二语习得复习提要.docx

第一章第二语言习得研究概述埃利斯（1994）明确地将第二语言习得与外语习得的概念区分开来。

“第二语言习得”是指学习者在目的语国家学习目的语。

学习者所学的目的语在目的语国家是公认的交际工具，当然也是学习者用来交际的工具。

“外语习得”是指学习者在本国学习目的语。

学习者的目的语在本国不是作为整个社团的交际工具。

这种语言学习基本上是在课堂上进行的。

“语言能力”是由交际双方内在语法规则的心理表征构成的。

简单地说，语言能力是一种反映交际双方语言知识的心理语法。

这种语法是一种隐性的语言知识。

语言能力包括：1)能指出哪些声音或语素的组合是母语中可能存在的，哪些可能是不存在的。

2)能区别符合语法的句子和不符合语法的句子。

3)能区别出一些结构相同或相似，但实际意义却不同的句子。

4)能辨别出结构不同但意义有联系的句子。

5)能辨别出句子的歧义，即同一结构具有一个以上的释义。

6)能意识到句子之间的释义关系，即结构不同的句子具有相同的语义。

“语言表达”指的是交际双方在语言的理解与生成过程中对其内在语法的表现。

关于语言运用的知识。

理想的母语者根据“递归规则”生成无限递归的句子。

第二节二语习得研究的发展一、发展阶段（一）20世纪50-60年代：理论初创阶段（二）20世纪70年代：理论大发展阶段1.偏误分析2.中介语理论假设3.习得顺序研究4.监控模式5.文化适应模式（三）20世纪80年代中期：成熟阶段1.语言学视角2.社会语言学视角3.认知视角4.社会文化视角二、理论成熟的标志1. 调查研究的领域和涉及的领域扩大2. 由理论假设发展为理论模式3. 研究方法日益科学化三、汉语作为第二语言的习得研究的发展（一）80年代，汉语习得研究起步。

1984鲁键骥“中介语理论与外国人学习汉语的语音偏误分析”1985年，第一界国际汉语教学讨论会1987年，吕必松“加强对外汉语教学的理论研究”评价：取得了一定成果，但缺乏系统研究、分析方法不够严谨、疏于解释和评价。

第二语言习得研究期末考试复习题1、简述第二语言习得研究发展的途径分为三个阶段：1）20世纪50-60年代，这一阶段为理论初创阶段，占主导地位的是以行为主义心理学为基础的“对比分析”方法。

2）20世纪70年代，理论研究大发展阶段，开始关注学习者的语言偏误，产生了“中介语”理论假设。

三个理论研究，即以Dulay和Burt 为代表的第二语言习得顺序研究、克拉申的“监控模式”、Schumann的“文化适应模式”。

3）20世纪80年代，作为一个独立的学科，并开始走向成熟。

不同的发展途径构成了第二语言习得研究的跨学科特点。

不同的发展途径体现在：1）语言学理论对第二语言习得研究的影响，构成了第二语言习得研究的语言学视角。

2）社会语言学及其研究范式对第二语言习得研究的影响，构成了第二语言习得研究的社会语言学视角。

3）认知科学对第二语言习得研究的影响，构成了第二语言习得研究的认知视角。

2、针对语言输入有哪几种不同的语言输入观？1）行为主义学习理论认为，语言输入在语言习得过程中具有重要作用，强调外在因素的中心地位，基于以下假设：a，语言输入是由外在的语言刺激和反馈构成的 b，语言输入通过正面的反馈和纠正得到强化 c，通过语言形式的操练可以达到语言学习的目的。

2）心灵学派认为，学习者的内在因素，即语言习得机制，在语言习得过程中具有重要作用，他们把语言习得机制看做语言习得的决定性因素。

语言输入不过是语言习得发生的“触发”因素而已，语言输入是贫乏的，学习者不可能通过外在的语言输入获得完整的语言能力。

3）“互动论”：认知心理学为基础的“认知互动理论”强调将语言输入环境与语言习得内在因素两者结合起来；社会互动理论主要是从社会语言学的角度来研究语言输入环境与第二语言习得的关系。

3、学习策略的含义是什么？学习策略如何分类？学习策略是指学习者在整个语言习得或语言使用过程中，与某个特定阶段相关联的心理行为或行动。

1）Skehan（1989）根据学习者处理学习情境的能力来分：主动参与策略、解释与确认策略根据学习者的方法素质来分：跨语言比较策略、归纳策略根据学习者的评价能力来分：监控策略、自我评价策略2）O’Malley（1987）根据信息加工模型分类：认知策略（重复策略、记笔记策略、关联策略）；元认知策略（直接注意策略、自我管理策略）；社会/情感策略（合作策略、要求解释策略）3）Oxford的分类（1990）直接策略：直接影响语言学习，需要对语言学习进行心理操作间接策略：通过集中注意、计划、评价自我、控制焦虑感和增加与他人合作机会等间接影响语言学习4、如何区分下列概念：母语、目的语、第一语言、第二语言？母语通常是指学习者所属种类、社团使用的语言，也叫本族语，母语通常是指儿童出生以后最先接触、习得的语言；目的语也称目标语，一般是指学习者正在学习的语言，它强调的是学习者正在学习的任何一种语言；第一语言是指儿童幼年最先接触和习得的语言；第二语言是相对于学习者习得的第一语言之外的任何一种其他语言而言，包含第三、第四或更多的其他语言5、简述社会文化理论的主要内容及意义主要内容：调节论：主要用于解释儿童的认知发展，在语言的调节下，儿童的认知从“客体调控”阶段发展到“他人调控”阶段，最后到“自我调控”阶段。

