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天量罗盘的使用之阳早格格创做天量罗盘用途广大，借帮它不妨决定圆背、丈量天形坡度、丈量百般里状果素(如岩层层里、褶皱轴里、断层里、节理里)战线状果素（如褶皱枢纽、线理、断层揩痕等）的产状等，以决定百般构制里战构制线的空间位子，是举止家中天量处事必备工具.果此必须教会使用天量罗盘仪.一、认识天量罗盘天量罗盘式样很多，然而结构大共小同，主要功能也皆相共.其结构如图1所示.磁针——由于尔国位于北半球磁针二端所受磁力不等，使磁针得去仄稳.为了使磁针脆持仄稳常正在磁针北端S绕上几圈铜丝，用此也便于区别磁针的北北二端.刻度环---火仄刻度盘的刻度是采与那样的标示办法：从整度启初按顺时针目标每10°一记，连绝刻至360°，0°战180°分别为N战S，90°战图1 罗盘结构图270°分别为E战W，利用它不妨间接测得大天二面间直线的磁圆背角.角度刻度环----博用去读倾角战坡角指数.程度器---常常有二个，分别拆正在圆形玻璃管中，圆形程度器牢固正在底盘上，少形程度器牢固正在测斜仪上.二、罗盘圆背与矫正圆背是指正在火仄里内，一面（已知面）正在另一面（已知面）的目标.圆背确定正北目标为0°，正东目标为90°，正北目标为 180°，正西目标为270°，正在火仄里内顺时针目标转化一圈为360°.如圆背角为60°，即为北东目标，常常可间接写为360°.若圆背角为210°，即为北西目标，可间接写为210°.偶尔也用象限角表示，即用北、北二个基准，分为北东、北西、北东、北西四个象限.若圆背角为60°，用象限角表示为N60°E；若圆背角为210°，用象限角表示为S210°W.欲知此圆背，必须有一个参照面大概参照目标，也即基准面大概基准目标.圆背角是正在火仄里内测出由已知面背已知面的连线目标与基准目标的夹角，如图2所示.图2 磁偏偏角及其矫正示企图基准圆背有二种：一种是真北目标，即天北极目标，也喊真子午线目标；另一种是磁北目标，即天球的磁北极目标，也喊磁子午线目标.天球的北北极与天球磁场的北北极本去不沉合.出于常常习惯战便当使用思量，基准圆背普遍采与真北目标.罗盘出厂时，其0°刻度普遍正在少照准合页的目标.而罗盘的指针为磁针，其经常指背磁北北目标而脆持不动.当将罗盘顺时针目标转化时（与圆背角的计量目标普遍），磁针却相对付顺时针目标转化，果此必须将罗盘刻度环刻划数值按顺时针目标标记表记标帜.普遍情况下，天球上的某面的磁子午线本去不与真子午线沉合，磁北目标偏偏离真北目标的角度喊搞磁偏偏角，普遍以i表示.如果磁北目标正在真北目标以东，喊搞东偏偏，确定为正角；如果磁北目标正在真北目标以西喊搞西偏偏，确定为背角，睹图2.当罗盘少照准合页指背磁北目标时，磁针指背0°，那时罗盘丈量的是磁圆背角.当罗盘少照准合页指背真北目标时，磁针仍指背磁北北目标本去不指背0°，罗盘丈量的仍是磁圆背角，必须利用关系式：α=αm±i（α为真圆背角，αm为磁圆背角，i为磁偏偏角）举止换算，才搞得到真北的0°圆背角.以此类推，其余圆背的丈量也要通过如许换算.果此若要赶快赢得真圆背角，必须举止罗盘矫正.罗盘矫正的要领是东偏偏几度，则将刻度环顺时针转化几度；西偏偏几度，则将刻度环顺时针转化几度.若东偏偏5°，则将5°刻划线调至对付准罗盘北端标记表记标帜线即可，睹图3白线所示.矫正前，0°位于照准面大概少照准核心合页核心线的位子；矫正后，0°已调离照准面大概少照准核心合页核心线的位子.如北京天区西偏偏5°50′，则将355°10′刻划线调至对付准北端标记表记标帜线即可.经矫正后磁偏偏角的罗盘可间接用于丈量圆背角.图3 罗盘矫正后三、天量罗盘用途1．丈量圆背角对付于瞅测者而止，圆背有二个，一是瞅测面（已知面）相对付于某一面（已知面）的圆背，另一个是某一面（已知面）相对付于瞅测者面（已知面）的圆背，二者出进180°.当被测目标下于瞅测者时，瞅测者可将少照准合页指背目标，并略进与抬起，脆持罗盘底盘火仄（圆程度居中），将反光镜进与抬起，使目标通过少照准合页中线投影到反光镜中线上，如图4上图所示.1脆持罗盘底座火仄.2使目标通过少照准合页降正在反光镜的核心线上.3正在那种情况下，当丈量目标天圆圆背时，读罗盘北针；当丈量瞅察者圆背时，读罗盘1脆持罗盘底座火仄.2通过短照准合页上的小孔战罗盘反光镜椭圆瞅察近圆目标.3 正在那种情况下，当丈量目标天圆圆背时，读罗盘北针；当丈量瞅察者圆背时，读罗盘北针.图4 丈量圆背示企图磁北针所指的刻度经常少照准合页所指的圆背，那时应为目标面相对付于瞅测者的圆背；磁北针所指的刻度经常反光镜所指的圆背，那时应为瞅测者相对付于目标面的圆背.当被测目标矮于瞅测者时，瞅测者可将少照准合页指背自己，并略进与抬起，脆持罗盘火仄，将反光镜抬起，使瞅察者正在反光镜内亦可瞅到刻度环.从短照准合页的中孔，通过椭圆孔，瞅到近圆目目标圆背，如图4下图所示，那时磁北针所指的刻度即为瞅测者相对付于目标面的圆背，磁北针所指的刻度即为目标面相对付于瞅测者的圆背.2．丈量里状果素产状图5 里状果素的产状三果素里状果素产状可用走背、倾背战倾角三果素表示，如图5.丈量岩层走背时，可采用一代表性的里，将罗盘少边（即侧边）仄止于走背线并紧揭于里上，并使罗盘火仄，此时北北针二端的指数皆为走背圆背角，如图6所示.丈量重心：将罗盘侧边紧揭于待测里上；脆持罗盘底座火仄；此时罗盘磁北针战磁北针指数均是待测里走背.走背线图6 丈量倾斜里走背示企图丈量倾背时，可将罗盘盖（戴反光镜一侧）紧揭于待测里上，并使罗盘火仄,如图7所示，少照准合页即指背岩层倾背的目标，那时罗盘的磁针北针所指的刻度即为待测里的倾背.各别情况下，罗盘正在待测里底里丈量时，反光镜一侧指背倾背目标，此时磁北针所示的刻度为待测里的倾背.走背线真倾斜线倾背线图7 丈量倾斜里倾背示企图丈量重心：将罗盘反光镜边紧揭于待测里上；脆持罗盘底座火仄；此时罗盘磁北针指数是待测里倾背.丈量倾角时，将罗盘少边仄止于真倾斜线（即倾角最大目标）并紧揭于待测里上，脆持罗盘直坐，转化少程度使火泡居中，此时倾斜刻度盘上的读数(钝角)即为倾角，睹图8.走背线真倾斜线图8 丈量倾斜里倾角示企图丈量重心：将罗盘正里紧揭于待测里上，少程度往下；使罗盘底座直坐，即仄止于真倾斜线；转化少程度使其火泡居中；此时角度刻度盘上的刻度即为倾角.3．丈量线状果素产状线状果素的产状是用倾伏背战倾伏角大概侧伏背战侧伏角去表示，睹图9.线状果素的倾伏背市指正在通过该线状构制的铅直仄里内，指示该线状果素背下倾斜的火仄投影目标.线状构制与火仄里的夹角称为倾伏角.线状果素的侧伏背是指线状果素与其天圆的仄里内的走背线夹角较小的一侧仄里的走背目标.侧伏角是指线状果素与其天圆仄里走背线间较小的夹角（钝角）.倾伏背倾伏角倾伏背侧伏角图9 线状果素产状果素线状果素的倾伏背战倾伏角要正在铅直里内丈量.真测要领是借帮家中记录本，将记录本的一少边紧揭于线状构制上，而后使记录本直坐.丈量倾伏背时，将罗盘正里（少边）紧揭于记录本的一正里上，并使罗盘火仄，当少照准合页指背线状构制的倾伏背时，磁北针所指的刻度即为倾伏背，睹图10，丈量重心如下：将家中记录薄一边紧揭于被测线状果素上；脆持家中记录薄直坐，将罗盘一侧紧揭于家中记录薄上并脆持罗盘底座火仄；若少照准合页指背倾伏背一侧，则罗盘磁北针指数即为倾伏背.若反光镜指背倾伏背一侧，则罗盘磁北针指数为倾伏背.丈量倾伏角是，将罗盘正里（少边）紧揭于记录本的上边，并使罗盘直坐，转化少程度，并使火泡居中，此时角度刻度盘的读数即为倾伏角，睹图11，丈量重心如下：将家中记录薄一边紧揭于被测线状果素上；脆持家中记录薄直坐，将罗盘一侧紧揭于家中记录薄正里上，少程度正在下圆，并脆持罗盘底座直坐；转化少程度，使其火泡居中，读与角度刻度盘上的刻度，即为倾伏角.倾伏背倾伏角图10 丈量倾伏背示企图倾伏背倾伏角图11 丈量倾伏角示企图4．丈量坡度角瞅测者脚持罗盘，并使底盘处于直坐状态，挨启少照准合页，使其与底盘仄止，并使短照准合页与其笔直，转化反光镜，使其与底盘大概呈45°夹角，正在近处选一下度与瞅测战眼睛下度基础普遍的目标，通过短照准合页，再脱过椭圆孔瞅测目标，共时转化少程度使火泡居中（正在反光镜中瞅察）.此时，少程度所指的角度刻度盘上的角度即为坡度较，睹图12.丈量重心：脆持罗盘底座直坐；通过少照准合页上的小孔战罗盘反光镜上的椭圆孔瞅察近圆目标；转化少程度使其火泡居中；读与角度刻度盘上的刻度，即为坡角.图12 丈量斜里坡角示企图四、使用天量罗盘注意事项1．使用战保存天量罗盘要注意以下几面：预防其与铁制品交战，免得磁针得去磁性；不克不迭受潮，以防磁针大概顶针死锈不克不迭机动转化；用完后要锁定磁针牢固器，以防磁针自由转化磨益顶针.2．正在丈量圆背时，无论少照准合页指背何圆，如果要测少照准合页所指的目标，便读磁北针所指刻度；如果要测反光镜一侧所指的目标，便要读磁北针所指的刻度.3．正在丈量圆背、走背、倾背、倾角战倾伏背时，一定要脆持罗盘火仄（圆程度器火泡居中），那样磁针才搞自由晃动.4．正在丈量坡度较、倾角战倾伏角时，务需要脆持罗盘直坐，少程度器火泡居中，那样丈量的角度才比较准确.5．劈里状果素凸凸不仄大概线状果素直合不直时，要设法与其完齐真真的圆背，而不要受局部所搞扰，那时记录本是常常使用的借帮工具.天形图的使用天形图是按一定比率，将天形起伏状态、火系、接通网、住户面及天形、天物的分散位子，以确定的标记标正在仄里上的一种图件.天形的起伏形态是用等下线去表示的，即是依照选定的比率，以等下间距下度的火仄里与大天的接线的笔直投影所得的等下直线去表示.等下线是启关直线.二条等下线的间距是随天形的坡度而变更的，坡度越陡，线距越小；坡度越慢，线距越大.一、天形图的典型天形图普遍按比率尺大小分为如下几类：1．大比率尺天形图：包罗1:5000、1:2000及1:1000等几种比率尺的天形图.1:5000比率尺天形图常常使用于百般工程勘察、筹备的收端安排战筹备的比较，也用于土天整治战灌溉网的计划、天量勘探成果的挖画战矿躲量的估计等.1:2000战1:1000比率尺天形图，主要供百般工程建制的技能安排、动工安排及工业企业的仔细筹备之用.需要正在图纸上决定主要兴办物、输送线路及工程管线的位子，偶尔还用去拟定动工丈量的统制网，果而范畴比收端安排阶段要小，而仔细程度战粗度央供较下.2．中比率尺天形图：包罗1:50000战1:10000等几种比率尺的天形图.主要用于天量普查挖图、详查、火文工程的火源勘察等.3．小比率尺天形图：包罗1:100000及更小比率尺的天形图.主要用于天量门路普查战天区天量丈量等.二、天形图的分幅及编号天形图分幅的要领有正圆形法战梯形法. 普遍大比率尺天形图多采与正圆形法，中小比率尺天形图皆采与梯形法.百般比率尺的国家基当天形图的图幅是百万分之一的图幅为前提的.百万分之一的图幅大小战编号国际统一确定.百万分之一天形图的分幅是从天球赤讲(纬度0)起，分别背北北二极，每隔纬好4°为一横止，依次以字母A，B，C，D，…，V表示；由经度180°起，自西背东每隔经好6°为一纵列，依次用数字1，2，3，…，60表示.如图1所示为东半球北纬1:100万天图的国际分幅战编号.每幅图的编号，先写出横止的代号，后里写出纵列的代号.如北京某处的纬度为北纬39°56’，经度为东经116°22’，其天圆的1:100万比率尺图的图幅号是J-50大概10-50.图1 百万分之一图幅及编号再继承细分时，往日战目前采与的要领纷歧样，思量到目前二种分幅要领的天形图均正在使用，果此将二种要领均做以介绍.1．往日采与的分幅要领往日百万分之一的图幅依照国际统一确定编号，其余比率的天形图的分幅及编号由尔国自止确定.百万分之一的图幅可分别分成4幅五十万分之一、36幅二十万分之一的图幅战144幅十万分之一的图幅.其分幅战编号的准则睹图2战表1.比率尺图幅范畴编号准则编号举例附注纬度经度1:1000000 4°6°横止A-V大概1、2…纵列1-60K-50大概11-50国际确定1:500000 2°3°百万分之一图幅后加甲、乙、丙丁K-50-丁1/4百万幅1:200000 40°1°五十万分之图幅后加(1)、(2)-(36)大概百万分之图幅后加(1)、(2)-(36)K-50-丁-(36)大概K-50-(36)1/36百万幅1:100000 20°30°二十万分之图幅后加1、2、3、…144大概百万分之一图幅后加1、2、3、 (144)K-50-丁-(36)-144大概K-50-(36)-1441/144百万幅图2 1/100万~1/10万天形图分幅及编号再以十万分之一的图幅为前提，可依次确定五万分之一、二万五千分之一、万分之一及五千分之一比率尺天形图的分幅及编号，睹图3.图3 1/100000~1/5000天形图分幅及编号2．目前采与的分幅要领目前普遍采与国际统一的分幅要领.1:100万、1:50万、1:25万、1:10万、1:5万、1:2.5万、1:1万战1:5000八种天形图形成了国家基当天形图的完备系列.