More Definitions

definition的英语范文In the vast and intricate tapestry of human communication, the thread of definition plays a pivotal role. It is the fundamental building block of understanding, the starting point for all knowledge and wisdom.Definitions are not mere words or labels; they are windowsto the soul of concepts, ideas, and phenomena. They揭示事物的本质，揭示它们如何相互关联，以及它们在更广泛的知识体系中的位置。

The art of defining is not a simple exercise. Itrequires a delicate balance between precision and accessibility. A good definition must be both concise and comprehensive, capturing the essence of a concept while remaining open to interpretation and further exploration.It must strike a chord with the reader, resonating deeply and sparking curiosity.Consider the definition of "love." Love is often described as a feeling of strong affection and attachment, but this definition falls short of capturing its true essence. Love is much more than a feeling; it is an action, a commitment, a choice. It is the willingness to牺牲个人利益，to embrace the other despite their flaws and imperfections. It is the courage to stay, the patience to understand, and the compassion to forgive. This expanded definition encompasses the multifaceted nature of love, inviting readers to delve deeper into its meaning and implications.Definitions also play a crucial role in shaping our understanding of the world. They help us categorize and organize information, allowing us to make sense of the chaos and complexity of the universe. Without definitions, we would be lost in a maze of confusion, unable to grasp the fundamental principles that govern our existence.However, definitions are not static; they evolve and transform over time. As our knowledge and understanding of the world expand, so do our definitions. This fluidity is a testament to the dynamic nature of language and human thought. Definitions are not meant to be rigid or inflexible; they are meant to be dynamic and responsive to the needs of communication and comprehension.In conclusion, definitions are the lifeblood of language and understanding. They are the bridges thatconnect ideas and concepts, the keys that unlock the doorsof knowledge. By mastering the art of defining, we open ourselves to a world of deeper understanding and richer communication. We become active participants in the ongoing dialogue of human thought and knowledge, shaping our world and shaping ourselves in the process.**定义的本质：探索语言的深度**在人类沟通的广阔而复杂的织锦中，定义的线索起着至关重要的作用。

语言学考研真题和答案第一章语言学Fill in the blanks1. Human language is arbitrary. This refers to the fact that there is no logical or intrinsic connection between a particular sound and the _______it is associated with. （人大2007研）meaning 语言有任意性，其所指与形式没有逻辑或内在联系2. Human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication. This quality is labeled as _______. （北二外2003研）displacement 移位性指人类语言可以让使用者在交际时用语言符号代表时间和空间上不可及的物体、事件和观点3. By duality is meant the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the _______ level are composed of elements of the __________ level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization. （北二外2006研）primary, secondary 双重性指拥有两层结构的这种属性，底层结构是上层结构的组成成分，每层都有自身的组合规则4. The features that define our human languages can be called _______ features. （北二外2006）design人类语言区别于其他动物交流系统的特点是语言的区别特征，是人类语言特有的特征。

