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语言学教程笔记第一章语言学导论语言的定义特征：从本质上将人类语言与动物语言区分开的人类语言的区别性特点。
1. 任意性：任意性是指语言符号的形式与所表示的意义没有天然的联系，任意性是语言的核心特征。
例如，我们无法解释为什么一本书读作 a /buk/，一支钢笔读作a /pe n/。
任意性具有不同层次：（1）语素音义关系的任意性。
（2）句法层面上的任意性。
（3）任意性和规约性。
2. 二层性：二层性是指拥有两层结构的这种特性，上层结构的单位由底层结构的元素构成，每层都有自身的组合规则。
话语的组成元素是本身不传达意义的语音，语音的唯一作用就是相互组合构成有意义的单位，比如词。
因为底层单位是无意的，而上层单位有明确的意义，所以我们把语音叫做底层单位，与词等上层单位相对。
二层性使语言拥有了一种强大的能产性。
3. 创造性：创造性指语言的能产性，指语言有制造无穷长句的潜力，这来源于语言的二层性和递归性。
利用二重性说话者可以通过组合基本语言单位，无止境地生成句子，大多数都是以前没有过的或没有听过的。
4. 移位性：是指人类语言可以让使用者在交际时用语言符号代表时间上和空间上并不可及的物体、时间或观点。
因此我们可以提及孔子或北极，虽然前者已经去世两千五百五十多年而后者位置距我们非常之远。
语言使我们能够谈及已不存在或还未出现的事物。
移位性赋予人们的概括与抽象能力使人类受益无穷。
词在指称具体物体时，并不总是出现在即时、形象化的语境中。
他们通常为了体现指称含义而被使用。
5. 文化传递性：语言不是靠遗传，而是通过文化传递的。
6. 互换性：指人可以是信息的发出者，也可以是信息的接受者，即人作为说话者和听话者的角色是可以随意更换的。
元语言功能：我们的语言可以用来讨论语言本身。
比如说，我可以用“书”指代一本书，也可以用“书这个词”来指代“书”这个词本身。
这使语言具有无限的自我反身性：人类可以谈论“说话”，也可以思考“思考"。
胡壮麟《语言学教程》(修订版)测试题第一章:语言学导论I. Choose the best answer。
(20％)1. Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human __________.A. contact B。
communicationC. relation D。
community2。
Which of the following words is entirely arbitrary？A。
tree B. typewriterC。
crash D。
bang3。
The function of the sentence “Water boils at 100 degrees Centigrade.” is __________.A. interrogativeB. directiveC. informativeD. performative4。
In Chinese when someone breaks a bowl or a plate the host or the people present are likely to say“碎碎（岁岁）平安”as a means of controlling the forces which they believes feel might affect their lives. Which functions does it perform？A。
Interpersonal B. EmotiveC. Performative D。
Recreational5。
Which of the following property of language enables language users to overcome the barriers caused by time and place，due to this feature of language, speakers of a language are free to talk about anything in any situation?A。
胡壮麟《语言学教程》（第5版）笔记和考研真题详解目录第1章语言学导论1.1复习笔记1.2考研真题与典型题详解第2章语音2.1复习笔记2.2考研真题与典型题详解第3章词和形态学3.1复习笔记3.2考研真题与典型题详解第4章句法：从语词到篇章4.1复习笔记4.2考研真题与典型题详解第5章意义5.1复习笔记5.2考研真题与典型题详解第6章语言与认知6.1复习笔记6.2考研真题与典型题详解第7章语言文化社会7.1复习笔记7.2考研真题与典型题详解第8章语言的使用8.1复习笔记8.2考研真题与典型题详解第9章语言与文学9.1复习笔记9.2考研真题与典型题详解第10章语言和计算机10.1复习笔记10.2考研真题与典型题详解第11章第二语言和外语教学11.1复习笔记11.2考研真题与典型题详解第12章现代语言学理论与流派12.1复习笔记12.2考研真题与典型题详解内容简介作为《语言学教程》（第5版）（胡壮麟主编，北京大学出版社）的学习辅导书，全书完全遵循该教材的章目编排，共分12章，每章由两部分组成：第一部分为复习笔记（中英文对照），总结本章的重点难点；第二部分是考研真题与典型题详解，精选名校经典考研真题及相关习题，并提供了详细的参考答案。
本书具有以下几个方面的特点：1．梳理章节脉络，浓缩内容精华。
每章的复习笔记以该教材为主并结合其他教材对本章的重难点知识进行了整理，并参考了国内名校名师讲授该教材的课堂笔记，因此，本书的内容几乎浓缩了经典教材的知识精华。
2．中英双语对照，凸显难点要点。
本书章节笔记采用了中英文对照的形式，强化对重要难点知识的理解和运用。
3．精选考研真题，补充难点习题。
本书精选名校考研真题及相关习题，并提供答案和详解。
所选真题和习题基本体现了各个章节的考点和难点，但又不完全局限于教材内容，是对教材内容极好的补充。
另外，在笔记部分，对于在《语言学教程》第三版或第四版提到而第五版删减的知识点我们也予以保留，并用“＊”标明，部分院校考研真题依旧会涉及这些知识点的考查。
Chapter one Invitations to languageReference keysI 1. verbal 2. productivity.3 metalingual function 4. yo-he-ho 5. Pooh-pooh 6. contact 7. language 8. descriptive 10. diachronic linguistic 11. langue 12. competence 13. arbitrary vocal 14. scientific ,language 15. descriptive, prescriptive 16. Synchronic, diachronic 17. abstract, realization 18. knowledge, realization 19. arbitrariness 20. displacement 21 sounds, meaning 22. transmittedII. 