名词解释：1、母语：指学习者所属种族、社团使用的语言，因而也称作“本族语”，一般情况下，母语是儿童出生以后最先接触、习得的语言2、目的语：也称“目标语”，是指学习者正在学习的语言，这种语言可以指正在学习的母语或第一语言，也可以指他正在学习的第二语言、第三语言甚至第四语言。

3、第一语言：指儿童幼年最先接触和习得的语言。

4、第二语言：是相对于学习者习得的第一语言Z外任何一种其他语言。

5、习得：指“非止式”的语言获得，儿童大都是通过这种方式来获得母语。

6、学习：指“止式”的语言规则学习，即通过课堂教学的方式来获得第二语言。

7、第二语言习得：指学习者在口的语国家学习口的语。

8、外语习得：指学习者在木国学习除母语外的口的语。

9、语言能力：指是一种反映交际双发语言知识的心理语法。

10、语言表达：指的是交际双发在语言的理解与牛成过程中对其内在的语法运用。

11＞对比分析：产生于20世纪50年代。

兴盛于60年代。

初衷是为了在第二语言教学中预测学习者的难点，预防学习者的语言偏误，提高第二语言教学的效率。

12、母语负迁移：这一假设的实质是母语在第二语言习得中的作用问题，主张对比分析的学者认为。

学习者的母语对第二语言习得将产牛极大的影响，如第二语言学习者学习外语大都有母语的“口语”。

13、内隐学习：是通过无意识或下意识的方式来获得语言知识，外显学习是在有意识的状态下通过规则学习，来获得语言知识。

14、通过学习获得的“显性知识”不能转化为“隐性知识”一、第二语言习得研究的跨学科特点：语言学与心理学有着交叉与重合，构成了心理语言学，第二语言习得研究与语言学密切相关，但是在学科的划分上，它并不属于语言学，同样，第二语言习得研究与心理语言学也密切相关，但他既不属于心理语言学也不属于心理学。

二、第二语言习得研究的发端：第二语言习得研究的发端可以追溯到20世纪60年代末，Corder 1967年发表的《学习者偏误的意义》明确提出了第二语言习得的研究对象，标志着第二语言习得研究成为一个相对独立的研究领域；Selinkerl972发表的《中介语》，系统地阐述了“中介语”理论假设，更加明确的提出了第二语言习得研究的对彖，即“学习者的语言系统”，因此，这两人的文章被称为第二语言习得研究的“开山之作”，成为建立第二语言习得研究学科的标志。

第一讲1、什么是第一语言、母语、本族语？P2第一语言是最先习得的语言（未必是你的母语）母语指本国或本民族的语言第二语言在第一语言之后的语言，范围很广。

外语是外国语言（与母语相对）（下意识）（有意识）相同点：1、都是为了获得语言的交际能力。

2、都是有意义的创造性过程。

3、会使用某些相同的学习策略。

差异：１、主体儿童←→成人２、动机生存←→动机各异３、起点４、环境自然的语言环境，不受时间限制←→课堂５、方式直接将语音与实物实景联系在一起←→常常通过母语来联结语音与概念６、教育者亲属输入←→教师７、过程儿童习得母语从不自觉到自觉←→成人习得二语从自觉到不自觉８、文化儿童沉浸在和母语息息相关的文化中←→成人往往未沉浸在相应的文化中第二讲1、影响二语习得的因素有哪些？动机、态度、性别、年龄、母语背景、外语背景、社会环境、性格特征、焦虑、文化2、性别与二语习得的关系如何？有关系，但性别不是二语习得的决定因素。