AnEnglish－Chines...CHEN Mingfeng ( 陈明丰 )AbstractWith the rapid development of economy, education, science and technology, language itself changes constantly. It is becoming more and more important to have excellent English-Chinese dictionaries for Chinese learners. This paper is an attempt to analyze the features of OALD-4.INTRODUCTIONOxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary, Fourth Edition (Which is called OALD-4 for short in the following), the product of the joint efforts by the Commercial Press of China and Oxford University Press, was published in 1997.With the rapid development of economy, education, science and technology, language itself changes constantly: some old words die out , or the use of some old words has changed , and new words keep emerging . So dictionaries, should also keep up with the changes of languages, and be able to provide the users with up-to-date usages of words. In the preface of OALD-4, the editors have pointed out: “proficiency in English implied the ability to compose as well as to understand, and the learner’s dictionaries must be designed to develop both kinds of skill.”At the first glance, one may think that it is similar in quality to other dictionaries of the same kind. But after taking a close look at it, you may find it different from others in many ways.A.S.Hornby, the chief editor of the first and second editions of OALD, is a well-known dictionary expert and teaching expert. He spent a lot of time teaching English abroad. So he knew well the difficulties that foreign learners were facing. Thus OALD alwaysthinks for users, and tries to help users to learn English well. The following is the analysis of some new features of the new dictionary.FEACHURE ONE CLEAR AND CONCRETE DEFINITIONS OF ENTRIES“The definitions of entries in a dictionary is the soul of it and is directly related to its popularity.”① Samuel Johnson, the chief editor of A Dictionary of the English Language, has also pointed out: “The definition must be accurate. That’s to say, the defining words and entry words should often be able to be exchanged.” As a general rule, definitions should be comprehensible to the general readers. So does OALD-4. The definitions in it are not only accurate, but also brief. The following are definitions of “horse” in different dictionaries.Horse n. 1 solid-hoofed herbivorous quadruped (Equals caballas) with flowing mane and tail, used as beast of burden and draught, and for riding o n…----Oxford Concise DictionaryHorse n. 1 a large strong animal that people ride on and use for pulling heavy things…---Longman Dictionary of Contemporary EnglishHorse n. 1 (a) large strong four legged animal with a flowing mane and tails, used for riding on or to carry loads, pulling carts, etc.----OALD-4For readers, the meaning of “horse” is simple. But how can it be defined in English? Common sense suggests that definitions in a dictionary for speakers of English as a foreign language should not be more difficult than the words they define. Obviously, the definition in OALD-4 is the best among the three.In Oxford Concise Dictionary, there are some rarely used words like “herbivorous, quadruped”. In Longman Dictionary, the definition is brief, but i s so simple that it can’t explain the entry “horse” accurately.Besides, it also shows clearly the usage of nouns, adjectives, verbs and so on.1. Nouns: countable or uncountableAs foreign learners, especially for Chinese, it is difficult to distinguish countable or uncountable. Even some nouns are sometimes countable, sometimes uncountable. In the Chinese language, there is no such difference. In OALD-4, it is shown clearly with a label “C”(meaning countable), or “U”(meaning uncountable). For example,Study n. 1 [u](also studies [pl.]) process of gaining knowledge of a subject, esp. from books 2 [c](a) book, etc that is the result of an investigation of subject 3 [u] room esp. in sb’s home, used for reading and writing 4 [c] drawing, etc done for practice Here, OALD-4 tells us not only when the word “study” is used as countable and when uncountable, but also how to use it appropriately. And for other entries, such as experience and success, OALD-4 also gives us clear definitions. When they refer to “event or activity” and “person or thing” respectively, the two words are countable; when they refer to “knowledge or skill” and “achievement” respectively, they are uncountable.2. Adjectives: attributive use or predicative useMost adjectives can be used either before a noun or after the infinitive, such as in “a serious affair” / “be happy to go home”. However, some adjectives are restricted to attributive or predicative. In OALD-4, the appropriate label is given. For example,Asleep adj. [pred] 1 not awake, sl eeping: Don’t wake him up. She is fast / sound sleep. 2. (of limits) having no feeling; numb: I’ve been sitting on my leg and now it’s asleep.Eldest adj. [attrib.], n (of people, esp. Of three or more closely related members of a family; first born; oldest: Jim is my eldest daughter. Jill is the eldest of my three children.OALD-4 tells readers different usage of adjectives, which can help us avoid speaking or writing such sentences like “He is an asleep boy.” It is not idiomatic in English.And for other familiar words, such as “aware” or “fit”, OALD-4 also gives appropriate label. I have compared it with other dictionaries, and found that most of them have paid less attention to this point.3. Verbs: different verb patterns of sentencesIn OALD-4, there’r e thirty-two patterns (with matching codes) to account for the various ways in which verbs can be used.A code such as [Dn.pr] (as in “He gave a book to John.”) is designed to suggest to the learners ‘double-transitive verb + noun + prepositional phrase’, ie the parts of speech (or phrases or clause types) of which the pattern is composed. These indications will be sufficient for most learners. Moreover, the meanings of the letters (n=noun, a=adjective, ph=phrase, etc) can be easily learnt, so that the learners are able to recall patterns simply by looking at their codes. It is better than the first three editions of OALD, where there’s forms of codes such as VP6A, 7A, 2A, etc. So learners have to refer to the chart inside the back cover. Of course, it is also better than some other dictionaries where verbs are only divided into Vi (=intransitive verb) and Vt (=transitive verb). So the division of verb pattern is helpful for readers to use verbs appropriately. For example,Grade v. 1 [esp. passive: Tn, Tn.pr, Cn.n] ~sth/sb by/according to sth; ~sth/sb from sth to sth arrange sth/sb in order by grades or classes…2 [Tn, Cn.n](US) mark (written work); given (a student) a mark 3 [Tn]make (land, esp for roads) more nearly level by reducing the slopeHere, before ea ch meaning of this entry, there’re codes indicating verb patterns. So readers can easily learn to use the word appropriately.FEATURE TWO ABUNDANT EXAMPLES AND SYSTEMATIC COLLOCATIONSMany experts on dictionaries consider that “examples of a dictionary are important standard to judge the quality of it.”② “Examples are used to give the users a clearer impression of a word’s meaning. They should reveal the connotation and denotation of the word to help readers to understand, they also should provide phrase ex amples and collocations.”③ So as an excellent dictionary, it is useful and necessary with appropriate examples as well as accurate definitions. OALD-4, as a learner’s dictionary with more than 81,500 examples, provides exhaustive examples with a combination of sentences and phrases in the limited space. And “they (examples) help learners to understand the meanings of words, they provide models for them to imitate when writing or speaking, and they illustrate the grammatical patterns in which words are used.”④ For example,Dismiss v.1 [Tn, Tn.pr.] ~ sb. (from sth) remove sb (esp.an employee) from a position: workers who have been dismissed unfairly 2 [Tn, Tn.pr]~ sb. (from sth) send sb away; allow sb to leave: dismiss soldiers; dismiss a class 3 (a) [Tn,Tn.pr] ~ sb/sth (from sth) put (thought, feelings, etc.) out of one’s mind: he tried without success to dismiss her memory from his thought.(b) [Tn, Cn.n/a] consider sb/sth not worth thinking or talking about: she was dismissed as a dreamer: dismiss a suggestion, an objection, an idea, etc. 4 [Tn](law) reject (a case, an appeal, etc.)5 [Tn](in cricket) end the innings of (the other team or one of its batsmen)Besides plentiful verb-object word groups, OALD-4 gives adverb-verb or adverb-adjective collocations. For examples, in the entry “highly”, there are collocations like “a highly amusing film / be highly probable, contagious, inflammable/ highly priced / think highly of sb / speak highly of sb, etc.”These abundant and systematical collocations, which give readers good examples to learn and imitate, show real situations of using language, and they reflect the principle that “language is the tool of communication”.In OALD-4, to help learners to use words appropriately, a number of labels are used to denote the stylistic values of words or the technical fields in which they are used. For example, “infml” denotes “informal” words and senses, which indicates an unofficial occasion or setting. “Offensive” denotes words used to refer to people, usually with the deliberate intension of offending them, especially on account of their race or region, such as “dago, niger, etc”.FEATURE THREE ACCURATE BUT CONCISE CHINESE TRANSLATIONLadislav Zgusta, a famous expert on dictionaries, has said, “the chief duty for bilingual dictionary editors is to find the corresponding words for the source language in the target language.”⑤ So for an English-Chinese dictionary, the definition of the target language (Chinese) and that of the source language (English) are important and they both should be consideredcarefully.Some entries, which are familiar to Chinese learners, but strange to other foreign learners, are needless to explain with many words in Chinese. For examples,Abacus n. (pl –cuses) frame with beads that slide along parallel rods, used for teaching numbers to en, and (in some countries) for counting 算盘Except 1prep. ~(for sb / sth); ~(that…) not including (sb /sth); but not 除了（某人[某事物]）之外表示所说的不包括在内: The restaurant is open every day except Monday.For “abacus”, the editors haven’t translated all English definition into Chinese; instead a simple corresponding word “算盘” is used. For Chinese learners, as soon as we read the Chinese definition, we can know the accurate meaning of this word.For “except”, the definition is replenished with “表示所说的不包括在内”. It helps learners tell the difference between “besides” and “except”, and finally use it properly.FEATURE FOUR RENEWAL OF LANGUAGE INFORMATIONAs OALD-4, which is a bilingual dictionary, is composed according to Oxford Dictionary of English, 4th edition, which is a monolingual dictionary, published more than ten years ago. So it is inevitable to lag behind the times. Moreover, with the rapid development of science and technology, especially computer technology, lots of new words are emerging. So OALD-4 is not restrained to the old editions, but is revised suitably to renew language information promptly by absorbing new words and abridging out-of-date ones. For example，Pious: adj1.having or showing a deep devotion to religion2. (old use )dutiful to parents---- OALD-3Pious: adj1.having or showing a deep devotion to religion2. (derog)hypocritically virtuous----OALD-4Through the comparison of the definitions in OALD-3 and OALD-4, we can know that in the Modern English, the word “pious” has the meaning of “hypocritically virtuous” instead of “dutiful to parents”.I have compared the entries in OALD-3 and OALD-4. To my surprise, the definitions and examples have changed thoroughly. At the letter of “J” (only in 14 pages), twent y new entries are included, fifteen are omitted, and more than forty are given new definitions or examples. For example:Jesuit n: member of the society of Jesus, a RC order founded in 1534 by Inguatins Logoia, Spanish priest, taking lous of obedience, poverty and chastity; (as used by opponents of the society) person who thinks that it may be right to dissemble or prevaricate if this helps to obtain good results…----OALD-3Jesuit n: 1.member of the society of Jesus, a Roman Catholic religious order 2. (derog)person who deceives others, or fails to tell the (whole)truth, to achieve his ends.----OALD-4It is obvious that the definition in OALD-4 is simpler and easier to understand than that in OALD-3. Besides, it adds a second definition. Because in modern English, the word “Jesuit” can be used to refer to “a person who deceives others to achieve his ends”. Due to the limitation of space, I would not compare other entries as examples. It is easy for us to find them if we take a close look at OALD-4.FEATURE FIVE ADEQUATE USAGE NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONSInformation on the grammatical practical patterns in which a word can or must be found is very important to language learners. In OALD-4, for further information of a contrastive or non-lexical type, there are ab out 200 “Notes on Usage”, which follow the certain entries to deal with difficulties on grammar or usage. As a learner’s dictionary, it is used to teach learners to use this language accurately as well as to learn the words. In order to present the advanta ge of “Note on Usage”, we’d better compare the different treatments on the comparison of “almost” and “nearly”.Almost, USAGE NOTEBoth “almost” and “nearly” can be used before negative verbs: “I almost/nearly didn’t get up in time”.Almost (not nearly) can be used before any and negative words like “no, nobody, never, and nothing”. However, it is more usual to use hardly or scarcely with any, anybody, ever, etc. than almost with no, nobody, never, etc…----Longman DictionaryAlmost adv.1.(with v.v., adv. V., adj. j., n. n., replaceable by nearly): He slipped and ~ fell…2.(with no, none, nothing, never; not replaceable by nearly; often replaced by hardly or scarcely with any): Almost no one (=hardly anyone) believed her…----OALD-3Almost adv.1.(used before adv. s., n. s., adj. s., v. s., dets and prons) nearly; not quite: He slipped and almost fell.2.(used before no, nobody, none, nothing, never)virtually; practically: Almost no one (i.e. Hardly anyone) believed him.Note on Usage: Almost, nearly, scarcely, and hardly are adverbs and can be used with verbs, adverbs, adjectives and nouns.1.Almost and nearly are usually used in positive sentences: She fell and almost/nearly broke her neck. 2.Almost can be used with negative words. In these cases it can be replaced with hardly or scarcely: He ate almost nothing (=He ate hardly anything).3.Hardly is generally preferred to almost + a negative verb: She sang so quietly that I could hardly hear her (not I almost couldn’t hear).4.In sentences indicating on e thing happening immediately after another, hardly and scarcely can be placed at the beginning of the sentence and then subject and verb are inverted: Hardly/Scarcely had we arrived, when it began to rain.----OALD-4From the comparison, we see that OALD-4 not only gives a clear explanation between the difference of them, but also offers adequate examples. Other dictionaries, however, don’t do as well as OALD-4. For Longman Dictionary, though the comparison is clear, it lacks examples. For OALD-3, the comparison is included in the definitions, so it is possible for readers to ignore their difference and even get confused about them.For illustrations, OALD-4 has paid more attention to the practicality of them. Compared with OALD-3, it has added some illustrations to the appendix. On the other hand, it has omitted others, such as the picture of “abacus”. Thus it can be seen that OALD-4 is more suitable to the need of users and more “friendly to users”.Certainly, besides that is mentioned above, OALD-4 has remained some excellent features of the first three editions: 1.A good “how to use the dictionary” section. 2.a set different indication of British and American pronunciation; 3.a set ofappendixes on number; punctuation and writing; family relationships; common first names; military ranks; chemical elements; etc.However, OALD-4 is not without problems. Samuel Johnson, the editor-in-chief of A Dictionary of English Language, has said, “Dictionaries are like watches, the worst is better than none, and the bes t cannot be expected to go quite true.” For some entries, it has failed to provide supplementary information of collocation, which is absolutely necessary in our reading and writing. We can’t even find some common phrases that are often used today. The lack of them will sometimes make it inconvenient for users who are in need of them. For example:Edict n.: order or proclamation issued by an authority: by edict of the king; obey the edict of parliament.Here, it will be better to give such collocations like “sign an edict/under an edict/issue an edict, etc.”Another weak point is that in OALD-4 some definitions of entries are too tedious and annoying. For example:Milk n.: 1.a white liquid produced by cows or goats that is drunk by people.----Longman DictionaryMilk n.[u] 1.white liquid produced by female mammals as food for their young, esp. that of cows, goats, etc. drunk by human beings and made into butter and cheese.----OALD-4Though the definition in OALD-4 is accurate, it is too tedious to understand. And the Longman’s definition is concise and easy to understand.ConclusionThrough the analysis of some new features of OALD-4, wemay have a general idea about what kind of dictionary it is and what are inside it. And we may notice its differences from other learner’s dictionaries. It reflects the kernel of dictionary-composing theory---“the editing for using language in real certain situation.” It has followed the excellent principle, set up by A.S.Hornby-that it helps foreign English learners to understand and utilize English well. So OALD-4, with all its outstanding features, has stood out in the ground of the learner’s dictionaries as a very practical and helpful dictionary to those who long to learn modern everyday English. As long as we make full use of it, we are sure to learn a lot from it and to improve our English quickly in both understanding and expression.NOTES①周荐,“词典条目释义、出处索源和例句引用中借鉴与抄袭的分野问题”，见【中国辞书论集】，P29②[荷兰]阿尔卡西姆，【词典编写和评价的标准】，P162③吴莹，“双语词典的编写”，见【上海市辞书学会论文集】，知识出版社，1987，P254④“本词典用法---词条使用详细说明”，见“OALD-4”附录，1997，P1903⑤拉兹古斯塔主编, 【词典学概论】[M], 北京: 商务印书馆，1983, P428⑥陈楚祥，“词典评价十题”，见【辞书研究】，1994（1），P29References[1] A.S. Hornby; A.P. Cowie (1997) Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary (4th ed) [M] Oxford University Press; Commercial Press of China[2] J. Pearsall (1999) Concise Oxford Dictionary of English(10th ed) [M] Oxford University Press[3] P. Procter (1995) Cambridge International Dictionary of English [M] Cambridge University Press[4] D. Summers (1995) Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English (3rd ed) [M] Longman Group Ltd.[5] A. Spears Richard (1998) NTC American English Learner’s Dictionary [M] NTC Publishing Group[6]拉兹古斯塔主编,【词典学概论】[M], 北京: 商务印书馆, 1983[7]李荫华著,【英语词典初探】[M], 北京: 商务印书馆, 1985[8]张柏然主编,【双语词典研究】[C], 北京: 商务印书馆, 1993。