1. B 2.B 3. C 4. A 5. C. 6.C 7.C 8.C 9.B 10.D 11. A 12.C III. 1.T 2.F 3.T 4.F 5.T 6.T 7.T 8.F 9.T 10.F 11.F 12.T 13.F 14.T 15.F 16.F 17.T18.T19.F20.TVI. Questions1.What are the attributes of language that must be included in thedefinition of language?Language is a means of verbal communication. It includes the following attributes: language has system; it is vocal and arbitrary; it is a human and social activity; it is non-instinctive and is related to culture; language changes with time.2. If language is partially defined as communication, can we all say the voices that dogs make are languages? Why or why not?No.It is observed that dogs may use barking to express anxiety, submission and threats, but it is very different from human language inmany aspects. Firstly, human language has two systems: the system of sound and the system of meaning. So language is a system by which sounds and meanings are related. But dogs’ voice has not the two sets of structures. Second, The creative use language is unique to human beings. But dogs can not segment speech sounds, nor can they form an infinite set of utterance from a finite set of units by use of limited rules. Third, Dogs’ voice is only emotional response to particular stimuli, and have no way to express their feelings yesterday or their imaginations tomorrow. But human beings can talk about things at present, in the past or in the future, and things real or imagined.3. Point our three major differences between linguistics and traditional grammar.略4.What kind of evidence supports the idea that language is culturally transmitted.略5.One of he main features of our human language is arbitrariness. Can you briefly explain what feature it refers to? Support your argument with examples.Language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between the sounds that people use and the objects to which these sounds refer. The fact that different languages have different words for the sameobject is a good illustration of the arbitrary nature of language,. It is only our tacit agreement of utterance and concept at work and not any innate relationship bound up in the utterance. A typical example to illustrate the “arbitrariness” of language is “ a rose by any name would smell as sweet”。
第一章语言学导论Chapter1 Invitations to LinguisticsLinguistics is nowadays coming into wide use with combination of theories and practice as well as linguistics and other disciplines.Linguistics is of great use with very wide application. —人工智能，人机对话，机器翻译The research of linguistics has already gone beyond language itself.Definition of LinguisticsHow do you define linguistics? What is linguistics?——Linguistics can be defined as the scientific or systematic study of language. It is a science in the sense that it scientifically studies the rules, systems and principles of human language. What are we going to learn about linguistics?1. It is generally agreed that linguistics should include at least five parameters, namely, phonological, morphological, syntactic, semantic and pragmatic. These can be called microlinguistics.语音学(phonetics);音系学(phonology);形态学(morphology);句法学(syntax) —Schools of Modern Linguistics 现代语言学流派; 语义学(semantics) ; 语用学(pragmatics) (chapter2-6) 2. Macrolinguistics——interdisciplinary learningSaussure, father of modern linguistics(现代语言学之父) were intended to establish the autonomy of linguistics, giving it a well-defined subject of study and freeing it from reliance on other disciplines. However, the interactive links between linguistics and other sciences are developing fast.尽管索绪尔的目的是给予语言学自主性，给它定义明确的研究对象，将它从对其他学科的依赖中解放出来。
然而，随着时间的推移，语言学和其他学科的联系越来越密切。
PsycholinguisticsPsycholinguistics, as implied by the name, is the study of psychological aspects of language. It usually studies the psychological states and mental activity associated with the use of language.心理语言学，顾名思义，是对语言的心理方面的研究，它通常研究的是与语言使用相关的心理状态和心理活动。