这种语言能力的发展差异，可从两方面找原因：１、生理学角度在青春期之前，女性大脑左半球发育比男性快；青春期之后两者逐渐接近。

２、性格差别男：开朗好动；女：温柔喜静，在需要较多记忆的二语学习中更胜一筹。

3、年龄与二语习得的关系如何？有关系，但年龄不是二语习得的决定因素。

关键期哈佛大学医学院教授Eric Lenneberg 认为关键期到12岁。

他认为人的大脑从两岁开始侧化(lateralization)，在侧化完成前，人是用全脑来学习语言，大脑完成侧化后，语言学习主要由左边大脑负责。

人脑侧化后的语言学习不如全脑学习时期好。

因此，语言学习最好在大脑完成侧化之前。

●年龄和习得速度许多研究结果显示，在习得速度上，儿童并不一定占有优势。

成人在学习二语的速度上比儿童快，特别是语法。

但儿童经过足够的环境浸泡后可以超越，这种情况发生在课堂教学中的可能性不及自然环境中大。

●年龄和习得顺序实验证明，年龄不会改变习得顺序。

4、什么是语言学习的关键期？语言学习的关键期是指人的一生中有一个固定的时期比其他任何时期都更容易习得语言，过了这段时期以后，一般很难习得完美的母语。

第二语言习得概论考研复习精编W O R D版 IBM system office room 【A0816H-A0912AAAHH-GX8Q8-GNTHHJ8】★1. SLA (Second language acquisition) is the process by which a language other than the mother tongue is learnt in a natural setting or in a classroom.★2. Acquisition vs. Learning (Krashen1982)Acquisition refers to the learning of a language unconsciously under natural settings where learners pay attention only to the meanings or contents rather than forms or grammars.Learning refers to the learning of a language consciously under educational settings where learners mainly pay attention to forms or grammars.3. Factors affecting SLASocial factors (external factors)Learner factors (internal factors)Social factors (external factors)Social contextLanguage policy and the attitude of the public sector;Social demandWith the trend of globalization of the world economy , it is widely accepted among educators and national leaders that proficiency in another language is an indispensable quality of educated peopleLearner factors (internal factors)Motivation ，Age ，Learning strategy4. Behaviorist learning theoryBehaviorist learning theory is a general theory of learning (i.e. it applies to all kinds of learning, not just language learning).It views learning as the formation of habits. The association of aparticular response with a particular stimulus constituted a habit. It is formed when a particular stimulus became regularly linked with a particular response.When applied to SLA, the process of second language acquisition is regarded as a process of habit formation.5. The causes of errors according to behaviorismDifferences between the first and second language create learning difficulty which results in errors.Behaviorist learning theory predicts that transfer will take place from the first to the second language. Transfer will be negative when there is proactive inhibition. In this case errors will result.Errors, according to behaviorist theory, were the result of non-learning, rather than wrong learning.The means used to predict potential errors by behaviorists is Contrastive Analysis.6. StructuralismLanguage was viewed as a coded system consisting of structurally related elements (phonemes, morphemes, words, structures and sentence patterns)7. What is contrastive analysis (CA)Contrastive analysis is an inductive investigative approach based on the distinctive elements in a language. It involves the comparison of two or more languages or subsystems of languages in order to determine both the differences and similarities between them. It could also be done within one language. Contrastive analysis can be both theoretical and applied according to varied purposes.8. Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis (CAH)Contrastive analysis is a way of comparing languages in order to determine potential errors for the ultimate purpose of isolating what needs to be learned and what does not need to be learned in an L2 situation.According to CAH, L2 errors are result of differences between the learner’s first language and the target language. The strong form of the hypothesis claims that these differences can be used to predict all errorsthat will occur. The weak form of the hypothesis claims that these differences can be used to identify some out of the total errors that actually arise.9.difference vs difficulty“Difference” is a linguistic concept, whereas “difficulty” is a psychological concept. Therefore, the level of learning difficulty cannot be inferred directly from the degree of difference between two language systems. 10. Definition of Error analysis (EA)the study and analysis of the errors made by second and foreign language learners (Longman Dictionary of Applied Linguistics, p.96).It involves collecting samples of learner language, identifying the errors in these samples, describing these errors, classifying them according to their hypothesized causes, and evaluating theirs seriousness.11. Interlingual error: deviated forms resulting from the interference of one’s L1, or the negative transfer of one’s mother tongue.Intralingual error: ①deviated forms in learner language that reflect learners’ transitional competence and which are the results of such learning process as overgeneralization.②confusion of L2 rules12. Factors causing errors1. Language transfer2. Overgeneralization3. Learner differences3. Strategies in L2 learning5. Strategies of L2 communicatione.g. The two students changed eyes and eyebrows in class.13. Types of learner strategyLearning strategy, Production strategy 表达策略Communication strategy: Communication strategies are employed when learners are faced with the task of communicating meanings for which they lack the requisite linguistic knowledge. Typical communication strategies are paraphrase and mime.14. Classifications of learning strategy(Cohen 2006)(2) By function: Metacognitive; Cognitive; Socio-affective(3) By skill: listening, speaking, reading, writing, vocabulary, or translation strategies.15. Meta-cognitive strategiesMeta-cognitive strategy is the planning for learning, thinking about the learning process, monitoring of one’s production or comprehension, and evaluating learning after an activity is completed.16. Cognitive strategiesCognitive strategies refer to the steps or operations used in learning or problem-solving that require direct analysis, transformation, or synthesis of learning material.Repetition, Resourcing, Directed physical response, Translation, Grouping, Note-taking , Deduction Recombination, Imagery, Auditory representation, Key word, Contextualization, Elaboration, Transfer, Inferencing17. Individual learner variablesPersonal factors:group dynamics; attitudes to the teacher and course materials; learning techniquesGeneral factors:age; aptitude; cognitive style; motivation; personality18. MotivationIntegrative motivation 融合型动机is present in learners who identify with the target culture, would like to resemble members of the target culture and who would like to participate in the target culture. It is assumed to be based in the personality of the learner.Instrumental orientation工具型动机refers to those cases where the learners are interested in learning the language for the possible benefits, that is, the learner’s goal is functional.Resultative motivation:因果性动机 Learners’ motivation is strongly affected by their achievement.Intrinsic motivation:内在兴趣动机Motivation as intrinsic interest.Motivation as a multi-componential construct:Motivation = effort + desire to achieve goal + attitudesTask motivation: the interest felt by the learner in performing different learning tasks.