definitions翻译Definitions翻译为“定义”，是指对某个词语、概念或事物的解释、说明或描述。

下面是一些关于“definitions”的中英文对照例句和用法：1. Definition of love:爱的定义：- Love is a deep affection or attachment towards someone or something.爱是对某人或某物的深深情感或依恋。

- The definition of love varies from person to person.爱的定义因人而异。

2. Legal definition of harassment:骚扰的法律定义：- Harassment is the act of persistently annoying or tormenting someone, often with the intention to intimidate or harm.骚扰是指持续不断地使某人烦恼或折磨，通常是出于恐吓或伤害的目的。

- The legal definition of harassment may vary in different jurisdictions.骚扰的法律定义在不同的司法管辖区可能会有所不同。

3. Official definition of a kilogram:千克的官方定义：- The official definition of a kilogram is the mass of the International Prototype of the Kilogram, a platinum-iridium cylinder kept at the International Bureau of Weights and Measures.千克的官方定义是国际计量局保存的铂铱制圆柱体——国际千克原器的质量。

GB∕T 14710新版和原版标准差异I. IntroductionA. Background on GB/T 14710B. Purpose of the comparisonC. Brief overview of the differencesII. Scope and definitionsA. Scope of GB/T 14710B. Comparison of the definitions in the new and old versionsC. Implications for the usersIII. Technical requirementsA. Technical requirements in GB/T 14710:2017B. Technical requirements in GB/T 14710:2002C. Comparison of the technical requirementsD. Implications for the usersIV. Evaluation methodsA. Evaluation methods in GB/T 14710:2017B. Evaluation methods in GB/T 14710:2002C. Comparison of the evaluation methodsD. Implications for the usersV. ConclusionA. Summary of the differences between GB/T 14710:2017 and GB/T 14710:2002B. Recommendations for the users and stakeholdersC. Future direction of GB/T 14710VI. ReferencesI. IntroductionA. Background on GB/T 14710GB/T 14710 is a standard that outlines the technical requirements and evaluation methods for formaldehyde emissions from wood-based panels and their products. This standard, which was originally introduced in 2002, has undergone several revisions over the years to keep up with the changing needs of industry and society. The latest revision, GB/T 14710-2017, which was released in March 2018, is meant to replace the previous version.B. Purpose of the comparisonThe purpose of this comparison is to identify the differences between the new and old versions of GB/T 14710, and to evaluate the implications of these differences. By doing so, we hope to provide useful insights for users and stakeholders who are interested in understanding the changes that have occurred in the standard, and to suggest ways in which they can adapt to these changes.C. Brief overview of the differencesSome of the major differences between the new and old versions of GB/T 14710 include changes in scope, definitions, technical requirements, and evaluation methods. For example, the new version extends the scope of the standard to include composite wood flooring, while the old version did not. Additionally, the new version introduces new definitions for terms such as "panel product", "test chamber", and "sample preparation", among others. Technical requirements and evaluation methods have also been revised, reflecting advances in scientific knowledge and changes in industry practices.II. Scope and definitionsA. Scope of GB/T 14710The scope of GB/T 14710 defines the range of products that are covered by the standard. This includes wood-based panels and their products, such as plywood, blockboard, particleboard, MDF (medium-density fiberboard), and composite wood flooring, among others. The new version of the standard has extended the scope to include composite wood flooring, which was not covered by the old version.B. Comparison of the definitions in the new and old versionsThe new version of GB/T 14710 introduces new definitions for several terms that were not defined in the old version. For example, the new version defines "panel product" as a "constructed product" that is made by joining two or more layers of wood-based panels or other materials together. This term was not defined in the old version. Similarly, the new version introduces a definition for "test chamber", which is defined as a "container" that is used to house the test specimens during testing. The old version did not provide a definition for this term.C. Implications for the usersThe updated definitions in the new version of GB/T 14710 have important implications for users. By providing more precise and detailed definitions for key terms, the new version makes it easier for users to understand and apply the standard. This can help to improve the accuracy of testing and evaluation, promote better communication between stakeholders, and enhance the overallquality of wood-based panel products.III. Technical requirementsA. Technical requirements in GB/T 14710:2017The technical requirements in the new version of GB/T 14710 reflect the latest scientific knowledge and industry practices. For example, the new version introduces stricter emission limits for certain formaldehyde products. The updated technical requirements also include new procedures for sample preparation, specimen conditioning, and testing, which are designed to ensure more consistent and accurate results.B. Technical requirements in GB/T 14710:2002The technical requirements in the old version of GB/T 14710 were based on previous scientific knowledge and industry practices. While they were still effective at the time of their publication, they became outdated over time due to advances in technology and changing industry needs.C. Comparison of the technical requirementsThe technical requirements in the new version of GB/T 14710 are more rigorous than those in the old version. For example, the new version introduces a lower emission limit for engineered wood flooring and a stricter "hot-pressed thin board (2mm) test method". The new version also requires the use of more advanced testing equipment and procedures, such as the "small chamber method" and the "large chamber method", which were not required in the old version.D. Implications for the usersThe updated technical requirements in the new version of GB/T 14710 have important implications for users. By requiring more advanced testing procedures and equipment, the new version helps to promote a higher level of quality and safety in wood-based panel products. At the same time, these stricter requirements may also pose challenges for manufacturers and suppliers who are not yet equipped to meet them. To remain competitive in the market and comply with the new requirements, manufacturers and suppliers may need to invest in new equipment and technology, or adjust their production processes.IV. Evaluation methodsA. Evaluation methods in GB/T 14710:2017The evaluation methods in the new version of GB/T 14710 have been updated to reflect advances in scientific knowledge and industry practices. The new version introduces new testing methods, such as the "small chamber method" and the "large chamber method", which are designed to provide more accurate and reliable results. The new version also requires more rigorous sample preparation procedures, including the use of standard conditioning conditions and the measurement of sample dimensions.B. Evaluation methods in GB/T 14710:2002The evaluation methods in the old version of GB/T 14710 were based on previous scientific knowledge and industry practices. While they were still effective at the time of their publication, they became outdated over time due to advances in technology and changing industry needs. The old version did not include some of the more advanced testing methods that are required in the newversion.C. Comparison of the evaluation methodsThe evaluation methods in the new version of GB/T 14710 are more advanced and require more rigor than those in the old version. For example, the new version requires the use of more advanced testing equipment and procedures, such as the "small chamber method" and the "large chamber method", which were not required in the old version. The new version also requires more rigorous sample preparation procedures, such as the use of standard conditioning conditions and the measurement of sample dimensions, which were not required in the old version.D. Implications for the usersThe updated evaluation methods in the new version of GB/T 14710 have important implications for users. By requiring more advanced testing procedures and equipment, the new version helps to promote a higher level of quality and safety in wood-based panel products. At the same time, these stricter requirements may also pose challenges for manufacturers and suppliers who are not yet equipped to meet them. To remain competitive in the market and comply with the new requirements, manufacturers and suppliers may need to invest in new equipment and technology, or adjust their production processes.V. ConclusionA. Summary of key pointsIn summary, the new version of GB/T 14710 represents an important milestone in the development of standards for wood-based panel products. The new version introduces more rigorous technical requirements and evaluation methods, which are designed to promote a higher level of quality and safety in these products. The new version also expands the scope of the standard to include composite wood flooring, which was not covered by the old version.B. Implications for users and stakeholdersThe changes in the new version of GB/T 14710 have important implications for users and stakeholders. By requiring more advanced testing procedures and equipment, the new version helps to promote a higher level of quality and safety in wood-based panel products. At the same time, these stricter requirements may also pose challenges for manufacturers and suppliers who are not yet equipped to meet them. To remain competitive in the market and comply with the new requirements, manufacturers and suppliers may need to invest in new equipment and technology, or adjust their production processes.C. Recommendations for future updatesAs scientific knowledge and industry practices continue to evolve, it is important that standards such as GB/T 14710 are continually updated to reflect these changes. Future updates to the standard should continue to emphasize the importance of rigorous technical requirements and evaluation methods, while also balancing the needs of the industry and society. Additionally, standards organizations should continue to engage with stakeholders to ensure that the standards are meeting their needs and promote transparency in the development and implementation of standards.。