国家基当天形图按统一确定的经好战纬好举止分幅，每幅图的内图廓皆有经纬线形成，并均正在1:100万天形图编号的前提上，建坐各级比率尺天形图的图幅编号系统.分幅战编号的准则睹图4战表2.正在图幅编号中，分别以B、C、D、E、F、G、H代表1：50万至1:5000的七种比率尺.正在国际1:100万天形图中对付每一种比率尺的图幅举止止战列区别，从北到北数止，从西到东数列，止战列皆与三位数字表示.每一中比率尺的图幅战编号准则是：正在“百万分之一图幅编号”后加“代表比率尺的字母”加“止数”加“列数”.比圆：正在国际1:100万图幅K50中，第2止第3列的1:25万比率尺天形图的编号为K50C002003.图4 目前采与的天形图分幅及编号三、天形图应用1．天形图的定背正在家中使用天形图前，常常需要最先使天形图的圆背与真天的天里圆背相普遍.普遍利用罗盘大概特定的天形物去达到使天形图定背的脚段.正在天形图中，图廓纵边普遍是真子午线目标，共时图中普遍亦给定了磁子午线目标及磁偏偏角、坐标网格战子午线支敛角.子午线支敛角时坐标纵线与真子午线的夹角.坐标网格为正圆形，普遍大小为2cm×2cm，又称圆里网.正在天形图定背时，最先挨启已做磁偏偏角矫正的罗盘，并置于仄搁的天形图上，将罗盘的少边仄止于代表真子午线的目标，使罗盘及天形图火仄；而后将罗盘战天形图所有转化，至磁北针指背罗盘的0°位子为止，此时天形图定背以告中断，睹图5.可目估对付照图与本量天形天物之间圆背举止查看.定背步调：脆持天形图火仄，大概使天形图上端往背北；将罗盘展启，仄搁于天形图上，使用其一边与天形图的一侧鸿沟沉合，少照准合页指背天形图北的目标；将天形图战罗盘所有转化，使磁针北针指背0°，此时天形图定背完成.图5 天形图的定背2．正在天形图上定天量面家中处事，无论是线路天量观察、天量丈量，仍旧矿产观察等处事，皆需要正在天形图上决定百般本量天量面的位子，普遍称做定天量面.偶尔常常要决定自己天圆的位子大概者决定天形天物正在天形图上所标定的位子，也需要定面.正在天形图上定天量面时，除央供天量局里瞅察准确无误中，还央供将欲定面的本量位子准确天挖画正在天形图上.那便央供流利天推断天形图上所标画的天形天物标记，将一弛仄里的天形图瞅成是山峦起伏、沟谷接错的死动画里，那样正在图上才搞准确天推断百般天形单元间的相互位子关系.普遍是间接瞅察周围天形天物的分步特性，与图里天形相对付照，去决定欲定面正在图上的位子.也不妨用已知的天形天物举止后圆接汇，进而决定咱们自己天圆的位子并将其定正在图上.然而是粗度央供比较下的大比率尺天量丈量时，必须用经纬仪将天量面定正在天量图上，并正在本量位子上钉上木桩动做标记表记标帜.如果所用天形图比较准确，利用周围天物、天形定面，既准确又便当.比圆正在讲路接叉、公路、河流拐直、乡村、房屋、桥梁、火坝等明隐特性天物附近定天量面时，最先将天形图定背，将本量天物与天形图上的标记表记标帜一一对付应.目估天量面与天物之间的距离，便可便当而准确天定出天量面正在图上的位子.当周围的天形特性不太明隐又无明隐天物可参照时，可用后圆接汇法，睹图6，去决定咱们天圆面正在天形图上的位子.最先要决定真天较明隐的２至３个目标，而且正在天形图上不妨准确找到，动做已知面.二个已知面与咱们天圆的面连线最佳近于间接.用罗盘准确测定咱们天圆面对付应于二个已知面的圆背，而后用量角器正在图上画出圆背线，二线之接面该当是咱们天圆的面.末尾用第三个已知目标面举止查看.三条圆背线应接于共一面上，如果不接于一面，便出现缺面三角形，三角形过大便超出了缺面范畴.图6 后圆接会法定面准则：采用2~3个目标明隐，且正在天形图上不妨准确找到的已知圆背的面；目标不克不迭距瞅察者太近；二目标与瞅察者的连线接角应大于30°，以60°~120°为最佳；有条件的话采用第三面举止矫正.四、注意事项利用后圆接汇法应注意以下几面：1．采用的已知面正在图上的位子必须准确认定，面位透彻，最佳是三角面、有标下的山峰等.2．所选的明隐目标不要相距太近，可则丈量圆背的缺面效率便会很大.罗盘预先要搞磁偏偏角矫正大概者读数中矫正.3．采用三面接汇，其间夹角最佳不小于30°.4．圆背角最佳多测频频与其仄稳值.正在图上画圆背线时要准确，铅笔要稍硬、削细，画的要沉.5．后圆接汇法出现缺面的果素比较多，纵然使用该法定面，最佳还需利用周围天形举止矫正.寰球定位系统（GPS）的使用一、GPS简介Global Position System，简称（GPS），它是好国研制的导航、授时战定位系统.它由空中卫星、大天追踪监测站、大天卫星数据注进站、大天数据处理核心战数据通讯搜集等部分组成.用户只需买买GPS接支机，便可享受免费的导航、授时战定位服务.寰球定位系统技能现广大应用于农业、林业、火力、接通、航空、测画、仄安防范、军事、电力、通讯、皆市管制等部分.GPS系统包罗三大部分：空间部分—GPS卫星星座；大天统制部分—大天监控系统；用户设备部分—GPS旗号接支机.二、使用指北GPS动做家中定位的最佳工具，正在户中疏通中有广大的应用，目前尔去道一些GPS使用办法战体味.最先大家要弄浑使用GPS常常遇到的一些术语：1．坐标(coordinate)有2维、3维二种坐标表示，当GPS不妨支到4颗及以上卫星的旗号时，它能估计出当天的3微坐标：经度、纬度、下度，若只可支到3颗卫星的旗号，它只可估计出2维坐标：粗度战纬度，那时它大概还会隐现下度数据，然而那数据是无效的.大部分GPS不然而能以经/纬度(Lat/Long)的办法，隐现坐标，而且还不妨用UTM(Universal Transverse Mercator)等坐标系统隐现坐标然而咱们普遍仍旧使用LAT/LONG系统，那主假如由您所使用的天图的坐标系统决断的.坐目标粗度正在Selective Availability(好国防部为减小GPS透彻度而真施的一种步伐)挨启时，GPS的火仄粗度正在100-50米之间，视担当到卫星旗号的几战强强而定，若根据GPS的指示，道您已经到达，那么四里瞅瞅，该当正在约莫一个脚球场大小的里积内创制您的目目标.正在SA关关时(暂时是很少睹的，然而好政府计划将去与消SA)，粗度能达到15米安排.下度的透彻性由于系统结构的本果，更好些.经纬度的隐现办法普遍皆不妨根据自己的快乐喜爱采用，普遍有"hddd.ddddd","hddd*mm.mmm""，"hddd*mm"ss.s"""(其中的“*”代表“度”，以下共)天球子午线少是39940.67公里，纬度改变一度合110.94公里，一分合1.849公里，一秒合30.8米，赤讲圈是40075.36公里，北京天区正在北纬40度安排，纬度圈少为40075*sin(90-40)，此天经度一度合276公里，一分合1.42公里一秒合23.69米，您不妨选定某个隐现办法，并把诸位数字改变一对付应大天移动几米记着，那样能正在经纬度战本量里程间建坐个大概的对付应.大部分GPS皆有估计二面距离的功能，可给出二个坐标间的透彻距离.下度的隐现会有英制战公制二种办法，进GPS的SETUP页里，树坐成公制，那样正在其余象速度、距离等的隐现也皆市成公制的了.2．路标(Landmark or Waypoint)GPS内存中保存的一个面的坐标值.正在有GPS旗号时，按一下"MARK"键，便会把目前面记成一个路标，它有个默认的普遍是像"LMK04"之类的名字，您不妨建改成一个易认的名字(字母用上下箭头输进)，还不妨给它选定一个图标.路标是GPS数据核心，它是形成“门路”的前提.标记表记标帜路标是GPS主要功能之一，然而是您也不妨从天图上读出一个天面的坐标，脚工大概通过估计机接心输进GPS，成为一个路标.一个路标不妨将去用于GOTO功能的目标，也不妨选进一条门路Route，动做一个支面.普遍GPS能记录500个大概以上的路标.3．门路(ROUTE)门路是GPS内存中保存的一组数据，包罗一个起面战一个末面的坐标，还不妨包罗若搞中间面的坐标，每二个坐标面之间的线段喊一条“腿”(leg).罕睹GPS能保存20条线路，每条线路30条“腿”.各坐标面不妨从现有路标中采用，大概是脚工/估计机输进数值，输进的路面共时动做一个路标(Waypoint/Landmark)保存.本量上一条门路的所有面皆是对付某个路目标引用，比圆您正在路标菜单下改变一个路目标名字大概坐标，如果某条门路使用了它，您会创制那条线路也爆收了共样的变更.不妨有一条门路是“活跃”(Activity)的.“活跃”门路的路面是导背功能的目标.4．前进目标(Heading)GPS不指北针的功能，停止不动时它是不知讲目标的.然而是一往动了起去，它便能知讲自己的疏通目标.GPS每隔一秒革新一次目前天面疑息，每一面的坐标战上一面的坐标一比较，便不妨知讲前进的目标，请注意那本去不是GPS头指的目标，它老人家是不知讲自己的头颅战疏通门路是成几度角的.分歧GPS关于前进目标的算法是分歧的，基础上是迩去若搞秒的前进目标，所以除非您已经走了一段并仍旧正在走直线，可则前进目标是禁绝确的，更加是正在。
Ardesia a Spacco – 5+mm Porcelain Tile PanelsNero - L9758 5+ StockingBianco - L9767 5+ StockingNote! These samples depict base color and sheen. Please refer to our website for a more accurate depiction of veining and pattern.*See chart on the next page for further informationFor over 2,500 years, Pietra di Lavagna slate from Liguria, Italy has been revered as an elegant, sophisticated surfacing material. Honoring this traditional stone, our artisans were inspired to create a naturally clefted slate look—Ardesia a Spacco, a porcelain panel unlike any other. The result is a superior performing panel with strength and resilience found only in porcelain..O.Box1168,Crossville,TN38557•Phone:931.484.2110•Fax:931.456.2956•E-Mail:************************•• Available in 5+ for floor and wall use• Unparalleled testing and trainingensures high performance • Suitable for interior floors,and interior and exterior wall coverings3+ and 5.6mm Using Profiles5.6mmBack Mitered and Epoxied5.6mm Field Applied BullnoseBianco - L9767 5+Laminam 1.2 meter x 3 meter sheets *LAMINAM 5+Dimensions 1200x3000mm Piece 38.75 sq. ft./piece Crate 17 pc./crate Sq. ft./crate 658.75 sq. ft./crate Lbs./piece 113 lbs./piece Lbs./crate1,916.96 lbs./crate(includes crate weight)Sq. ft. minimum order38.75 sq. ft.