★ 19. Definition –interlanguageInterlanguage is the approximate language system that the learner constructs for use in communication through the target language. (Larry Selinker)It is independent of both the learner’s first language and the target language.It suggests that learners’ language is between L1 AND L2 and that it is a continuum along which all learners traverse.★20.Definition of fossilizationFossilization refers to the state in which the second language learners stopto learning when their internalized rule system contains rules different from the target language. That is to say, the interlanguage stops evolving towards the TL.21. Classification of fossilizationTemporary fossilization: the phenomenon is alterable under certain conditions. Permanent fossilizationThis means the learne r’s language stops evolving for ever. Because stable stage is not real fossilization, so there is no real permanent fossilization. 22. Causes of fossilizationInternal: Motivation; Communicative needs; Acquisition device External: Communicative pressureLack of learning opportunitiesFeedback:positive cognitive feedbacks cause fossilization ;(e.g. “Oh,I see”)negative feedbacks help to prevent fossilization.(e.g. “I don’t understand you” )★23. Definition of UGCook(1985) summarizing the Chomskyan position, defines ‘universal grammar’ as ‘the properties inherent in the human mind’. Universal grammar consists of a set of general principles that apply to all language rather thana set of particular rules.24. MarkednessMarkedness refers to the idea that some linguistic structures are‘special’ or ‘less natural’ or ‘less basic’ than others.Linguists working in the Chomskyan school suggest that linguistic rules can either be part of the core grammar (i.e. the universal rules) or be part of the periphery.Core rules are considered to be unmarked and therefore easily acquired.Periphery roles are considered to be and therefore different to learn. 25. Krashen’s Monitor ModelKrashen’s monitor model mainly consists of the following five hypothses: (1) Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis:there are two kinds of ways of learning a second language ,i.e., acquisition and learning.(2) Natural Order Hypothesis:SLA follows a universal route that is not influenced by factors such as the learners’ first language, age, and the context (classroom or natural setting).Implications:Errors are developmental and are a natural byproduct of learning – tolerate them.Allow learners to make errors and do not correct them(3) The Input Hypothesis cIt laims a move along the developmental continuum by receiving comprehensible input.We acquire, only when we understand the structure that is “a little beyond” where we are nowComprehensible input is defined as L2 input just beyond the Learner’s current L2 competence, in terms of its syntactic complexity. If a learner’s current competence is i then comprehensible input is i+1. Input which is either too simple (i) or too complex (i+2/3/4…) will not be useful for acquisition.(4) The affective filter hypothesisSLA is affected by factors like Motivation, Self-confidence,Anxiety and so on.Learners who suffer from anxiety or lack of motivation or negative attitude somehow switch off their comprehension mechanisms and so even if they are provided comprehensible input, they will not be able to process the input. Therefore a low affective filter is important.(5) Monitor hypothesisBoth language learners and native speakers typically try to correct any errors in what they have just said. This is referred to as monitoring.Krashen uses the term Monitoring (with a big M) to refer to the way the learner used learnt knowledge to improve utterances produced by means of acquired knowledge.26. language transferLanguage transfer is the influence resulting from the similarities and differences between the target language and any other language that has been previously( and perhaps imperfectly ) acquired.★27. LAD (language acquisition device)The LAD is a system of principles that children are born with that helps them learn language, and accounts for the order in which children learn structures, and the mistakes they make as they learn.★28. critical age period hypothesisIt claims that there a period when language acquisition can take place naturally and effortlessly, but after a certain age the brain is no longer able to process language input in this. Researchers differ over when the critical period comes to an end.★29. field independent vs. field independentLearners are different in the ways of receiving, conceptualizing, organizing, and recalling information.Field dependents operate holistically (i.e. they see the field as a whole), Whereas field independents operate analytically (i.e. they see the field in terms of its component parts).★30. input vs. intakeInput refers to the language learners are exposed to.It serves as the data which learners must use to determine the rules of the target language.However, not all available input is processed by the learner, either because some of it is not understood or because some of it is not attended to. That part of input that is processed, assimilated and fed into the interlanguage system is referred to as intake.★31.attitudes vs. aptitude vs. intelligenceAttitudes refer to the learner’s beliefs about factors such as the target language culture, their own culture, their teacher and the learning tasks they are given.Aptitude refers to the specific ability a learner has for learning a second language.Intelligence refers to the general ability to master academic skills.32. competence vs. performanceWhen learners acquire a L2, they internalize rules which are then organized into a system. This constitutes their competence.The actual use of this system to comprehend and produce utterances is referred to as performance.33. OvergeneralizationIt refers to the extension of some general rule to items not covered bythis rule in the target language.34. foreigner talk vs. teacher talkWhen native speakers address learners, they make adjustments in both language form and language function to facilitate understanding. These adjustments are referred to as foreigner talk.When teachers address learners, they make adjustments in both language form and language function to facilitate understanding. These adjustments are referred to as foreigner talk.35. formulaic speech vs. patternsFormulaic speech consists of expressions which are learned as unanalysable wholes and employed in particular occasions.Patterns are one type of formulaic speech. They are unanalysable units which have one or more open slots, e.g. ‘Can I have a —’。