IEC 60815IEC 60815: Guide for the lection and dimensioning of high-voltage insulators for polluted conditionsPart 1 - : Definitions, information and general principlesIntroduction from the Project LeaderWhat’s new ?This draft takes into account the decisions taken at our Stockholm meeting.It integrates the work submitted by RM on figure 2/Table 3.It also integrates the work submitted by WV on definitions, figure 1, rapidpollution, dust deposit gauges. Note that there is a suggested Figure 2bshowing the applicability of the approaches and the influence of simple profileparameters.I have left the schedule/content and orientation below so that we can keepthem in mind and update as necessary.I have included both RS and WV ESDD/NSDD measurementprocedures inAnnex B – we need to lect the best from both.Tasks, notes etc. arising from Renardières are outlined in yellow安然无恙英文ScheduleThe following table shows the planned progress of the revision work. This schedule is badon the availability of resources within Working Group 11 and an average of two meeting peryear. Since much of the content of the revision is bad on the work of CIGRE TF 33.13.01,the schedule also takes into account the project plans of this Task Force.爱词霸在线The dates are by no means fixed, since the progress of work on the successive parts of IEC60815 will depend on the degree of acceptance of the first drafts of parts 1 and 2.博奕availabilityPart ExpectedMay 20231st complete draft Part I (1CD) – Guide for the choice of insulatorsunder polluted conditions – Part 1: Definitions, information andgeneral principlesDecember 20231st complete draft Part II (1CD) – Part 2: Porcelain and glassinsulators systems1st complete draft Part III (1CD) ) – Part 3: Polymer insulators forApril 2023blowerThis guide is applicable to the lection of insulators, and the determination of their relevant dimensions, to be ud in high voltage systems with respect to pollution. For the purpos of this guide the insulators are divided into the following broad categories:• Ceramic insulators systems;• Polymeric insulators systems;• Ceramic insulators systems;• Polymeric insulators systems.Ceramic insulators have an insulating part manufactured either of glass or porcelain, whereas polymeric insulators have an insulating body consisting of one or more organic materials. More preci definitions are given below.This part of IEC 60815 gives general definitions and principles to arrive at an informed judgement on the probable behaviour of a giveninsulator in certain pollution environments. It also provides methods for the evaluation of pollution verity. The specific guidelines for each of the types of insulator mentioned above are given in the further parts of IEC 60815, as follows:60815-2 - Ceramic insulators systems;on the beach60815-3 - Polymeric insulators systems;60815-4 - Ceramic insulators systems;60815-5 - Polymeric insulators systems.This structure is the same as that ud in CIGRE 33.13 TF 01 documents [1, 2], which form a uful complement to this guide for tho wishing to study the performance of insulators under pollution in greater depth.This guide does not deal with the effects of snow or ice on polluted insulators. Although this subject is dealt with by CIGRE [3], current knowledge is very limited and practice is too diver.The aim of this guide is to give the ur means to :• Characteri the type and verity of the pollution at a site;• Determine the nominal creepage distance for a "standard" insulator;• Determine the corrections to the creepage distance to take into account the specific properties of the "candidate" insulators for the site,application and system type;• Determine the relative advantages and disadvantages of the possible solutions;• Ass the need and merits of "hybrid" solutions or palliative measures.references2. NormativeThe following normative documents contain provisions which, through reference in this text, constitute provisions of this International Standard. At the time of publication, the editions indicated were valid. All normative documents are subject to revision, and parties to agreements bad on this International Standard are encouraged to investigate the possibility of applying the most recent editions of the normative documents indicated below. Members of IEC and ISO maintain registers of currently valid International Standards.IEC 60507IEC 61245List to be updated3. DefinitionsFor the purpo of this publication, the following definitions apply.3.1. Line Post InsulatorA rigid insulator consisting of one or more pieces of insulating material permanently asmbled with or without a metal ba cap intended to be mounted rigidly on a supporting structure by means of a central stud or one or more bolts.3.2. Cap and Pin (Disc) InsulatorAn insulator comprising an insulating part having t he form of a disk or bell and fixing devices consisting of an outside cap and an inside pin attached axially.3.3. Long Rod InsulatorAn insulator comprising an insulating part having a cylindrical shank provided with sheds, and equipped at the ends with external or internal metal fittings.地址寄存器 3.4. Station Post InsulatorA rigid insulator consisting of one or more pieces of insulating material permanently asmbled and equipped at the ends with external metal fittings intended to be mounted rigidly on a supporting structure by means of one or more bolts.Insulator3.5. PolymerA polymer insulator is one made of at least two insulating parts, namely a shank and housing, and equipped with metal fittings. Polymer insulators can consist either of individual sheds mounted on the shank, with or without an intermediate sheath, or alternatively, of a housing directly moulded or cast in one or veral pieces on the shank. Polymer insulators can be of the long rod, line post or station post type.3.6. Insulator Shank (Ceramic Insulators)The shank refers to the main body of the insulator and is designed to provide the required mechanical characteristics.3.7. Insulator Shank (Polymer Insulators)The shank is the internal insulating part of a polymer insulator and is designed to provide the required mechanical characteristics. It usually consists of continuous glass fibres which are positioned in a resin-bad matrix in such a manner as to achieve maximum tensile strength. CE to combine3.8. ShedsThe sheds are the projections from the shank of an insulatorintended to increa the creepage distance. Various typical types of shed and shed profiles are illustrated below.Normal Shed Alternating Shed Under ribbed Shed Drawings of shed profiles to be updated, SN for ceramic posts/long rods/hollws, CL/KK for cap pin, RM/FS for composites.。