* Laminam arrives in oversize crates. These crates require proper receiving and handling equipment. Note: Non-full crate orders of 5+mm Laminam or mixed orders of 3+ and 5.6 mm will arrive on vertical A-frame type crates. These A-frames require the same specialized handling equipment.Please refer to the Laminam technical guide online for receiving and handling information at .Series and Color Item Codes 5+ 1M3M Nero L9758.1M3M BiancoL9767.1M3M.O.Box1168,Crossville,TN38557•Phone:931.484.2110•Fax:931.456.2956•E-Mail:************************•FS-ARDESIA-21Distinctive valuesMain featuresDimensions 1200x3000mm Perfectly Flat 5+: 113 lbs / pcChemical resistanceLaminam resists organic and inorganic solvents, disinfectants and detergents. It can be easily cleaned without affecting its surface characteristics; the only product that can attack the tile panels is hydrofluoric acid.Wear resistanceLaminam is highly scratch proof and resistant to deep abrasion. The properties of the tile panels remain unchanged even after intensive use and frequent cleaning.High flexural strengthLaminam has a high modulus of rupture. 3+ is 90 MOR and 5.6 is 50 MOR which are high values. T ypical porcelain value is 35-37.Frost resistanceLaminam’s average water absorption is 0.1% therefore it is frost resistant and suitable for any weather condition. Fire resistantLaminam does not contain organic material therefore it is resistant to fire and high temperatures. In the event of fire it does not release smoke or toxic substances.Chromatic propertiesLaminam does not contain organic pigments and is resistant to UV rays. Even if subjected to severe climate changes, the colors remain stable.GraffitiLaminam is a graffiti resistant ceramic surface; it is easy to clean and even the strongest paints can be removed.Sustainable• The use of hybrid kilns that combine gas and electricity significantly reduces CO2 emissions in the atmosphere • Laminam has led the way to a photovoltaic system being installed on the roofs of its two Fiorano Modenese plants• Over a year, this photovoltaic system guarantees the production of around 1,050 GWh, thereby enabling the company to produce 10% of its energy requirements• I n terms of CO2 reduction, Laminam's photovoltaic roof system eliminates the release of 525 tons of CO2 into the atmosphere an-nually• M ember of the Green Building Council Italia, this Italian association of manufacturing leaders strive to transform the building market towards environmental sustainability and to build livablecommunities. Partners of GBC Italia promote environmental, economic and social responsibility by innovating the way in which buildings are designed, built and used.WarrantyCrossville, Inc. guarantees that its Laminam 3+ Wall and 5.6 and 5+ Floor products will meet or exceed the performance specifications outlined in ANSI A137.3-2017. For complete details please see the performance table of the Laminam T echnical Guide located on Crossville’s website: .Information listed here is subject to change. Please refer to for the latest, most accurate information.Environmental statementLaminam is a dynamic, flexible and rapidly growing company that makes recycling and sustainability its duty.The revolutionary tile panel produced by Laminam does not neglect environmental friendliness: natural raw materials, sustainable technology, entirely recy-clable products are at the heart of the company’s green philosophy. Laminam is associated with the Green Building Council: created with natural materials, the tile panel does not release any substance into the environment and unbacked can be easily milled and recycled in other production cycles. Laminam tile panels are produced adopting sustainable technology which respects the entire ecosystem and is designed to reduce processing waste to a minimum and to limit the use of resources. The use of hybrid kilns that combine gas and electricity significantly reduces CO2 emissions in the atmosphere. Thanks to its large format Laminam optimizes the transport, thus reducing the emission of particulate matter which is harmful for the environment.Moreover, Laminam has recently completed its own photovoltaic roof, a plant that today has already produced 1 GWh of energy and that in one year is expected to produce an estimated 1.387 GWh, therefore reducing the CO2 emission by 617 tons in the atmosphere and allowing Laminam to produce 15% of its energy requirements.About Laminam ® by Crossville ®Laminam, a brand which stands for innovative materials and unique technology, is the leader in large format porcelain tile panel production. Revolutionary technology concentrates three square meters intounbelievably thin porcelain: 3+ for interior walls and 5.6 and 5+ for interior floors and interior and exterior walls. Versatile and flexible, it is a genuine skin for contemporary architecture, and is ideal in a host of applications. Capable of anticipating lifestyle trends, accommodating the needs ofdesign, and participating in the dialog of global architecture, Laminam and Crossville Inc. have joined together to bring Laminam ® by Crossville ® to the U.S. marketplace. Large format porcelain tile panels for interior floor and interior and exterior wall coverings –together, creativity is limitless.ApplicationsLaminam ® is suitable for many applications:Building sectorFloor and wall coverings, partition and storage walls, false ceilings, surface finishes and restoration, insulated panels and tunnels. Interior designSurfaces of kitchen and bathroom tops, cupboards, tables, desks, doors and furnishings in general.Shipbuilding sectorThe lightness and high technical properties of Laminam make it suitable for walls of cruise ships and sports posite and structural panelsThe tile panels can be placed on top of each other