it can also refer to a classas a whole.It is realized by a singularcountable noun that goes with anindefinite article“a(n)”,or a singularcountable noun with a definite article“the”,or a plural countable noun thatgoes without an article.Specific referencecan be made either in a definite way or inan indefinite way.Definite specificreference indentifies the referent inquestion and is realized by a noun with adefinite article“the”.Indefinite specificreference,however,points to aparticular,actual example of class,and it isrealized by a singular countable noun withan indefinite to article“a(n)”.9.Explain the relationship betweentense and time.T ime and tense are not the samething;time is a concept and tense is agrammatical device.A particular tenseform can express different temporalnotions in different contexts.10.When the simple present referenceto the present time,what are itscharacteristic uses?The characteristic uses of simple presentreferring to the present time: ⑴It denotesno limitation of the extension of aparticular state of affairs through thepresent time into the past and future time.⑵It denotes the present existence or stateof affairs.⑶The simple present is alsocommonly used to refer to something thatis characterized by regular recurrence,e.g.ahabit.Another important use of the simplepresent with reference to the presenttime,is found in the presentation of anevent that happens simultaneously withspeech.11.Why is the past tense often used forpoliteness?The simple past with reference to thepresent usually expresses the speaker’sattitude or hypothesis.The attitudinal usenormally occurs in independent clausesexpressing a less direct question,request orsuggestion and implying an overstone onthe part of the speaker.12.What are some of the typical semantic components of the present progressive?Some of the typical semantic components of the present progressive are duration,simultaneity,temporariness,inco mpleteness,vividnes and emphasis. 13.How many types of voice constraints have we discussed in this chapter?⑴grammatical constraint:it mainly refer to same transitive verbs which and only be used in an active voice or only in a passive voice.For example,“I have a lot of friends”,we can’t say“a lot of friends are had by me”.⑵semantic constraints:especially when quantifiers and modal auxiliaries are involved in an active voice,we can not find its corresponding passive voice in semantics.For example,you can use the car now.It is not equivalent to the sentence the car can be used now. “can”in the former one is most probably used in the “permission”sense and“can”in the latter could be interpreted as the possibility sense.⑶stylistic constraints:the passive voice often removes the agent,it tends to strike as more impersonal,thus more objective,than the active voice.Imaginative prose,therefore,displays a relatively lower frequency of the passive voice.14.What is special about the pseudo-passive?A pseudo-passive sentence is passive in form but active in meaning.Its-ed particible is adjectivalized so that it becomes a subject complement in the SVC structure.As an adjective,therefore,it can occur in a comparative construction,with a variety of prepositional phrases other than byphrase,and with other link verbs besides be and get. 15.Under what circumstances do weneed to leave out the prepositionalphrase of by﹢agent from a passivevoice sentence?⑴It is difficult to identify the agent.⑵It isunnecessary to tell who the agent is.⑶W emay wish to conceal the agent’s identityor to distance ourselves from our ownaction.⑷In accounts of processes andscientific experiments we avoidmentioning the agent and focus on whathappens and not on who or what makes ithappen.16.What are the two major types of thesubjunctive mood?They are the be-subjunctive and thewere-subjunctive.17.What are the three major semanticcomponents of can?The three majer semantic components ofcan are possibility,ability and permission.18.What the special use of will in thepredictive meaning?⑴W ill demonstrates a large amount ofconfidence on the part of thespeaker.Unlike what he does with may,thespeaker is rather certain.⑵W ill in this useexpresses the speaker’s assumption of astate of affairs,rather than as“a future tensemarker”.19.What are the differences betweenhave to and have got to?⑴Have to is more formal;have got tobelongs to a more colloquial style andgenerally occurs only in the spoken contexts.⑵Have got to is rare in the past tenseform.⑶Have got to has no non-finiteforms.⑷Have to tends to expressobjective necessity-compulsion fromexternal factors-while have got to is oftensubjective,overlapping in meaning withmust.20.What are attributive adjectives andpredicative adjectives?Attributive adjectives mean an adjectivegenerally modifies a noun.It can standeither before or after the noun in a nounphrase―premodifier and postmodifier asthey are respectively called.Predicative adjectives mean an adjectivewhich also modifies a noun by way ofserving as a subject complement or anobject complement,in which case theadjective performs the predictive function.21.When adjectives are used in thedynamic sense,what are their syntacticand semantic features?When adjectives are used in the dynamicsense,especially when they occur in thepredicative position to denote subjectivemeasurement or suggest a temporary state.22.Point out the characteristics ofcollocations of prepositions.When prepositions occur withverbs,adjectives and nouns,wherebyidiomatic collocations often arise.Thecollocation between the