Introduction0.1 The Nature and Domain of English LexicologyThe definition of Lexicology: (P1)Lexicology is a branch of linguistics, inquiring into the origins and meanings of words (WNWD), the morphological structures of English words and word equivalents, their semantic structures, relations, historical development, formation and usages.0.2 The Relation to Other DisciplinesThe definition of Morphology: (P1)Morphology is the branch of grammar which studies the structure or forms of words, primarily through the use of morpheme construct.The definition of Etymology: (P2)Etymology is traditionally used for the study of the origins and history of the form and meaning of words.The definition of Semantics: (P2)Semantics is the study of meanings of different linguistic levels: lexis, syntax, utterance, discourse, etc.The definition of Stylistics: (P2)Stylistics is the study of style.The definition of Lexicography: (P2)Lexicography shares with lexicology the same problems: the form, meaning, origins and usages of words.The difference of Lexicography and Lexicology: (P2)A lexicographer’s task is to record the language as it is used so as to present the genuine picture of words to the reader, providing authoritative reference, whereas the student of lexicology is to acquire the knowledge and information of lexis so as to increase their lexical awareness and capacity of language use.Chapter 1Basic Concepts of Words and Vocabulary1.1 What is a WordIn visual terms, a word can be defined as a meaningful group; according to semanticists, a word is a unit of meaning. (P6) 选择、填空The definition of Word: (P7) 名词解释A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.A word comprises the following points:1. A minimal free form of a language;2. A sound unity;3. A unit of meaning;4. A form that can function alone in a sentence.1.2 Sound and MeaningThe connection of Sound and Meaning两者之间的关系: (P7) 选择、填空The symbolic connection is almost always arbitrary, and there is no logical relationship, the relationship is conventional.Woman, for example, becomes ‘Frau’ in German, ‘Fremme’ in French and ‘Funu’ in Chinese.：体现了sound，meaning的关系1.3 Sound and FormThe reasons caused the difference between Sound and Form: 读音和拼写不一致的原因(P8-9 具体例子看书本) 简答题1. The internal reason for this is that the English alphabet was adopted from the Romans, which does nothave a separate letter to represent each sound in the language so that some letters must do double duty or work together in combination.2. Another reason is that the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years, and insome cases the two have drawn far apart.3. A third reason is that some of the differences were created by the early scribes.4. Finally comes the borrowing, which do not conform to the rules of English pronunciation and spelling.*Printing印刷术was established in the late 1500.Sound and form is imperfect: (P10)The written form of English is, therefore, an imperfect representation of the spoken form.1.5 Classification of Words*Three classifications of words: (P11) 选择、填空Words may fall into the basic word stock and nonbasic vocabulary by use frequency, into content words and functional words by notion, and into native words and borrowed words by origin.1.5.1 Basic Word Stock and Nonbasic VocabularyThe difference between BW and NBW: (P11)BW is in use in a high frequency; and NBW is not.The features of Basic Word (P11-12) 简答题●All national character 全民通用性●Stability 相对稳定性●Productivity 多产性●Polysemy 一词多义●Collocability 搭配性Therefore, ‘all national character’is the most important of all features that may differentiate words of common use from all others.The definition of Productivity: (P12)They can each be used alone, and at the same time can form new words with other roots and affixes.The definition of Polysemy: (P12)Words belonging to the basic word stock often possess more than one meaning because most of them have undergone semantic changes in the course of use and become polysemous.The definition of Collocability: (P12)Many words of the basic word stock enter quite a number of set expressions, idiomatic usages, proverbial sayings and the like.The types of Nonbasic word vocabulary (P13-15) 简答题●Terminology 专业术语●Jargon 行话●Slang 俚语●Argot 黑话●Dialectal words 方言●Archaisms 古词语●Neologisms 新词语The definition of Terminology: (P13)It consists of technical terms used in particular disciplines and academic areas as in medicine.●例子有：mathematics, music, education.The definition of Jargon: (P13)It refers to the specialized vocabularies by which members of particular arts, sciences, trades and professions communicate among themselves such as in business.●例子有：bottom line, bargaining chipsThe definition of Slang: (P14)Slang belongs to the sub-standard language亚标准语言, a category that seems to stand between the standard general words including informal ones available to everyone and in-group words.Slang is created by changing or extending the meaning of existing words.The definition of Argot 黑话: (P15)Argot generally refers to the jargon of criminals.The definition of Dialectal words: (P15)Dialectal words are words used only by speakers of the dialect in question.The definition of Archaisms: (P15)Archaisms are words or forms that were once in common use but are now restricted only to specialized or limited use.The definition of Neologisms: (P15)Neologisms are newly-created words or expressions, or words that have taken on new meanings.1.5.2 Content Words and Functional WordsThe difference between Content words and Functional words: (P16) 简答题●Content words denote clear notions and thus are known as notional words.●Functional words do not have notions of their own. Therefore, they are also called empty words. As theirchief function is to express the relation between notions, the relation between words as well as between sentences, they are known as form words.1.5.3 Native Words and Borrowed WordsThe definition of Native Words: (P17)Native words are words brought to Britain in the fifth century by the German tribes (日耳曼部落).The 2 features of Native Words: (P17)1. Neutral in style (French or Latin are literary and in formal style) 文体中立，即任何场所可用2. Frequent in use使用频繁The definition of Borrowed Words: (P18)Words taken over from foreign languages are known as borrowed words or loan words or borrowing in simple terms. 三个黑体字同义Four classes of Borrowed Words: (P19)1. Denizens 同化词Denizens are words borrowed early in the past and now well assimilated into the English language.2. Aliens 非同化词Aliens are borrowed words which have retained their original pronunciation and spelling.3. Translation-loans 译借词、外来词Translation-loans are words and expressions formed from the existing material in the English language but modeled on the patterns taken from another language.4. Semantic-loans借义词Words of this category are not borrowed with reference to the form.Chapter 2The Development of the English vocabulary2.1 The Indo-European Language FamilyThe Indo-European Language has approximately 3000languages and group into roughly 300language families on the basis of Basic Word and Grammar. It is made up of most of language of Europe, the Near East, and India.印欧三大语系(P23)Germanic family = Scandinavian languages斯堪的纳维亚语的;北北欧日耳曼语系(P24)The Germanic family consists of the four Northern European languages: Norwegian, Icelandic, Danish and Swedish, which are generally known as Scandinavian languages.In western set, Greek is the modern language derived from Hellenic(希腊语的). (P24)2.2.1 Old English (450 – 1150) (P25)The Germanic tribes are the earliest.The introduction of Christianity had a great impact on the English vocabulary. It brought many new ideas and customs and also many religious terms such as abbot, candle, alter, amen, apostle.The common practice was to create new words by combining two native words, e.g. handbook. (P26)Old English is a highly inflected language.Skirt, skill, window, leg, grasp, birth, they, their, them, egg, these words are from Scandinavian origin.2.2.2 Middle English (1150 – 1500) (P26)Norman Conquest started a continual flow of French words into English. 诺曼大帝带来了大量的法语词。