二语习得复习提要二语习得复习提要一、名词解释1、第二语言习得1第二语言习得研究主要探求人们在掌握母语后如何习得第二语言，第二语言习得理论系统地研究第二语言习得的本质和习得过程。

2、迁移3、关键期假设127也称临界期假设，上世纪60年代，Lenneberg在著名神经外科医生Penfiled 和Roberts的观点上，提出了著名的语言习得的关键期假设。

Lenneberg认为，语言是大脑的产物，语言能力的发展要受到人的生理基础的严格制约。

从两岁开始至青春期到来之前，即人出生后的10~12年，人的大脑具有可塑性，语言学习能够自然而然地轻松进行。

青春期到来之后，多数人的大脑已发生了侧化，人脑已充分发育成熟，学习语言也就越来越难。

4、语言焦虑179指学习者在学习一门语言时产生的消极情绪。

有研究表明，焦虑与学习效率的关系呈倒U曲线，即中等程度的焦虑有助于提高学习效率。

5、自我概念182自我概念是一个人对自我各方面的知觉。

积极的自我概念不但是取得教育所向往的结果的保证，它民教育的培养目标。

6、外国人话语188指母语持有者与非母语持有者交流时所使用的话语。

7、教师话语189指在语言课堂环境中教师对学生说的话语。

8、中介语话语190指学生从其他学生处接受的输入的话语，即学习者用第二语言对其他学习者说的话，这是许多学生获得输入的基本来源。

9、输入假说192一些研究者把可理解输入看做是二语习得的一个主导因素，Krashen的输入假说是其中最有代表性的。

Krashen强调人类只通过理解信息或接受可理解输入习得语言。

他的输入假设的主要观点是：要使语言习得得以发生，有必要让学习者理解的输入语言包含稍高于其现有水平的项目。

学习者利用情境提示理解这些语言，最后语言能力自然产生而无需传受。

他认为理想的输入应该有四个特征：可理解性，趣味及关联性，非语法程序安排，要有足够的输入量。

10、Swain的输出假设195该假设的思想概括起来，即通过产生出语言，口头的或者书面的，语言习得可以发生。

第二语言习得复习提纲第一章1、第一语言和第二语言的概念P 1第一语言：指人出生以后首先接触并获得的语言。

称“一语”，也叫“母语。

”第二语言：指人们在获得第一语言以后再学习和使用的另一种语言。

2、了解两种环境：课堂环境、自然环境P2第二语言可以在不同的环境中获得。

以汉语为例，如果一个人是在课堂上学习，他的环境就是“课堂环境”，也称“正式环境”；如果他不参加正式的课堂学习，而是在工作或生活中，在与中国人的交往中学习汉语，他的环境就是“自然环境”。

3什么是对外汉语教学，怎么理解“外”字P8对外汉语教学时对非母语者进行的汉语教学，是第二语言教学的一种。

“外”不是指国籍，而是语言4（名词解释）什么是母语者？什么是非母语者？P13把某种语言作为第一语言来使用的是“母语者”，把这一语言作为第二语言或者外语来使用的人是“非母语者”5理解乔姆斯基的普遍语法，理解直接消极证据、间接消极证据？儿童习得母语的特点P33. 消极证据：a直接消极证据：从他人纠错中获得的信息b间接消极证据：某一语言当中从来不出现某种形式积极证据：从环境中听到的话语儿童习得母语的特点：条件不利、结果完美、速度惊人、潜能相同、过程相同6 为什么儿童运用到积极证据？P36儿童的母语习得，是在外界刺激的激发下实现原有生物潜能的过程。

儿童所需的，仅仅是能够听到这种语言而已。

儿童在习得语言时，只能把希望寄托在积极证据上。

7 年龄和关键期，哪个最先提出来？列尼博格提出的语言习得关键期P49⏹从生物学的角度来研究语言☐儿童开始说话是生理成熟的结果☐大脑的发育⏹（2岁——60%，6岁——90%，13岁——100%）⏹大脑功能“侧化”☐左半球偏于智力、逻辑、分析能力。

☐右半球偏于感情、社会需要、综合能力等方面的事情。

⏹孩子出生后两侧大脑半球均参与语言活动。

大脑的语言功能是随着孩子的发育，逐渐定位于大脑的左半球。

孩子一般是6—12岁完成侧化的过程。

2-13岁这段时期，列尼博格称为“语言习得的关键期”8 很好地理解“终极状态”和“年龄效应”的概念P54⏹终极状态：目的语学习达到的最高水平⏹年龄效应：年龄对语言学习的影响。