or over other materials to create extremely light and particularly resistant composite and structural panels suitable in all those cases that require high resistance and reduced weight load on the surface.Exterior wall coverings and vertical surfacesThe tile panels can be used on most exterior walls and vertical surfaces.T echnical SpecificationsLaminam 3+ and 5.6mmLaminam porcelain obtained by wet grinding of clayish raw materials, granite and metamorphic feldspar-containing rocks and ceramic pig-ments. Compacted by a special shaping in compactor and sintering at 1200°C, with hybrid firing.T echnical infoLaminam 3+Laminam 3+ is made up of the basic tile panel with the structure reinforced with fiberglass matting applied on the back using special adhesive, thickness: 3mm plus fiberglass Use of Laminam 3+• Interior and exterior wall coverings applied using mortarLaminam 5.6mmLaminam 5.6mm is made out of the basic tile panel without reinforcing mesh, thickness 5.6mm.Use of Laminam 5.6mm• Interior floor and interior and exterior wall coverings applied using mortar to above, below, and slab on grade minam 5.6+Laminam 5.6+ is made up of the basic tile panel with the structure reinforced with fiberglass matting applied on the back using special adhesive, thickness 5.6mm plus fiberglass.Use of Laminam 5.6+• Interior floor and interior and exterior wall coverings applied using mortar to above, below, and slab on grade concrete.。
cadkeyF1 CREATE 建构图素 151 连续线 3413 平行箭头111 两点定线 1521 对角定任意四边形 3414 垂直箭头112 连续线段 1522 对角定距离四边形 351 剖面线1131 过点平行 153 多边形 353 修改剖面线1132 定距平行 154 草绘线 371 变更文字属性1141 过点相切 1611 倒圆角（修剪） 3771 改变箭头方向1142 过点垂直 1612 倒圆角（不修剪） 372 移动文字（尺寸）1143 两物相切 162 倒直角 373 修改尺寸1144 先切后垂 174 椭圆 F4 X-FORM图形转换1145 先垂后切 181 多边形 4113 定距平移1146 两物相垂 19111作曲线 4123 定距复制1151 水平线 1913 过端点作曲线 4213 新旧位置搬移1152 垂直线 193 封闭曲线 4223 复制搬移1153 水平垂直线 F2 EDIT 图形编修 4313 旋转116 作角度射线 211 单边修剪 4323 旋转复制1171 对角定任意四边形 212 双边修剪 44113 等比缩放1172 对角定距离四边形 213 修剪两边 44313 不等比缩放118 多边形 214 修剪中间 4513 镜像121 圆心+半径作弧 215 基线修剪 4523 镜像复制122 圆心+直径作弧 216 任意修剪 F5 FILES 档案管理123 圆心+边作弧 221 单边打断 511 存盘（CTRL+F）124 三点作弧 222 双边打断 5131 开图档1251 以圆心作弧相切参考图素 223 切断两端 521 存PTN 1252 两实体切弧 224 切断中间 523 开PTN1253 三实体切弧 225 基线打断 5813 输入IGS檔126 起点+终点作弧 226 任意打断 5823 输出IGS檔127 顺切弧 231 救回最后删除（CTRL+U） 5822 由PRT转DXF 128 半径+两点作弧 232 救回图层 5812 输入DXF檔131 圆心+半径作圆 233 救回所有 F6 DISPLAY 层管理132 圆心+直径作圆 271 显示曲线参数点及移动 661 设定工作层133 圆心+边作圆 272 编修曲线 6641 建立层134 三点作圆 F3 DETAIL 图形转换 6642 层与层互移1351 圆心+实体作圆 311 标水平尺寸 6674 打开、关闭层1352 两实体切圆 312 标垂直尺寸 F7 CONTROL 测量实体1353 三实体切圆 313 标平行尺寸 7131 测两点最短距离136 二点作圆 3141 标半径尺寸 7132 测点到图素距离141 任一实体点 3151 标角度尺寸 7133 测两图素距离142 圆弧定点 3152 标任意角度尺寸 714 测角度1431 以点分段 3161 标直径尺寸 721 设定线条属性1432 以距离分段 321 输入文字 722 更改线条属性1433 沿图素定点 33 多箭头标示 77 打印145 虚点变实点 3411 箭头 7152 查验周长151 连续线 3412 连续箭头 716 面积形心CADKEY的基本指令F8 DELETE 删除图素常用快捷键 3 ARC/CIR 弧/圆811 单选删除 CTRL+Q ALT+A 全屏显示 4 SPLINE 曲线812 串选删除 ALT+W 窗口放大 5 POLYGON 多边形813 框选删除 ALT+T 线型 6 POLYLINE 多重线814 多边形框选删除 ALT+Y 线粗 7 CONIC 圆锥曲线8171 全屏幕删除 ALT+B 返回前一画面 F2 LINE STYLE 线型8172 属性删除 ALT+M 选择属性改变实线虚线点划线双点划线8173 返属性删除 ALT+H 缩小一倍 F3 LINE WIDTH 线粗82 删除层 ALT+X 颜色设定八种线宽点模式 ALT+D 放大一倍 F4 COLOR 颜色---16种颜色1 CURSOR 任意点 ALT+P 窗口移动 F5 DETAIL2 POINT 实体点 CTRL+Q 单实体删除 1 REG DIM 尺寸3 ENDENT 端点 CTRL+I 记算器 2 LABEL 标签4 CENTTER 中心点 CTRL+F 存PRT挡 3 NOTE 注解文字5 INTERSC 交点 CTRL+U 救回上一删除物体 4 WIT/ARR 延伸线/箭头6 ALONGL 沿线点 ALT+M 注解 5 X-HATCH 剖面7 POLAR 极坐标点 F1 GEOMETRY 6 ORD DIM 连续尺寸8 DELTA 相对坐标点 1 POIT 实体点 7 GEN DIM 通用尺寸9 KEY-IN 绝对坐标点 2 LINE 线 F6 PEN 笔号----8种笔号AUTOCAD基本指令A 圆弧 I DDINSERT PU PURGEC 圆 IAD IMAGECLIP R REDRAWL 直线 ICL IMAGECLIP RE REGENCP 拷贝 IM IMAGE REC RECTANGLEF 倒角 L LINE RO ROTATEZ 窗口放大 LA LAYER STR STRETCHZ++ 放大缩小 LEN LENGTHEN SC SCALEM 移动 LI LIST SE DDSELECTRO 旋转 LT LINETYPE SHA SHADEMI 镜射 LTS LTSCALE SN SNAPTR 修剪 M MOVE SO SOLIDBR 打断 MA MATCHPROP SPL SPLINESPL 曲线 ME MEASURE ST STYLEO 偏移 MI MIRROR TR TRIMMT MIRRTEXT UC DDUCSO OFFSET UN DDUNITSOS DDOSNAP WB WBLOCKP PAN X EXPLODEPE PEDIT XA XATTACHPL PLINE XL XLINEPO POINT Z ZOOMPOL POLYGON ET EXTRIMPR PREFERENCES VI VIEWRESPRE PREVIEWhappyxiaojunabc 发表于 >2006-11-26 12:56:33 [全文] [评论] [引用] [推荐] [档案] [推给好友] [收藏到网摘]2006-11-26CADKEYCADKEY快捷键作者: 龙龙查看次数: 152 发表时间: 2006/7/20 19:22 【论坛浏览】CADKEY快捷键Tab-------视角切换Set or change 3D display riew in a riewport Escape------根目录ROOTSpace-----工具条向上翻页Page the Toolbar UpPage Up-----工具条向上翻页Page the Toolbar UpInsert-----删除指定图层内的图素Delete selected entities Delete-----删除选取的图素Dlete selected entities0------缩放图素所有轴向的大小Transform using Scale Applide to All Axes1-----单边修剪线Trim an entity to another entity2-----定点修剪线Trim an entity to a point3-----定点打断线Break an entity to a pointy4-----作弧的指令列表Create an arc5-----轴移的指令列表Transform using Delta6-----点移的指令列表Transform using Old To New7-----旋转的指令列表Transform using Rotate8-----镜射的指令列表Transform using Mirror9-----投影的指令列表Transform using Project Normal to a Plane A-----单线作面Create Tabcy1 surface by extruding a between two curvesB-----连接两线Create a sp1ine that blends the gap between two curvesC-----大面作小面Truncate a surface to a smaller rectangular regionD----- 重建面Refit any surface to a bi-cubic typeE-----延伸面Extend an untrimmed surface along an edgeF----- 面倒等比R角面貌一新Create Fillet surface between two intersecting surfacesG-----恢愎修剪后Retrim a surface that was previors1y untrimmed H-----水平线段Create a horizontal lineI------求面与面的交线Create sp1ines at the intersections of surfacesJ------一组线作面Create Surface by skinning through curves K-----三或四线作面Create Surface from three or four edges L-----恢愎修剪前Untrim a