Key to chapter 11 .What is a word? 1.A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound, meaning and syntactic function.2.In what way are words related to vocabulary?V ocabulary refers to the sum total of all the words in a language. In other words, vocabulary is composed of words and words make up vocabulary. If we compare vocabulary to a family, words are family members.3.Illustrate the relationship between sound and meaning with examples .Sound is the physical aspect of a word and meaning is what the sound refers to. Sound and meaning are not intrinsically related and their collection is arbitrary and conventional. For example, tree/tri:/ means 树in English because the English-speaking people have agreed to do so just as Chinese people use/shù/ (树) to refer to the same thing. This explains why people of different languages use different sounds to express the same concept. However, in the same languages, the same sound can denote different meanings, e.g. /rait/ can mean right, rite, and write.4 .Enumerate the causes for the differences between sound and form of english wordsThere are generally four major causes of the differences between sound and form. ⑴ There are more phonemes than letters in English, so there is no way to use one letter to represent one phoneme. ⑵ The stabilization of spelling by printing, which breaks the synchronized change of sound and spelling. ⑶ Influence of the work of scribes, who deliberately changed the spelling of words and ⑷ borrowing, which introduces many words which are against English rules of pronunciation and spelling.5 .Give examples to show the influence of early scribes on english spellingEarly scribes changed the spelling of many words while copying things for others because the original spelling forms in cursive writing were difficult for people to recognize, such as sum, cum, wuman, munk and so on. Later, the letter u with vertical lines was replaced with o, resulting in the current spelling forms like some, come, woman, monk. The changed spelling forms are more distinguishable to readers.6.What are the characteristics of basic word stockWords of the basic word stock form the common core of the English language. They are the words essential to native speakers’ daily communication. Such words are characterized by all national character, stability, polysemy, productivity and collocability.7.choose the standard meaning form from the list on the right to match each of the slang words on the leftA tart loose woman b. bloke fellow c.gat pistol d. swell great e. chicken cowardF .blue fight g. smoky police h full drunk i. dame woman j. beaver girl8.given the modern equivalents for the following archaic wordshaply = perhaps albeit= although methinks = it seems to me eke= also bade= bidsmooth= truth morn= morning troth= pledge ere= before quoth = said hallowed= holy billow= wave/ the sea9.Explain neologisms with examplesNeologisms refer to newly-coined words or old words with new meanings. For example, euro(欧元), e-book(电子书), SARS(非典), netizen(网民), are newly-coined words. Words like mouse(鼠标),web(网络),space shuttle(航天飞机) etc. are old words which have acquired new meanings.10.What is the fundamental difference between content and functional wordsBy notion, words fall into content words and functional words. Content words include nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs and numerals, which have clear notions; whereas functional words are void of notions but are mainly used to connect content words into sentences. Content words are numerous and changing all the time, while functional words are small in number and stable. But functional words have much higher frequency in use than content words.11.How do you account for the role of native words in english in relation to loan words ?Native words form a small portion of the English vocabulary, but they make up the mainstream of the basic word-stock which belongs to the common core of the English language. Compared with most loan-words, native words are mostly essential to native speakers’ daily communication and enjoy a much higher frequency in actual use.12. Categorize the following borrowed words into denizens , aliens translation loans and semantic loans Denizens Aliens Translation loans Semantic loans kettle confrere chopsticks dream die pro patria black humour skirt parvenu long time no see wall Wunderkind typhoon husband Mikado Key to chapter 21. Why should students of english lexicology study the In-European language family?The Indo-Europe Language Family is one of the most important language families in the world. It is made up of the languages of Europe, the Near East and India. English belongs to this family and the other members of the Indo-European Language Family have different degrees of influence on English vocabulary. A knowledge of the Indo-European Language Family will help us understand English words better and use them more appropriately.2.make a tree diagram to show the family relations of the modern language given below3. W hat are the fundamental differences between the vocabularies of the 3 periods of development ? Do you think we can divide the historical development in other ways ? Defend your argument.The vocabularies of the three periods differ greatly from one anther. Old English has (1) a small vocabulary (50 000—60 000), (2) a small number of borrowings from Latin and Scandinavian only and (3) the words full of endings. Middle English has (1) a comparatively large vocabulary, (2) a tremendous number of foreign words from French and Latin and (3) word endings leveled. Modern English has (1) a huge and heterogeneous vocabulary, (2) tremendous borrowings and (3) words with lost endings.Yes, we can divide the developments in other ways, for example, Old English period can be called Anglo-Saxon period. And Middle English might start from 1066, the time of Norman Conquest. But in doing so, the logical continuation of thee three phases of the original division is lost.4. what characteristics of english make the english language heterogeneous ?it is receptivity and adaptability of the English language that make it possible for English to borrow heavily from other majorIndo-European Language FamilyBalto-Slavic Lithuanian Prussian Polish Slavenian Russian BulgarianIndo-Iranian Hindi PerianCeltic Breton Scottish IrishItalic Spanish French Italian PortugueseRoumanianHellenic GreekGermanic English Swedish German Icelangic Danish Dutchlanguages of the world, so that the English vocabulary eventually has become heterogeneous.5.Account for the popularity of english in the present world from a linguistic perspective.The popularity of English lies in the fact that English is ready to borrow from other languages and to adapt itself to new situations and new developments, that it has accepted elements from all other major languages and that it has simple reflection and a relatively fixed word order. All these make the language comparatively easy to learn and to use.6 course human events necessary peopledissolve political connected assume powersseparate equal station nature entitledecent respect opinions requires declarecauses impel separationFrom the words picked out, we can see that most of the content words are either of Greek or Latin origin. What we left are mostly functional words. This shows that Greek and Latin play a very important part in the English vocabulary.7.Give a brief account of the 4 phases of Latin borrowing with 2 or 3 examples for each period.Latin borrowing can be divided into four phase: (1) Pre-Anglo-Saxon period,(2)Old English period, (3) middle English period and (4) Modern English period. Borrowings in the first period are mainly common words such as wall, wine, kettle and so on; Words borrowed in the second period are mainly religious terms such as candle, nun, church; the third period saw word borrowed often via French such as frustrate, history, infancy and so on and in the forth period Words borrowed from Latin are usually abstract formal terms like status, nucleus, minimum.8.tell the difference elements that make up the following hybrids.eventful [Latin + English] hydroplane [Greek +Latin Falsehood [Latin +English ] pacifist [Latin +Greek ] Saxophone [German +Greek ] heirloom [French +English ] Joss house [Portuguese +English ] television [Greek + Latin ] 9.put the following French loan word into 2 groups , one being early borrowings and the other late ones .amateur (late) finace (late) Empire (late) peace (early) Courage (early) garage (late) Judgement (early) chair (early) Chaise (late) grace (early) Servant (early) routine (late) Jealous (early) savate (late) Genre (late) gender (early)Debut (late) morale (late) State (early) chez (late) Ballet (late)ment on Jespersen's remark on Scandinavian element in english "An englishman cannot thrive or be ill or die without Scandinavian words, they are to the language what bread and eggs are to the daily fare.Jespersen’s comment reveals the importance of Scandinavian words in E nglish. Just as people cannot live without bread and eggs, so English language cannot operate properly without Scandinavian words.11. Match the Italian musical terms with the proper definitionsallegro f. 轻快Alto i. 女低音Andante j 行板Crescendo b. 渐强Diminuendo g. 渐弱Forte e. 强Largo d. 缓慢Piano h. 轻Pianoforte a. 轻转慢Soprano c. 女高音12.Look up these words in a dictionary to determine the language from which each has been borrowedcherub（Hebrew）chipmunk(American Indian ) Chocolate(Mexican ) coolie(Hindi) Cotton (Arabic) jubilee (Greek) Lasso (Spanish) loot (Hindi) Sabbath (Hebrew) shampoo (Hindi) Snorkel (German) ttamale (Mexican)Tepee (American) tulip (Turkish) V oodoo (African) kibitz (German) Wok (Chinese) sauerbraten (German)13. Here is a menu of loan words from various sources . Choose a word to fill in each space .a. alligatorb. Lococ. rodeod.. Bonanzae. igloof. Blitzkriegg. wigwamh. Canoei. hurricanej. Boomerangk. poncho14.Describe the characteristics of contemporary vocabularythe characteristics of the contemporary vocabulary can be summarized as follows: (1) the vocabulary is huge in size and heterogeneous;(2) it has tremendous borrowings from all other major languages of the world; (3) the words have lost their endings; (4) it is growing swiftly by means of word-formation because of the development of science and technology, social, economic and political changes andinfluence of other cultures and languages.15.What are the major modes of vocabulary development in contemporary english ?the major modes of vocabulary development of contemporary are creation, that is by means of word-formation; semantic change, adding new meanings to old words; borrowing words from other language and revival of old-fashioned words, which has a insignificant role.Key to chapter 31.write the terms in the blanks according to the definitionsa. morphemeb. allomorphc. bound morphemed. free morphemee. affixf. inflectional affixg. derivational affix h. rooti. stem j. base2. What is the difference between grammatical and lexical morphemes,and inflectional and derivational morphemes .give examples to illustrate their relationshipsInflectional morphemes are the suffixes added to the end of words to denote grammatical concepts such as –s(-es), -ed, -ing and –est (to show superlative degree of adjectives and adverbs) whereas derivational morphemes are prefixes and suffixes added to words to form new words such as pre-, dis-, un-, -tion, -er, -ness and so on.Grammatical morphemes are those used to show grammatical concepts, including inflectional suffixes as mentioned above and functional words (prepositions, pronouns, articles, auxiliary verbs), for example, but, the, do and Was; lexical morphemes are derivational affixes including both prefixes and suffixes3.Analyse the words in terms of root, stem ,baseIndividualisticindividualist + ic [stem , base]individual + ist [stem, base ]individu + al [stem, base ]in + dividu [root, stem, base ]undesirablesun +desirable [stem, base ]desir + able [root, stem, base ]anize the following terms in a tree diagram to show their logical relationshipsKey to chapter 4Enumerate the three important means of word formation and explain their respective role in the expansion of English vocabulary.The three means of word formation are affixation, which creates 30% to 40% of the total number of new words ;compounding ,which brings 28% to 30% of all the new words; and conversion, which provides English with 26% of the new words.Affixation1.What is affixation? What is its alternative name ?Affixation, also called derivation, is the formation of new words by adding affixes to stems. Affixation Includes prefixation and suffixation according to the types of Affixes used to forms new words.2.What is the difference between prefixation and suffixation?Prefixation is to create new words by adding prefixes to base while suffixation makes new words by adding suffixes to base.3.What are the characteristics of prefixes and suffixes?Generally speaking, prefixes do not change part of speech of base but only modify their meaning whereas suffixes do change part of speech but seldom modify the meaning of bases.4.What is the best way to classify prefixes ? Why ?The best way to classify prefixes is on the basis of meaning because prefixes only change the meaning of bases in general.5. Form negatives with each of following words by using one of these prefixes dis~,il~.im~ , in~,ir~ ,non~, un~,non-smoker incapable impractical disobey insecurity irrelevantimmature inability/disability unofficially unwillingness illegal disagreementillogical disloyal inconvenient non-athletic6. harden horrify modernizememorize falsify apologizedeepen glorify sterilizelengthen intensify beautifyfatten sympathizea. apologizeb. beautifyc. lengtheningd. sympathizede. to fattenf. falsify/hardeng. memorizing h. Sterilize7. a. employee b. politician c. participantd. waitresse. conductorf. teacherg. pianist h. examinee/examiner8. trans- = across: transcontinental, trans-worldmono- = one: monorail, monoculturesuper- = over, above: superstructure, supernaturalauto- = self: autobiography, automobilesub- = bad, badly: malpractice, malnutritionmini- = little, small: minicrisis, miniwarpre- = before: prehistorical, preelectionex- = former: ex-teacher, ex-filmerCompounding1.Why are the criteria by which to differentiate compounds from free phrases? What do you think of these criteria?The three criteria are(1)stress pattern, that is, stress in a compound falls on the first element but on the second in a free phrase, e.g. '- -(compound), - ' -(free phrase);(2)meaning, that is, the meanings of a compound is usually not the combination of the meaning of thecomponent parts, but the free phrase is, e.g. hot line(compound: busy line),hot potato(free phrase: potato which is hot);(3)grammatical unity, that is, the different elements form a grammatical unit, which does not allow internal change, e.g. easy chair(compound: a special arm chair),easier chair(free phrase: a less easy chair).However, every rule has expectations. The same is true of the criteria. Three are examples against each of the three rules.2. heartbeat [S + V] brainwashing [V + O]movie-goer [place + V.