第二语言习得理论复习提纲1.什么是第二语言习得理论2.第二语言和外语3.习得和学习的区分及对这种区分的评价4.直接法、听说法、视听法、交际法几种不同学派对语言习得的认识5.第一语言习得和第二语言习得的区别6.本族语和非本族语7.目的语（目标语）8.第二语言习得研究（二语习得）的背景9.母语者和非母语者及二语教学的母语者标准10.儿童第一语言习得过程11.刺激一反应论的主要观点及评价12.先天论的主要观点及争议13.第二语言习得的主要理论和假说14.偏误分析15.对比分析假说16.中介语假说17.中介语的特点18.内在大纲和习得顺序19.词素习得研究的贡献及争议20.输入假说21.习得与学习假说22.自然顺序假说23.监控假说24.输入假说25.情感过滤假说26.普遍语法假说及其评价27.文化适应假说28.什么是偏误29.偏误分析的背景及发展30.科德的偏误分析观31.偏误分析的步骤32.偏误分析存在的问题33.整体性偏误和具体性偏误34.语内偏误和语际偏误35.显性偏误与隐性偏误36.前系统偏误、系统错误与后系统错误37.偏误的来源38.对待偏误的态度39.偏误分析的意义和局限40.汉语学习者语音偏误的造成语音偏误的原因41.汉语学习者常见的语音偏误的造成及正音方法42.欧美学生汉字偏误的情况43.日本学生容易出现的汉字偏误分析44.外国学生在学习汉语时词汇方面的偏误45.外国学生在学习汉语时的语用偏误46.外国学生在学习汉语时语法偏误的原因及类型及语法偏误的分析和解释47.对比分析假说的发展及对比分析假说的两种形式48.正迁移、负迁移和中性迁移49.对对比分析假说的评价50.语言迁移、跨语言影响和母语的作用51.制约语言迁移的因素52.母语在语言理解和语言教学中的作用53.第二语言习得顺序研究产生的理论背景54.习得顺序研究的基本观点55.SLA顺序研究的发展及理论争议56.对词素习得顺序研究的批评57.“习得顺序”和“习得序列”研究58.多元发展模型的主要内容：五个阶段、两个维度、言语加工策略59.中介语研究的理论背景60.中介语发展阶段61.中介语的形成模式及特点62.中介语石化及石化形成的原因63.中介语的变异性64.中介语研究对第二语言教学的启示65.语言输入和输出的关系66.Krashen的输入假说及争议67.课堂教学中老师如何把握语言输入和输出68.语言输入需进一步研究的问题69.学习者的个体因素及对二语习得的影响70.语言学能71.学习策略和交际策略、交际策略的类型72.元认知策略73.语言学习的动机74.影响语言学习态度的几个方面75.什么是语言环境？76.社会环境对语言学习的影响77.课堂语言环境与第二语言学习。