surfaceM-----网格线作面Create Surface through a mesh of curvesN------改变面的显示架构Change surf display(flowlinesvs.patch boundaries)O------垂直相切实可行Create a line perpendicular tofirst,onto a surfaceP------投影线至面Create splines by projecting curves onto a surfaceQ------作线的指令列表Create a lineR------面倒不等比R角面Create Fillet surface based on spine curveS------接合线Create a spline by chaining one or more curves togetherT------修剪面Trim a surface to curves or other surfaces[1] U------打断面Break a surface along an iso-curve[2]V------垂直线断Create a vertical lineW-----方向与形状作面Create Surface by sweeping curves along curvesX------偏移线Create a spline offset from another curveY------改变线的方向Reverse the direction of a splineZ-----偏移面Create a spline offset from another curveF1-----Menu1F2-----Menu2F3-----Menu3F4-----Menu4F5-----Menu5F6-----Menu6F7-----Menu7F8-----Menu8F9-----Menu9F10-----上一菜单BackupF11-----调线的节点Edit a splineF12-----移动物体至指定图层Move entities from one level to anotherShift+1------单边打断线Break an entity to another entity Shift+N-----输入零件档Import a CADKEY Pattern fileShift+P------输出零件档Export a CADKEY Pattern fileShift+O------转变折线为曲线Create a spline by interpolating the nodes of a PolylineShift+F1-----帮助Display Help for a command item or screen regionCtrl+1------创作面Create SurfacesCtrl+2------编辑面Modify a SurfaceCtrl+3-------编辑线Modift a splineCtrl+4------创作线Create SplineCtrl+A------改变箭头方向Toggle arrow switchCtrl+C------愎制图素至剪贴簿Copy the selection and put it on the ClipboardCtrl+D------修改工作平面深度Set the construction depthCtrl+E------读取聚集指令档Play macroCtrl+F------档案存储Save the active part fileCtrl+G-----网格点设定Set Grid and Snap AttributesCtrl+I------计算器On-line calculatorCtrl+J------记录成聚集指令Start recording macroCtrl+K-----暂停记录聚集指令Pause macro recordingCtrl+L-----设定当前工作层Change the active level to create entities onCtrl+N-----等角视图尺寸Display isometric dimensionsCtrl+P-----列印出图Print/Plot the current partCtrl+Q----单选删除Delete single entityCtrl+R-----清屏Redraw the partCtrl+S-----档案存储Save the active part fileCtrl+T-----游标追踪Turn the cursor tracking display on or off Ctrl+U-----救回单一删除图素Recall the last entity deleted Ctrl+V-----设定座标细统Set VW/WLD modeCtrl+W----设定工作模式Set 2D/3D Construction ModeCtrl+X-----网格点设定Set Grid and Snap AttributesCtrl+Z-----编修视图Modify instance attributesCtrl+Shift+R----书面再生Regenerate displayCtrl+Shift+V-----旋转座标轴List all the levels in the part Alt+1------图层清单List all the levels in the partAlt+2-----变更属性Change an entity,s attributesAlt+3-----从曲线上建构切线向量Create tangent vectors from curvesAlt+4----改变面的方向Recall the direction of surface normals Alt+5----相互修剪Trim two entities to each otherAlt+A----图素全屏Autoscale the partAlt+B----显示前一书面Recall the last viewing windowAlt+C----建构倒角Create a filletAlt+D-----放大一倍Scale the part up two tinesAlt+E-----创建点Create a pointAlt+H-----画面缩小一倍Scale the part down by halfAlt+I-----愎原Undo last commandAlt+J-----建构参数曲线Create a splineAlt+K----定义工作座标Define a construction viewAlt+L-----定义直线极限模式Set the line limit switchAlt+M-----图素筛选Set the entity selection maskAlt+N-----图层筛选Set level selection maskingAlt+O-----创建圆Create a circleAlt+P-----画面平移Pan the partAlt+Q-----画面缩小一倍Scale the part down by halfAlt+R-----切换资料搜寻方向Toggle database searchAlt+S-----缩放画面至指定比例Scale the part and select a new centerAlt+T-----设定线形Set the default entity line styleAlt+V-----切换观察视面Set or change 3Ddisplay view in a viewportAlt+W-----框选放大Zoom in by selecting the new window corners Alt+X----- 设定预定的图素颜色Set the default entity color Alt+Y-----设定线宽Set the default entity colorAlt+Z-----设定预定的图素参数Set the default entity attributes Alt+Shift+K-----切换显示图纸边界Toggle paper borderAlt+Shift+V------指定轴心旋转视角Rotate part dynamic [3]Ctrl[4]+Alt+I-----IGS输出Write surfaces to an IGES file Ctrl+Alt+Y----IGS输入Read surfaces from an IGES file。
斜⾓地图逻辑原理解析和Isometric地图编辑器设计⽅案（转）当我要做的⼀款游戏，⽽⽆法即时地查看地图各图形元件的拼接效果，⽽导致不得不中⽌时，当时找过不少公开的地图编辑器，希望能拿来即⽤，但不是因为拼接效果不满意，就是因为⽣成的⽂件不是太满意。
⽆奈之下决⼼⾃⼰动⼿写⼀个⼯具时，才知道有多少困难。
论坛⾥的相关帖⼦，基本上都试着各种关键词看了⼀遍，说实在的，感觉上，除了⼏个原来做过斜⾓地图编辑的，其余帖⼦⾥基本上是迷茫的感觉坛⼦⾥像wangqiang99x，闪⼑浪⼦，恋⽔泥⼈，wxsr等⼏位应该还是⽐较熟悉的，但看了⼀下他们的帖⼦，还是感觉有些不够，直到看过杜宇欣的⽂章，才算解决了斜⾓地图中的各个障碍在前⼀篇已经对斜⾓地图的原理进⾏了细致的阐述。
这⾥就不再重复了，只从斜⾓地图的逻辑原理⽅⾯进⾏解析。
关于地图中的图形元件的拼接原理，请参考这篇⽂章的前半部分，或者只看这个图因为所有的图⽚都是矩形的，所以拼接时必然要有所叠加，这就是图⽚的遮挡。
⽽要处理图⽚的遮挡关系，才能使所有这些图⽚构成的地图所呈现的画⾯显⽰出⽴体效果。
⽽这种遮挡关系就是地图景深的处理，那么景深的处理都会涉及哪些关键点呢，下⾯请⼀个个来看。
1、图⽚之间的遮挡，这是景深呈现的关键2、图形元件所代表的意义，即处于某个位置的图形元件是⼭⽔建筑物，还是路⾯等，以标识游戏当中的⾓⾊是可以通⾏还是受阻碍的3、图形元件是否允许与⽤户的交互，即⼀个图形元件放到地图上，如果就是代表⼀棵树，⼀⽚⼩⼭，⽽这些⼜仅仅是表征地图地形的⼀个障碍物，那么则不会影响⽤户的键盘⿏标消息4、如何通过⿏标当前位置（或⾓⾊当前位置），来了解所处的是哪⾥（什么地形，会不会产⽣事件等）5、如何通过⽹格中某个单元格的纵列位置，来获得屏幕坐标。
⽐如⾓⾊在某⼀个位置，⽽房⼦在另⼀个位置，现在⾓⾊要⾛到房⼦⾥，这就要获取某个建筑物所在的坐标，以使⾓⾊⾏⾛到⽬标位置6、碰撞处理和寻路等，如果是地国中有运动的⾓⾊等类物体，就必须处理这⽅⾯的问题，这暂时不属于地图逻辑原理，也不属于地图编辑器的设计，暂不展开讨论为了表述⽅便，我专门截图制作了下⾯的⼀张图⽚来进⾏⼀些要素的标注从上图可以看出，以等距地图⽹格对象的顶点top为坐标系原点T(0,0),以汉字撇捺两个⽅向的纵列为坐标系的两个坐标轴，即Pie轴与top-right⽅向平⾏，Na轴与top-left平⾏。
Expedition PCB基础培训教程Copyright(c) Mentor Graphics Corporation 2010All rights reserved本文档记录的信息属于Mentor Graphics公司所有，未经Mentor Graphics公司书面许可，严禁以任何方式复制其中的任何章节或全文内容。
本文档接收者，应当尽力避免对文档信息采取未经授权的使用行为。
目 录第一章 库的使用 (9)第二章 焊盘的创建 (13)第三章 创建Cell (20)第四章 创建Symbol (34)第五章 创建Part (46)第六章 创建Template (56)第七章 DxDesigner的使用 (61)第八章 PCB Editor的使用 (80)第九章 PCB设计设定 (98)第十章 创建Board Geometries (108)第十一章 布局 (117)第十二章 Layout 设定 (127)第十三章 布线 (143)第十四章 测试点 (156)第十五章 生成Plane (160)第十六章 设计检查 (170)第十七章 生成丝印 (177)第十八章 生成Gerber和Drill (185)第十九章 尺寸标注与文件编制设计 (193)关于本书本书是Expedition PCB Introduction的培训教程,书中介绍了熟练使用Mentor Graphics Expedition PCB工具进行印刷电路板的设计需要掌握的相关概念。
读者该培训课程,主要面向使用Mentor Graphics Expedition PCB工具来设计和编辑印刷电路板,并具有以下预备知识的设计师和工程师。