-er] baking powder [ adv+n.]far- reaching [Adv+v.-ing] dog-tired [adv + adj]lion-hearted [adv + n.-ed] love-sick [adv + adj]boyfriend [S + complement] peace-loving [V +O]snap decision [V + O] easy chair [ adj+ n]on-coming [adv+v] tax-free [adv +adj]light-blue [adj + adj] goings-on [V +adv]Whereas conversation is the derivation of new words by adding zero affixes, such as single(adj.)→single(v.）.3.Wh at are the usual methods to form compound words ? Give examples.There are two ways to form verb compounds. For example, first name (v. from first name) and honeymoon (v. from honeymoon) are words created by means of conversion: words such as proofread (v. from proofreading)and chain-smoke (v. from chain smoker)are formed by means of backformation.4.well-bred 有教养的well-behaved 守规矩的culture-bound 含文化的homebound 回家的needle work 针织品homework 家庭作业praiseworthy 值得表扬的respectworthy 值得尊敬的bar-woman 吧女sportswoman 女运动员nationwide 全国的college-wide 全校的clear-minded 头脑清晰的strong-minded 意志坚强的military-style 军事风格的newstyle 新款self-control 自制self-respect 自尊budget-related 有预算的politics-related 与政治相关的water-proof 防水fire-proof 防火once-fashionable 曾经流行的once-powerful 曾经强大的news-film 新闻片news-letter 时事通讯mock-attack 演习mock-sadness 假悲伤sister-in-law 嫂/弟媳妇father-in-law 岳父/公公home-baked 自家烤的home-produced 自制的half-way 半途的/半路的half-done 半生不熟的ever-lasting 永久的ever-green 常青的age-conscious 年龄敏感的status-conscious 身份敏感的campus-based 以校园为基地的market-based 基于市场的Conversion1.What is conversion? What do you think of the alternatives functional shift and zero-derivation?Conversion is the formation of new words by turning words of one part of speech to those of another part of speech, The term functional shift reveals the actual function of conversion, i.e. change of the functions of words .the term zero-derivation approachesconversion from the perspective of derivation because it is a way of deriving new words by adding zero affixes, hence zero derivation.2.In what way is conversion different from suffixation?Although both are called derivation ,suffixation is the derivation of new words by adding suffixes to bases, such as simple (adj.)→simplify（v.)3 what causes of words are most frequently converted ?The classes most frequently involved in conversation are nouns and verbs.4 in what way are verbs converted from nouns semantically related to original nouns and vice versa ?Verbs converted to nouns usually are related to the original verbs in six different ways. The new nouns converted from verbs refer to （1）state of mind or sensation, e.g .desire(state of desiring); (2) event or activity, e.g. swim (the activity of swimming );(3) result of the action, e.g. buy (the result of buying);(4) doer of the action, e.g. bore (the person whom bores); (5) tool or instrument, e,g, paper (doing something with paper ) and (6) place, e.g. turn(the place of turning).Nouns converted to verbs are generally related to the original nouns in sever different ways . The new verbs usually mean (1) to put in or on the noun, e. g. peel (to remove the peel from );(4) to do with the noun, e.g. Shoulder (to do something with shoulder); (5) to be or act as the noun, e. g. tutor (to be the tutor) ;(6) to make or change into the noun, e.g. cash (7) to send or go by the noun ,e. g. ship (to send by ship).5.Explain partial conversion and full conversion with examplesWhen adjectives are converted into nouns, some are completely changed, thus known as full conversation, and others are partially changed, thus known as partial conversion. Adjectives which are fully converted can achieve a full noun status, i. e. having all the characteristics of nouns. That means they can take a / an shorts, finals. Adjectives which are partially converted still keep adjective features. They should always be used with the, and they cannot take -s/-es to show plural forms. Moreover, the words can have comparative or superlative degrees: the poor, the poorer ,the young, the very unfortunate.6.What changes are occasionally involved in the process of conversion?The changes occasionally involved are (1) change of spelling accompanied by pronunciation ,e. G. Life/laIf/→live/liv/ , breat h /breɚ/→breathe /bri:ỏ/ and blood /blʌd/→ bleed / bli:d/ ;(2) change of pronunciation and stress ,e. g. use . n /ju :s / → use v. / ju:z / and permit n. /'p :mit/→ v. /p 'mit / and so on.7.a .stomach [n.→v.] b. Room [n.→ v.] c.wolf [n → v] e/go [v → n] e.familiar [a → n] f.innocent [a → n]g.flat [a → n] h. ah/ ouch [int → v]i.war m [a → n]j.has-been/might-have-been [finite v → n]k.Hamlet [proper n → v]l.buy [v → n]m.smooth [a → v]Blendingmotel motor + hotel) 汽车旅馆humint (human + intelligence) 情报advertisetics (advertisement + statistics) 广告统计学psywarrior (psychological warrior) 心理战专家hoverport (hovercraft + port 气垫船码头chunnel (channel + tunnel) 海峡隧道hi-fi (high + fidelity) 高保真音响cinemactress (cinema + actress) 电影演员Clippingcopter (helicopter) front clipping dorm (dormitory) back clipping lab (laboratory) back clippingprefab (prefabricated house) phrase clipping gas (gasoline) back clipping prof (professor) back clippingscope (telescope) front clipping champ (champion) back clipping sarge (sergeant) back clippingmike (microphone) back clipping ad (advertisement) back clipping tec (detective) ront and back clippingAcronymy1.both initialisms and acronyms are formed to a certain extent from initial letters. Is there any difference between them ? Illustrate your point with examplesYes, there is a difference between them. The difference lies in the formation and pronunciation. Initialisms are formations pronounced letter by letter, e.g. UFO(unidentified flying object), BBC(B ritish B roadcasting C orporation), VIP(very important person) and acronyms are formed to conform to the rule of spelling and pronunciation, that is, the words look and sound like ordinary words, e.g. AIDS/eidz/(acquired immune deficiency syndrome), MAD(mutually assured destruction), radar(radio detecting and ranging).2.what do the short forms stand for ?kg =k ilogram ft=f oot cf =c onfer cm=c entimeter $=d ollar ibid = i bide etc. = e t cetera VIP=v ery i mportant p erson OPEC=O rganization of P etroleum E xporting C ountries TOEFL=t est of E nglish as a f oreign l anguage3. a. SALT b. radar c. AIDSd. BASICe. Laserf. WHOg. sonar h. G-manBackformation1. Both back-formation and back-clipping are ways of making words by removing the endings of words . How you account for coexistence of the 2 ?can you illustrate the difference ?It is true that both are means of making new words by removing the end part of the words. But they have differences. For a back-formed word , what is removed is the supposed suffix ,e.g. auth------author , donate------donation , loaf-----loafer , the forms –-or,--ion , --er coincide with the their suffixes . For back clipping , however , what is removed is usually different from the existing suffixes ,e.g. ad------advertisement , gas-------gasoline , exam------examination , etc.2.Cive the original words from which the following words are back-formedLase (laser) escalate(escalator) Babysit (babysitter) peeve (peevish) Orate (orator) commute (commuter)Communization of proper namesa.Tantalize -------Tantalus : to tease or torment by keeping sth. wanted out of reachb.b Argus-eyed--------Argus : to be extremely watchfula.narcissim--------Narcissus : excessive admiration of oneself or one’s appearanceb.sabotage-------Sabots : (1) to destroy or damage deliberately(2) deliberate damage or destructione. martinet--------Martinet : strict /stern (military) trainerf . yahoo-------Yahoo : a lout or ruffiang. Shylock--------Shylock: a ruthless money lenderh. hovering-------Hoover: cleaning by using a vacuum cleanerKey to Chapter 51. What is reference ?Reference is the connection between the word form and what the form refers to in the world. (or: Reference is the relationship between language and the world.)2. What is concept ?Concept is a notion or idea, formed in the mind as a result of cognition, which reflects the objective world.3. What is sense ?The sense of a word shows its place in a system of semantic relationships with other words in the language. It is often used to substitute meaning.4.What is motivation? Does this theory contradict the theory of "arbitrariness" and "conventionality' concerning the relationshipbetween linguistic symbols and their senses ?Motivation explains the relationship between the linguistic symbol and its meaning, or the logical reason why a certain word has a certain meaning.As mentioned earlier, the relationship between sound and meaning is arbitrary and conventional. Motivation seems to contradict the theory. The answer is “yes and no”. By “yes”, we mean all the mono-morphemic words in a language are non-motivated except a few onomatopoeic words which imitate the natural sounds or noises. By “no”, we mean many multi-morphemic words are motivated, for in many cases the meaning of the whole word is the combination of the morphemes. The morphemic structure explains the meaning.5. What are the 4 types of motivation? Explain them with examplesThe four types of motivation are onomatopoeic motivation, morphological motivation, semantic motivation and etymological motivation. Onomatopoeic motivation explains onomatopoeic words whose meaning is based on the pronunciation of the words such as miaow, thump, peng, etc. ; morphological motivation explains the words whose morphological structure throws light on their meaning, such as profiteer(profit+eer), darkroom(dark+room), deconstruction (de+construct+ion), etc. ; semantic motivation explains the figurative meaning of words whose literal meaning suggests the figurative meaning such as the tongue of fire, the mouth of the river, the face of the earth; etymological motivation explains the words whose meaning is closely related to their origins such as banting(therapy for keeping slim by going on a diet discovered by Doctor Banting) and Brille(language used by the blind created by Brille).6. apes-gibber birds-sing/twitter cattle-low crickets-chirp doves-coo foxes-yelpgeese-gabble sheep-bleat wolves-howl monkeys-chatter pigs- grunt hyenas-laugh turkeys-gobble swans-cry7. What is the difference between grammatical meaning and lexical meaning?Grammatical meaning refers to the part of meaning which shows grammatical relationship such as part of speech of words, plural forms of nouns, tense of verbs, etc. and lexical meaning includes all the rest of the meanings of a word apart from the grammatical meaning, i.e. conceptual meaning and associative meaning.8. What ar ethe characteristics of conceptual meaning and associative meaning?Conceptual meaning is fundamental, universal and stable whereas associative meaning is secondary, contextual, open-ended or indeterminate, thus changing.9. What connotations do you think we word atomic might have for each of the following people ?a. A scientist working in a project to develop industrial uses for nuclear power might have all the positive associations with atomic, such as “benefit”, “energy”, etc.b. A Japanese resident of Hiroshima, victim of the atomic explosion at the end of World War Ⅱ, might have all the negative associations with atomic, such as “suffering”, “killing”, “death”, “horror”, etc.c. To a student of nuclear physics, atomic might be associated with “mystery”, “science”, “knowledge”, etc.10. talkative: implying a fondness for talking frequently and at length (neutral)articulate: expressing oneself easily and clearly (positive)gossip: indulging in idle talk or rumours about others (negative)rambling: talking aimlessly without connection of ideas (negative)fluent: speaking easily, smoothly and expressively (positive)gabby: inclined to chatter (negative)mouthy: overtly talkative, especially in a rude way (negative)11.No Appreciative Neutral Pejorativea. particular fastidious/fussyb. critical fault-finding/picky。