第二语言习得复习资料一、引言第二语言习得是一门研究人们如何学习和掌握除母语以外的语言的学科。

对于许多学习者来说，掌握一门第二语言不仅能够拓宽交流渠道，还能增加个人的文化视野和职业发展机会。

在这篇复习资料中，我们将系统地探讨第二语言习得的相关重要内容。

二、第二语言习得的理论基础（一）行为主义理论行为主义理论认为，语言学习是一种习惯的形成。

通过不断的刺激反应强化过程，学习者逐渐养成正确的语言使用习惯。

例如，反复练习某个语法结构或单词，在得到正确的反馈和强化后，就能熟练掌握。

（二）认知理论认知理论则强调学习者的内在认知过程。

认为学习者通过对语言规则的理解、归纳和推理来学习语言。

他们会主动构建语言知识体系，而不仅仅是被动地接受外界的刺激。

（三）社会文化理论社会文化理论关注语言学习所处的社会和文化环境。

认为语言学习是通过与他人的互动和参与社会文化活动实现的。

学习者在真实的交际情境中，借助他人的帮助和指导，逐渐发展语言能力。

三、第二语言习得的关键因素（一）语言输入丰富、准确、可理解的语言输入对于第二语言习得至关重要。

这包括听、读等多种形式的输入。

例如，听英语广播、阅读英语书籍等。

（二）语言输出学习者不仅要接受输入，还需要有机会进行语言输出，如说、写。

通过输出，学习者能够检验自己的语言知识，发现不足并加以改进。

（三）学习动机强烈的学习动机能够推动学习者积极投入学习。

动机可以是内在的，如对语言本身的兴趣；也可以是外在的，如为了通过考试或获得工作机会。

（四）学习策略有效的学习策略能够提高学习效率。

比如记忆策略、认知策略、元认知策略等。

学习者要学会根据自己的情况选择和运用合适的策略。

四、第二语言习得的阶段（一）初始阶段在这个阶段，学习者通常对第二语言的语音、词汇和基本语法有初步的了解和接触，但使用能力有限。

（二）中级阶段学习者能够进行简单的交流，掌握更多的语法和词汇，但在表达上可能还存在一些错误。

（三）高级阶段学习者能够较为流利和准确地运用第二语言进行交流，对语言的理解和运用达到较高水平。

Chapter 1 introducing second language acquisition1.SLA: a term that refers both to the study of individuals and groups who are learning alanguage subsequent to learning their first one as young children, and to the process of learning that language.2.Second language:an officially or societally dominant language (not L1) needed foreducation, employment or other basic purposesrmal L2 learning: SLA that takes place in naturalistic contexts4.Formal L2 learning: instructed learning that takes place in classroom5.Linguistic competence: the underlying knowledge that a speaker/hearer have of a language.Chomsky distinguishes this form linguistic performance.6.Linguistic performance: the use of language knowledge in actual production.7.First language/native language/mother tongue (L1): the language acquired in childhood8.Simultaneous multilingualism:ability to use one or more languages that were auqiredduring early childhood.9.Sequential multilingualism: ability to use one or more languages that were learned after L1had already been established.1.What are the three basic questions in SLA?(1)What exactly does the L2 learner come to know?(2)How does the L2 leaner acquire this knowledge?(3)Why are some learners more successful than others?2.Why there are no simple answers to these questions? (P2)Chapter 2 foundations of second language acquisition1.Multilingualism: the ability to use more than one language.2.Bilingualism: the ability to use two languages.3.Monolingualism: the ability to use only one language.4.Multilingual competence: “the compound state of a mind with two or more grammars”5.Monolingual competence: knowledge of only one language.6.Learner language: also called interlanguage which refers to the intermediate states orinterim grammars of leaner language as it moves toward the target L2.7.Positive transfer: appropriate incorporation(合并，编入) of an L1 structure or rule in L2structure.8.Negative transfer: inappropriate influence of an L1 structure or rule in L2 use, also calledinterference.9.Fossilization:a stable state in SLA where learners cease their interlanguage developmentbefore they reach target norms despite continuing L2 input and passage of time.10.Poverty-of-the-stimulus:the argument that because language input to children isimpoverished(穷尽的) and they still acquire L1, there must be an innate capacity for L1 acquisition.11.Innate capacity:a natural ability, usually referring to children’s natural ability to learn oracquire language.1.What is the nature of language learning?(1)Simultaneous/sequential multilingualism(2)The role of natural abilitya)Humans are born with a natural ability or innate capacity to learn another language.b)As children mature, so do their language abilities.c)Individual variation may occur in learning; the rate of learning can differ, but there arestages everyone goes through.d)“Cut off point”- if the process does not happen at a young age, you'll never learn thelanguage. （关键期假说）(Critical Period Hypothesis)(3)The role of social experiencea)Children will never acquire language unless that language is used with them andaround them, no matter what is their language.b)As long as children are experiencing input and social interaction, the rate and sequenceof development doesn't change.c)The only thing that may change is pronunciation, vocabulary, and social function.2.What are some basic similarities and differences in L1 and L2 learning? (P17表格)(1)Similarities between L1 and L2a)Development stagesInitial State - knowledge about language structures and principlesIntermediate State - Basic language developmentFinal State - Outcome of learningb)Necessary conditions: Input(2)Differences between L1 and L2（P17表格）3.What is “the logical problem of language acquisition”?(1)Children’s knowledge of language goes beyond what could be learned from the inputthey receive. (Poverty-of-the stimulus)(2)Constraints and principles cannot be learned(3)Universal patterns of development cannot be explained by language-specific input.(如果说普遍语法存在孩子们脑中，那语言输入起的作用又如何解释呢？)4.5.(1)Children begin to learn their language at the same age, and in much the same wayregardless of what the language is.(2)Children are not limited to repeating what they heard; they can understand and createnovel(新颖) utterance.(3)There is a cut-off age for L1 acquisition, beyond which it can never be completed.6.Linguists have taken an internal and external focus to the study of language acquisition.What is the difference between the two?The internal focus seeks to account for speakers’ internalized, underlying knowledge oflanguage. The external focus emphasizes language use, including the functions of language which are realized in learners’ production at different stages of development.Chapter 3 the linguistics of second language acquisition1.Interference: also called negative transfer, which means inappropriate influence of an L1structure or rule in L2 use.2.Interlanguage: also called learner language, which refers to the intermediate states orinterim grammars of leaner language as it moves toward the target L2.3.Natural order: a universal sequence in the grammatical development of language learners.4.Universal grammar: a linguistic framework developed most prominently by Chomsky whichclaims that L1 acquisitions