比如语言习得，语言的理解，语言的生成等等。
(chapter 9/chapter11) SociolinguisticsSociolinguistics, as implied by the name, attempts to show the relationship between language and society.Sociolinguistics attempts to look at language structures by paying attention to language use in a social context and on the other hand tries to understand sociological things of society by examining linguistic phenomena of a speaking community.这就是社会与语言的关系，一方面通过社会语境中语言使用情况的调查了解语言结构的问题，另一方面又通过语言现象的分析了解社会构成的问题。
Research Focus1Cross-cultural CommunicationThere exists a close relationship between language and culture. Language is an indispensable carrier of culture. Culture finds a better representation through language use.语言是文化的载体，具有不可替代的重要性；文化通过语言得以凸现，其表现力得到充分展示。
心理学家罗杰斯(Rogers,1961), 真正的交流建立在理解基础上的倾听。
Anthropological Linguistics人类语言学Anthropological linguists are interested primarily in the history and structure of formerly unwritten languages. They are concerned with the emergence of language and also with the divergence of languages over thousands of years. They start with the comparison of contemporary languages in order to draw inferences about the kinds of change in language that may have occurred in the past. This is the “diachronic” study of language.人类语言学家主要对历史和早期无文字语言的结构感兴趣，他们关注语言的出现和上千年来语言的分化。
他们从当代语言的比较出发，推测语言过去发生了何种变化。
这就是对语言历时的研究，即研究语言的历史。
Computational Linguistics 计算机语言学Some current application areas include Machine Translation, Corpus Linguistics and Information Retrieval as well as various forms of computer mediated(传递的) communication such as emails, QQ, online shopping transaction software and so on.当前的一些应用领域包括机器翻译，语料库语言学和信息检索，各种各样因电脑的出现而改变的交际方式，比如电子邮件，QQ聊天，网上购物交易软件等等。
Instant Messenger on the internet (基于互联网的即时通讯), such as百度Hi, MSN, UC, YY语音，阿里旺旺等等。
Other interdisciplinary branches1、认知语言学Cognitive Linguistics (chapter 10)2、语言与语言教学(chapter 12 Applied Linguistics)3、文本语言学或语篇分析—Discourse Analysis Chapter 7（研究语言和语境的关系the relationship between language and the contexts in which language is used, 语篇的衔接cohesion 连贯coherence等等）。
4、语言与文学Language and Literature（文体学Stylistics）5、神经语言学neurolinguisticsWhat is language?对语言的误解：wrong ideas about language1、语言仅是一种交际方式Language is only a means of communication.2、语言的形式和意义对应一致Language has a form-meaning correspondence.3、语言的作用即交换信息The function of language is to exchange information.4、英语比汉语难学English is more difficult to learn than Chinese.5、黑人英语不标准需要改造Black English is not standard and should be reformed.误解语言仅仅是一个交际系统Language is only a system of communication.If language is merely defined as a system of communication, we can call the noises that dogs make language. As we know, birds, bees, crabs, spiders, and most other creatures communicate in some way, but the information imparted is severely limited and confined to a small set of messages. So language can’t be defined merely as a system of communication, otherwise language is not unique to humans. Language is one of the unique possessions of human beings. It is used for human communication. It is one of our most articulated means of expressing ideas and thoughts.The design features of language distinguish us from animals.误解1 语言仅是一种交际方式Language is only a means of communication.误解2 语言的形式和意义对应一致Language has a form-meaning correspondence“土豆”，形式上是“土”和“豆”这两个字的组合，但意义上不是说一把土和一堆豆就是土豆了，而表达的是另外的意思，指的是一种蔬菜，我们把它叫做土豆。