课程特点z本课程关注Expedition PCB在设计流程中的使用，而不是对Expedition PCB的所有功能进行详尽介绍；z阐述印刷电路板技术及其设计方法，也不是本课程的重点。
预备知识●用户应该掌握基本的PCB布局布线设计思想。
1984年欧洲的玩家被一款当时发布的游Knight Lore 震惊了。
这款2d游戏居然相当真实的模拟了3d环境，而当时游戏的发布平台是ZX Spectrum，48K的内存。
这个技术就是isometric perspective（等角投影）。
后来大菠萝、最终幻想等游戏均采用了这种投影技术。
等角投影是指在一定范围内，投影面上任何点上两个微分线段组成的角度投影前后保持不变的一类投影。
任何点上二微分线段组成的角度投影前后保持不变的一类投影。
是角度和形状保持正确的投影，也称正形投影。
这种投影类型不同于真3D常见的透视投影，并不以物体对摄像头的远近关系而对其缩放，x，y和z轴的投影角度均为120度。
但是出于计算机渲染像素图像图形的特性，和开发方便，很多游戏实际上使用的是二等角投影。
由等角坐标变换到屏幕坐标可以参考这个公式：由屏幕坐标变换到等角坐标：以下文章摘自/axometr.htm:The figure below shows a cube in the isometric projection as defined by ISO 5456-3.The first object from the left in the figure is the cube unadorned; the second object is the same cube with angles and measures annotated around it. The third and fourth graphics are the top and side views of the perspective scene and they give the camera position that fits the perspective view. The camera position is what you would feed into a 3D renderer (or ray tracer) to create the sprites or tiles for the isometric projection.Computer games with isometric maps are often tile-based. To make tiles match, the game designer must take into account how diagonal lines are plotted in discrete steps (Bresenham and all that). As it turns out, a line at 30 degrees (sine is 0.5) produces steps that are too irregular. A line at an angle where the tangent is 0.5 does have a nice regular pattern: two steps to the right, one step up.Thus, the isometric projection used by most games tilt the x- and z-axes with approximately 27 degrees (the exact angle is "arctangent(0.5)"). By the way, because the tangent of the angle of the rhombus is 0.5, the rhombus is twice as wide as it is high. This is why many sources mention a 1:2 scale for isometric perspectives. (To make the edges of the rhombuses match, the width of the rhombus should be a multiple of four pixels and the height should be one pixel less than ½ width. In other words, the height:width ratio of a rhombus is usually not exactly 1:2, but rather near 1:2.1. This makes no difference for the principles of the isometric perspective.)Again, the figure below shows what this isometric projection looks like.等角投影的限制As with all types of parallel projection, objects drawn with axonometric projection do not appear larger or smaller as they extend closer to or away from the viewer. While advantageous for architectural drawings, this results in a perceived distortion, as unlike perspective projection, it is not how our eyes or photography normally work. It also can easily result in situations where depth and altitude are difficult to gauge, as is shown in the illustration to the right.Once popular in sprite-based video games, most contemporary video games have avoided these sorts of situations by switching over to perspective 3D instead.Such illusions were also popular in Op art such as M. C. Escher's "impossible architecture" drawings. Waterfall (1961), in which the drawing of the building makes use of axonometric projection, but the faded background uses perspective projection, is a well-known example. Another advantage is that, in engineering drawings, 60° angles are easier for novices to construct using only a compass and straightedge.In this isometric drawing for example, the blue sphere is two levels higher than the red one. However, this difference in elevation is not apparent if one covers the right half of the picture, as the boxes (which serve as clues suggesting height) are then obscured.。
Quick Start GuideDXLink™ Twisted Pair Transmitters/ReceiverOverviewThe DXLink Multi-Format TX and HDMI RX Modules transmit HDMI, audio, andcontrol over twisted pair cable. (The HDMI TX is discontinued.) The Multi-Format TXalso has an analog video input. DXLink Modules can be set up in one of three ways:•Endpoint Mode (Switcher) – connect one or more to a switcher with anintegrated Master.•Endpoint Mode (Standalone) – connect TX/RX pair directly to each other withone connected to a NetLinx Central Controller via LAN or directly to Controller.•Extender Mode (Standalone) – connect TX/RX pair directly to each other.These Modules support InstaGate Pro® and SmartScale® Technology.The Instruction Manual – DXLink Twisted Pair Transmitters/Receiver containscomplete documentation (including full specifications and supported input and outputresolutions); for details, see .General Specifications* A desktop power supply (ENERGY STAR® qualified) is provided with each module.** “Common building” is defined as: Where the walls of the structure(s) are physicallyconnected and the structure(s) share a single ground reference.System SetupThe Multi-Format TX (or HDMI TX) and the RX work with a switcher that supportsDXLink Technology for transmission of HDMI (or with a Central Controller) or as astandalone pair. The Transmitter receives an HDMI signal (or analog video on aMulti-Format TX) and embedded audio from the source. Both the video and embeddedaudio are transported over twisted pair cable to a DXLink Input Board (or connector).The signal is routed via the DXLink Output Board (or connector) to an RX. On bothTransmitters, stereo audio or digital audio connections are provided as supplementalaudio inputs. The RX also provides a stereo audio output. Both Transmitters and theReceiver support RS-232 for serial data transfer, USB, IR, and Ethernet.DIP Switch Toggles – Default OFFBefore installing the units, find the scenario you are using in the table below and setthe DIP switch toggles accordingly. Toggle #4 is reserved for future functionality.For standalone pair upgrades, set Toggles #1-2-3 to ON and connect one unit to Master.