can be accounted for only by innate knowledge that the human species is genetically endowed with. This knowledge includes what all languages have in common.nguage faculty: term used by Chomsky foe a “component of the human mind” thataccounts for children’s innate knowledge of language.6.Principles: properties(固有属性) of all languages of the world; part of Chomsky’s universalgrammar.7.Parameters: limited options in realization of universal principles which account forgrammatical variation between languages of the world. Part of Chomsky’s theory ofuniversal grammar.8.Initial state: the starting point of language acquisition; it is thought to include theunderlying knowledge about language structures and principles that are in learners’ heads at the very start of L1 or L2 acquisition.9.Final state: the outcome of L1 and L2 learning, also known as the stable state of adultgrammar.10.Markedness: a basic for classification of languages according to whether a specific featureoccurs more frequently than a contrasting element in the same category, is less complex structurally or conceptually, or is more “normal” or “expected” along some dimensions. 11.Grammaticalization(语法化): a developmental process in which a grammaticalfunction(such as expression of past time) is first conveyed by shared extralinguisticknowledge and inferencing based on the context of discourse, then by a lexical word(such as yesterday), and only later by a grammatical marker(such as the suffix -ed).一、The nature of language1.What we learn in linguistic perspective? What are the characteristics of language?Both L1 and L2 learners acquire knowledge at these different levels: lexicon(词汇学),phonology(语音学), morphology(构词法), syntax(句法). Languages are systemic,symbolic and social.二、Contrastive analysis1.What is contrastive analysis?CA is an approach to the study of SLA which involves predicting and explaining learner problems based on a comparison of L1 and L2 to determine similarities and differences.2.What is the goal of contrastive analysis?(assumptions)(1)If L2 acquisition is disturbed by the habits of your native language, it is reasonableto focus on the differences between native and target language.(2)Contrastive analysis had a practical goal: If you recognize the differences betweenyour native language and the target language, you are able to overcome thelinguistic habits of your native language that interfere with the habits of the targetlanguage.3.What are the critiques of contrastive analysis?(1)The process of L2 acquisition is not sufficiently described by the characterization oferrors.(2)Errors in L2 acquisition do not only arise from interference.(3)The structural differences between two languages are not sufficient to predict theoccurrence of errors in L2 acquisition.三、Error analysis1.What is error analysis？EA is based on the description and analysis of actual learner errors in L2, rather than onidealized linguistic structures attributed to native speakers of L1 and L2 (as in CA).(1)Ambiguity in classification. (不知道是具体是哪个原因导致比如时态错误，可能是一语影响，也可能是在一语中出现过的universal developmental process)(2)Lack of positive data. (正确的被忽略，只关注错误不能看出学生学到什么)(3)Potential for avoidance. (学生会避免错误，这样错误就不能全部被观察)四、Interlanguage1.What are the characteristics of interlanguage?(1)Systematic.(2)Dynamic.(3)Variable.(可变性) although systematic, differences in context result in differentpatterns of language use.(4)Reduced system, both in form and function. (学习者经常会简单化)2.There are differences between IL development and L1 acquisition, including differentcognitive processes involved:(1)Language transfer from L1 to L2.(2)Transfer training.(3)Strategies of second language learning. (避免等)(4)Strategies of second language learning. (为方便不要复数等)(5)Overgeneralization of the target language linguistic material.3.The beginning and the end of IL are defined respectively as whenever a learner firstattempts to convey meaning in the L2 and whenever development “permanently” stops, but the boundaries are not entirely clear. Identification of fossilization is even morecontroversial.五、Monitor model (The input hypothesis model)1.Which five hypotheses(假定) does the model consist of? (课本P45！！！)(1)Acquisition-learning hypothesis(2)Monitor hypothesis(3)Natural order hypothesis(4)Input hypothesis(5)Affective filter hypothesis2.What is LAD in this model?The LAD is made up of the natural language learning abilities of the human mind, totally available in L1 acquisition, available in L2 acquisition according to the level of the filter.But, the process of learning, unlike the process of acquisition, uses faculties of mind outside the LAD.3.图示4.What are points of the consensus of early linguistic study of SLA?(1)What is being acquired through a dynamic interlanguage system(2)How SLA takes place involves creative mental processes(3)Why some learners are more successful than others relates primary to the age.5.What is the role of grammar according to Krashen?The only instance in which the teaching of grammar can result in language acquisition(and proficiency) is when the students are interested in the subject and the targetlanguage is used as a medium of instruction.六、Universal grammar1.Differences of linguistic competence and performance(见Chapter1名词解释)2.What is UG? (名词解释)3.UG and L1 acquisition(1)What the child acquire is selecting parametric options.(2)Unlike SLA, attitudes, motivations and social context play no role.4.UG and SLA, there are three important questions(1)What is the initial state of SAL?Interference(看参数相同不相同); no agreement on access to UG(2)What is the nature of IL and how does it change over time?定参数的过程Language faculty; positive/negative evidence(起作用);constructionism; fossilization(3)What is the final state in SLA?(P52五个达不到的原因)七、Functional approaches (systemic linguistics)1.What are the four functional approaches?They are Systemic Linguistics; Functional Typology; Function-to-form mapping;Information organization.2.What is Systemic Linguistics(系统功能语言学)?Developed by Hilliday in the late 1950s, it is a model for analyzing language in terms ofthe interrelated systems of choices that are available for expressing meaning.儿童的语言体系是一个意义体系，语言是从意义体系逐渐发展而来，经历过有简单到复杂的过程。