Unit 2Culture and CommunicationReading IWhat Is CultureComprehension questions1. Which of the definitions given above do you prefer? Why?Some may prefer a short definition, such as the one given by E. Sapir or R. Benedict, for it is highly generalized and easy to remember. Some may prefer a longer one, such as Edward T. Hall’s definition of culture, because it provides us with a more comprehensive understanding of culture and points out the all-pervasive impact of culture on human life in different dimensions.2. What have you learned from those definitions about culture?Many things can be learned from those definitions, for each definition, though not without its limitations, tells us something very important about culture or certain aspect(s) of culture.3. Do you agree that our lower needs always have to be satisfied before we can try tosatisfy the higher needs?Even though this is generally the case, there will still be some exceptions. Sometimes people might prefer to satisfy higher needs, for instance, esteem needs, before their lower needs, such as certain physiological needs or safety needs are satisfied.4. What examples can you give about how people of different cultures achieve thesame ends by taking different roads?For example, everyone has to eat in order to live and this is universally true. However, to satisfy this basic need, people of various cultures may do it in very different ways: what to eat and how to eat it vary from culture to culture.5. What behaviors of ours are born with and what are learned in the culturalenvironment?Instinctive behaviors are behaviors that we are born with and ways of doing things in daily life, such as ways of eating, drinking, dressing, finding shelter, making friends, marrying, and dealing with death are learned in the cultural environment.6. What other cultural differences do you know in the way people do things in theireveryday life?We can also find cultural differences in ways of bringing up children, treating the elderly, greeting each other, saving and spending money, and many other things people do in everyday life.7. In what ways are the Chinese eating habits different from those of the English-speaking countries?We Chinese may enjoy something that is not usually considered as edible by the English-speaking people. Generally we prefer to have things hot and lay much emphasis on tastes. We tend to share things with each other when we are eating with others.Reading IIElements of CommunicationComprehension questions1. What are the aspects of context mentioned above?One aspect of context is the physical setting, including location, time, light, temperature, distance between communicators, and any seating arrangements. A second aspect of context is historical. A third aspect of context is psychological. A fourth aspect of context is culture.2. In what ways would your posture, manner of speaking or attire change if you movefrom one physical setting to another, for example, from your home to a park, to a classroom, to a restaurant, to a funeral house, etc?One’s posture, manner of speaking or attire change from being casual to formal gradually from home to a park, to a classroom, to a restaurant, to a funeral house, etc, according to different formalness and seriousness of these situations.3. How do people acquire communication norms in their life?People acquire communication norms from their experiences in life.4. What examples can you give to describe some Chinese norms in our everydaycommunication?For example, it seems to be a norm in China to address one’s boss by his or her title and never to express one’s disapproval directly to him or her.5. How can we play both the roles of sender and receiver in communication?As senders, we form messages and attempt to communicate them to others through verbal and nonverbal symbols. As receivers, we process the messages sent to us and react to them both verbally and nonverbally.6. Does the sender play a more important role than the receiver in communication? No, they are equally important for both of them are essential in the process of communication.7. In what ways do the differences between participants make communication more or less difficult?Three especially important variables affecting participants which are relationship, gender, and culture make communication more or less difficult.8. What is a symbol and what is a meaning?The pure ideas and feelings that exist in a person’s mind represent meanings. The words, sounds, and actions that communicate meaning are known as symbols because they stand for the meanings intended by the person using them.9. How can meanings be transferred from one person to another? What problems may arise in this process?A message from one person is encoded into symbols and then decoded into ideas and feelings to another person. In this process of transforming include nonverbal cues, which significantly affect the meaning created between the participants in a communication transaction.10. When are unintended or conflicted meanings likely to be created?Unintended meanings are created when the decoding person receives a meaning unrelated to what the encoder thought he or she was communicating. Conflicting meanings are created when the verbal symbols are contradicted by the nonverbal cues.11. Which channels do you usually prefer in communication? Why?Of the five channels, some may prefer sight. As the old saying goes, words are but wind, but seeing is believing.12. What examples can you find to show that one channel is more effective than othersfor transmitting certain messages?For example, when asking a lady for a date, a young man may wear an immaculate suit and spray some perfume to show that he highly values this date with her. In this case, sight and smell are definitely more effective than words for conveying that particular message.13. What are the things that can create noises in the process of communication?Sights, sounds, and other stimuli in the environment that draw people‘s attention away from intended meaning are known as external noise. Thoughts and feelings that interfere with the communication process are known as internal noise. Unintended meanings aroused by certain verbal symbols can inhibit the accuracy of decoding. This is known as semantic noise.14. What should we do to reduce the interference of noise in communication?When communicating with others, we should pay undivided attention to communication itself, avoiding being distracted by any external or internal noise. Besides, we should make sure that what we say is correctly understood by others and vice versa to prevent semantic noise from generating.15. Why is feedback a very important element of communication?Feedback is very important because it serves useful functions for both senders and receivers: it provides senders with the opportunity to measure how they are coming across, and it provides receivers with the opportunity to exert some influence over the communication process.16. What will you usually do when you receive negative feedback in communication?Open.Case StudyCase 5In China, it is often not polite to accept a first offer and Heping was being modest, polite and well-behaved and had every intention of accepting the beer at the second or third offer. But he had not figured on North American rules whichfirmly say that you do not push alcoholic beverages on anyone. A person may not drink for religious reasons, he may be a reformed alcoholic, or he may be allergic. Whatever the reason behind the rule, you do not insist in offering alcohol. So unconscious and so strong are their cultural rules that the Americans equally politely never made a second offer of beer to Heping who probably thought North Americans most uncouth.However, what we have to remember is that cultures are seldom a strict either-or in every instance for all people and there are always individual differences. Probably this young Chinese nurse was very different from Heping or, unlike Heping, she may have known something about the American cultural rules and was just trying to behave like an American when she was in an American family.Case 6When a speaker says something to a hearer, there are at least three kinds of meanings involved: utterance meaning, speaker’s meaning and hearer’s meaning. In the dialogue, when Litz said ‘How long is she going to stay?’ she meant to say that if she knew how long her mother-in-law was going to stay in Finland, she would be able to make proper arrangements for her, such as taking her out to do some sightseeing. However, her mother-in-law overheard the conversation, and took Litz’s question to mean “Litz does not want me to stay for long”. From the Chinese point of view, it seems to be inappropriate for Litz to ask such a question just two days after her mother-in-law’s arrival. Ifshe feels she has to ask the question, it would be better to ask some time later and she should not let her mother-in-law hear it.Case 7Keiko insists on giving valuable gifts to her college friends, because in countries like Japan, exchanging gifts is a strongly rooted social tradition. Should you receive a gift, and don’t have one to offer in return, you will probably create a crisis. If not as serious as a crisis, one who doesn’t offer a gift in return may be considered rude or impolite. Therefore, in Japan, gifts are a symbolic way to show appreciation, respect, gratitude and further relationship.Keiko obviously has taken those used items from Mary, Ed and Marion as gifts, for she probably doesn’t know that Americans frequently donate their used household items to church or to the community. Mary, Ed and Marion would never consider those used household items given to Keiko as gifts. No wonder they felt very uncomfortable when they received valuable gifts in return.Case 8As the Chinese girl Amy fell in love with an American boy at that time, it seems that she preferred to celebrate Christmas in the American way, for she wanted very much to appear the same as other American girl. She did not like to see her boyfriend feel disappointed at the “shabby” Chinese Christmas. That’s why she cried when she found outher parents had invited the minister’s family over for the Christmas Eve dinner. She thought the menu for the Christmas meal created by her mother a strange one because there were no roast turkey and sweet potatoes but only Chinese food. How could she notice then the foods chosen by her mother were all her favorites?From this case, we can find a lot of differences between the Chinese and Western cultures in what is appropriate food for a banquet, what are good table manners, and how one should behave to be hospitable. However, one should never feel shameful just because one’s culture is different from others’. As Amy’s mother told her, you must be proud to be different, and your only shame is to have shame.。