* Connect ICS LAN port of DXLink unit to network device (e.g., laptop, IP controlled projector,ICSLan Device). In standalone setup, connect ICS LAN port of other DXLink unit to network.** In standalone setup using NetLinx control of DXLink serial/IR ports, only one of the DXLinkunits should be connected to network (the unit with #1 Toggle enabled).GroundingIf the system is experiencing problems with delivery of DXLink signals to/from anEnova DGX Digital Media Switcher or Enova DVX Solution, adding a ground wire fromthe TX/RX to the switcher may improve performance. Technically this type ofgrounding is only required when a DXLink Transmitter or Receiver is connected to anungrounded device, but this added grounding measure can be used at the discretionof the installer (for instructions, see the product manual).Mounting Options (Rack Trays and Mounting Brackets)For details on the four versatile mounting kit options for V Style modules (rack tray,rack tray with fill plates, surface mount, and pole mount), see . General SpecificationsApprovals CE, UL, cUL, FCC Class A, RoHSAC Power*•100 to 240 VAC single phase, 50 Hz to 60 Hz•0.6 A @ 115 VAC max.Power Consumption,Local 12 V Supplied (max.)Multi-Format TX 10 W (13.5 V), HDMI TX 9 W,HDMI RX 18 WPower Consumption,Enova DXLink Supplied (max.)Multi-Format TX 10 W, HDMI TX 9 W,HDMI RX 15 WDXLink PowerImportant:AMX does not supportuse of any other power supplies orPoE injectors as they may potentiallydamage the DXLink equipment.•Power can be supplied by a DXLink Powersourcing device such as an Enova DGX 8/16/32or compatible Enova DVX (3155HD or 2155HD)or PS-POE-AT-TC (FG423-84) or PDXL-2(FG1090-170).•To use PS-POE-AT-TC or PDXL-2 as a powersource, the TX and RX modules require firmwarev1.2.40 for TX and v1.0.80 for RX or later.•When used in conjunction with the Enova DGX,use the Enova DGX Configuration Tool located at/enova to determine the powerrequirements of a configuration and whether anyof the DXLink Transmitters or Receivers shouldbe powered with the local power. The toolcontains instructions on how to use it.Thermal Dissipation,Local 12 V Supplied (max.)Multi-Format TX 34 BTU (13.5 V),HDMI TX 31 BTU, HDMI RX 61 BTUThermal Dissipation,Enova DXLink Supplied (max.)Multi-Format TX 34 BTU, HDMI TX 31 BTU,HDMI RX 51 BTUOperational TemperatureStorage Temperature•32° F to 104° F (0° C to 40° C)•-22° F to 158° F (-30° C to 70° C)Operational HumidityStorage Humidity•5% to 85% RH (non-condensing)•0% to 90% RH (non-condensing)Dimensions 5.15 in. (13.08 cm) depth; 8.71 in. (22.12 cm) width;1.00 in. (2.54 cm) heightWeight / Shipping Weight Approx. 1.1 lb. (0.50 kg) / 2.20 lb. (1.00 kg)MTBF381,000 hrs.Compatible Formats HDMI, HDCP, DVI (DVI requires conversion cable)Analog Signal (Multi-Format TX only)RGBHV, RGBS, RGB, Y/Pb/Pr, Y/c, compositeSupported Twisted Pair Cable Types Shielded Cat6, Cat6A, Cat7Note:For more details and helpful cablinginformation, reference the white paper titled“Cabling for Success with DXLink” at or contact your AMX representative.Supported Twisted Pair Cable Length Up to 328 ft. (100 m)Important: DXLink twisted pair cable runs forDXLink equipment shall only be run within acommon building.**Compatible Products Enova DGX 8/16/32; most Enova DVX SolutionsFIG. 1 DXLink TX and RX as endpoint solution with compatible DXLink equipmentCommon Scenarios TogglesStandalone Setup (TX/RX pair direct connection) 1 - 2 - 3AV signals only OFF - OFF - OFFAV with Ethernet pass-through to networked device*ON - OFF - OFFAV with NetLinx control of TX/RX unit and serial/IR ports**ON - ON - ONAV with NetLinx control of TX/RX unit and serial/IR ports, plus Ethernetpass-through to network device*ON - ON - ONSwitcher Setup (TX/RX with Enova DVX/DGX Switcher) 1 - 2 - 3AV signals only OFF - OFF - OFFAV with Ethernet pass-through to networked device*ON - N/A - OFFAV with NetLinx control of TX/RX unit and serial/IR ports OFF - N/A - ONAV with NetLinx control of TX/RX unit and serial/IR ports, plus Ethernetpass-through to network device*ON - N/A - ONFIG. 3 DIP switch toggles enable/disable special functionalityReceiver TX orDIP switchMulti-Format TXFor warranty information, see .08/2013©2013 AMX. All rights reserved. AMX and the AMX logo are registered trademarks of AMX.AMX reserves the right to alter specifications without notice at any time.3000 RESEARCH DRIVE, RICHARDSON, TX 75082 • 800.222.0193 • fax 469.624.7153 • technical support 800.932.6993 • REV: D 93-1010-300REV: HTwisted Pair Cable Pinouts and RJ-45 LEDsThe DXLink and ICS LAN 10/100 ports both use twisted pair cable. FIG.4 shows twoAttaching Signal, Transport, and Control CablesImportant Cabling Considerations:•Do not use the RJ-45 connector labeled “DXLink” for connecting to a standard Ethernet Network. The connector is used for signal transport.•Do not create a network (Ethernet) loop. A network loop is created when the enclosure and one or more of its DXLink Modules are connected to a common LAN (or a standalone pair when both endpoints connect to the same network).•DXLink cable runs for DXLink equipment should be within a common building. To attach signal, transport, and control cables to a Transmitter:1.Set DIP switch toggles if necessary (for settings, see the previous page).2.Multi-Format TX only – Attach HD-15 cable from source to Video In connector.3.HDMI In – Attach an HDMI cable from the source to the HDMI In connector.