preposition andother word classes is arbitrary to such anextent that derivatives of the same rootsometimes require the use of differentprepositions.23.Explain the stative and dynamicuses of prepositions with reference tospatial relations.W e use prepositions to indicate the placewhere someone or something is,or theplace where an action occurs.Thisdistinction may also be regarded as onebetween the stative use and the dynamicuse of prepositions,the former related withstatic location and the latter withmovement with respect to an intendeddirection.24.What are the types of subordinateclauses?Subordinate clauses are usually dividedinto three types by their function:relativeclauses,adverbial clauses and nominalclauses.In form,subordinate clauses may be also divided into three types:finite clauses,non-finite clauses and verbless clauses.25.What are the major types of finite and non-finite subordinate clauses? The major types of finite subordinate clauses are relative clauses,adverbial clause and nominal clause.The major types of non-finite subordinate clauses are infinitive clause, -ing participle clause and –ed participle clause and verbless clause.26.Expain the differences in form and in function between the restrictive and the non-restrictive relative clauses.In form: ⑴the non-restrictive relative clauses are set off in writing by commas,which is indicated in speech by a slight pause and characteristic change in pitch both before and after.The restrictive relative clauses are not set off by such features. ⑵If the clause is introduced by that,it must be a restrictive relative clause.That cannot be used with the non-restrictive relative clause;if it is introduced by which or other wh-words,it may be either restrictive or non-restrictive.W ith the non-restrictive relative clause that cannot be used. In function the non-restrictive relative clause merely offers additional information which is not needed to identify the person of thing we are talking about and may be discarded without serious injuring to the understanding of the sentence as a whole.The restrictive relative clause is an integral part of the noun phrase and gives essential information for the identification of what its antecedent refers to.27.What is a double relative clause?Hoe many types of the double relative clause do we have?Double relative clause is a type of multiple postmodification which is realized more than one relative clause modifying thesame head word.It falls into two types:onethat consists of parallel clauses and theother of hierarchical clauses.28.Provide examples to illustratestyle―disjuncts and content―disjuncts.⑴Style―disjuncts express the speaker’sattitude towards what is beingsaid:Frankly,he isn’t working hardenough. ⑵Content―disjuncts denote thespeaker’s comment on the content ofwhat is being said:Obviously,she couldn’t deal with these problems.One formalcriterion that helps to distinguish the twotypes of disjuncts is whether or not we caninsert the word speaking.29.What is the difference between acoordinator and a conjunct?Conjuncts are different from coordinatorsin that most conjuncts are mobile butcoordinators which are put before theclause that they introduce,and coordinatorsare mutually exclusive,but not withconjuncts.30.Explain the three principles ofconcord and their relations.There are three complementary principlesof concord:the grammatical principle,thenotional principle and the principle ofproximity. ⑴The grammatical principlestipulates that the verb matches its subjectboth in person and in number. ⑵Thenotional principle,as the name suggests,isconcerned with the subject―verb concordon the semantic basis,i.e.according to thenotion of number rather than the physicalpresence of the grammatical marker ofthat notion.Such a concord is especiallycommon between a verb and its subjectthat contains a collective noun. ⑶Theprinciple of proximity denotes“agreementof the verb with a closely preceding nounphrase in preference to agreement with theverb with a closely preceding noun phrasethat functions as subject.” Generallyspeaking,the grammatical principleapplies to formal English and therefore isrecommended for classroomteaching.The notional principle and theprinciple of proximity,on the otherhand,play an auxiliary role in supportingthe grammatical principle in informalEnglish.31.Explain the complemetarity of thethree principles of concord in the caseof a coordinated noun phrase assubject.⑴When coordinated noun phrases areused as subject,the grammatical principleof concord normally applies if theconjoined items refer to differentthings.The same is usually true of theconjoined items that go without and orwith the coordinator hidden in theabbreviated expression of etc. ⑵Thesingular verb can be used on the notionalprinciple of concord if the conjoined itemsrefer to different components of the sameobject or if they actually refer to the samething,the same person or sameconcept.The singular verb is also preferredif the conjoined items are premodified byeach or every,so as to enhance thedistributive effect. ⑶The coordinatorsor,either…or,neither…nor,and not only…but also usually favour the proximityprinciple of concord,even in formalEnglish.32.Provide examples to illustrate themajor types of postponement.The major types of postponement are: ⑴active―to―passive transformation forexample:①The rain destroyed the flowers.②The flowers were destroyed by the rain.⑵Extraposition is the major types ofpostponement,it is grammaticallyoptional,depending on whether or not the。