*4.DXLink connector – Attach a twisted pair cable to the DXLink output and to aDXLink input connector on the switcher (or on the RX for a standalone pair).5.Stereo Audio In jack (optional) – Insert analog audio cable from source into jack.6.Digital Audio In jack (optional) – Insert a S/PDIF plug on the digital audio cablefrom the source into the jack (see audio precedence table in next column).7.ICS LAN10/100 port (optional) – Attach twisted pair cable from this port to LAN. * DVI cable can be used via a cable adapter; however, advanced audio support from HDMI will not be available.To attach signal, transport, and control cables to the Receiver:1.Set DIP switch toggles if necessary (for settings, see previous page).2.DXLink input connector – Attach a twisted pair cable from the DXLink outputconnector on the switcher (or on a TX) to the DXLink input.3.HDMI Out – Attach HDMI cable from this port to the destination.4.Stereo Audio Out jack (optional) – Connect an analog audio cable from this portto the destination.Applying PowerCaution: If a desktop power supply is used to power the unit, it must be the one provided, which must not be altered in any way. Power can also come from PoE injector PS-POE-AT-TC (FG423-84). AMX does not support use of any other power supplies or PoE injectors, as they may potentially damage the DXLink equipment. Local power takes precedence over DXLink power (via DXLink port) from switcher. Important: If TXs/RXs are powered from an Enova DGX 8/16/32, use the Enova DGX Configuration Tool at /enova to calculate the power draw.To apply power to the Transmitter and Receiver:1.Plug the cord from the desktop power supply (provided) into the power jack onrear of the Transmitter (2.1 mm DC jack for 12 V local power).2.Plug the desktop power supply into an AC external power source. The PowerLED on the front of the Transmitter illuminates green, indicating a ready state.3.Repeat Steps 1 and 2 for the Receiver.This table shows LED states on initial power up. If not normal, check connections.* At power up, the RX defaults to Auto. Press the Scaling button to change the mode.IP Addressing ModesDHCP Mode (enabled when #3 Toggle is flipped ON)In DHCP Mode, the Module attempts to get a DHCP lease (consisting of anIP address, gateway, and other network parameters). If the attempt fails, the Moduleconfigures itself for a link-local address, but periodically re-tries DHCP and re-assignsthe IP to a valid DHCP grant if successful. At any time, if the Module determines thatits IP address has changed, it will disconnect and reconnect to the Master.Static IP Mode (set with ID button or Telnet command)With #3 Toggle set to ON, press ID for 10 seconds to assign address of 192.168.1.2or use a Telnet command to set unit to Static IP Mode (see the Instruction Manual).RS-232 Serial Data (Optional)The 232 port label is relative to data flow. Data enters at the RX label on theTransmitter, is sent via a DXLink cable through the switcher, and leaves at theTX label on the Receiver. Flow is vice versa from the Receiver to the Transmitter.The RS-232 pinout for all DXLink Modules is “TXD - RXD - Ground.”To wire the 232 port for serial data transfer:1.Wire the RS-232 connectors according to pinout above connectors.IR Control (Optional)The IR Receiver connects to the IR RX port on the Transmitter and the IR Emitterconnects to the IR TX port on the Receiver or vice versa, depending on theinstallation. The signal is sent via DXLink cable through the switcher. When aTransmitter and Receiver are used as a standalone pair, IR control acts as apass-through.USB Host and Keyboard/Mouse Ports (Rear)If needed, the Host (USB-B) port on the TX and the K/M port (USB-A) on the RXprovide HID support for a keyboard, mouse, and HUB.Program Port (Front)This USB mini-B port on the Transmitters supports DGX Configuration Software forprogramming a customer VGA EDID.ID Button (Front)The ID button on the front can be used to toggle between static and DHCP IPaddressing, assign a device address, reset the factory defaults, and restore thefactory firmware image (for details, see the Instruction Manual).Additional Information Covered in Instruction ManualFor information on the following, see the Instruction Manual – DXLink Twisted PairTransmitters/Receiver at :•Audio precedence; pinouts for VGA, component, S-Video, and composite•NetLinx control and programming commands; Telnet commands•IR file transfers; upgrading firmware image; restoring factory default settings FIG. 5 RJ-45 portsGreen LEDOn - Link status is activeOff - Link status is not activeIndicator LEDs Normal Power Up IndicatesPower Green Power is appliedDigital Video and AudioGreen Video and HDMI embeddedaudio are presentMulti-Format - C, Y/CY/PB/PR, RGBRGBHV, RGBSGreen or Off(only one of the threecan be green at a time)Corresponding signal ispresentRX - Scaling: Bypass/Auto/Manual One green, two off Current scaling mode*IR TX / IR RX Red / Yellow IR activity232 (Serial) TX / 232 (Serial) RX Red / Yellow Serial activityNetLinx Link/Act Green(Blinking = #3 Toggle OFF)Active LAN connection to anAMX NetworkNetLinx Status Green LAN activityCEC OFF Not currently supportedUSB Yellow Connected to deviceFIG. 9 IR External IR Receiver Module (left) and CC-NIRC NetLinx IR Emitter cable (right)FG-IR03FG10-000-11(not included)。
