Proclamation of Neutrality中立宣言

中立的帮助行为AbstractNeutral helping behavior is a significant aspect of social psychology that pertains to the helping behavior where help is given without any associated expected compensation or recognition. This article seeks to analyze the phenomenon of neutral helping like how it is defined in psychological literature, the factors that influence its occurrence or absence, and its implications for various groups in society. It argues that understanding neutral helping behavior can be helpful in promoting cooperative and harmonious relationships across cultures, societies, and communities.IntroductionAltruismo (1944) coined the term 'true or pure altruism' to describe unselfish acts performed by people with no thought of benefits for themselves. In social psychology, neutral helping behavior became a relevant area of study. This phenomenon involves people helping others without the expectation of recognition or compensation. Neutral helping behaviors are distinct from other forms of helping behavior such as prosocial behavior, egoistic behavior, or instrumental behavior, as in these cases, the helper benefits in some way from helping. In neutral helping behavior, the help is provided solely for the benefit of others. People engage in neutral helping behavior for various reasons –some do it out of empathy and compassion for others, while others do it as a cultural or societal expectation. Psychologists have studied neutral helping behavior,indicating its occurrence, nonoccurrence, and factors that determine whether it takes place.Factors affecting neutral helping behaviorSeveral factors determine whether someone will engage in neutral helping behavior, including social norms, perceived cost, audience effects, mood, and beliefs about therecipient's deservingness. Social norms dictate that individuals help others who are in need, despite their physical appearance or economic status. This notion means people may engage in neutral helping behavior because social norms dictate it, regardless of their personal feelings or motives. However, in Western cultures such as the United States, there may be individualistic tendencies, leading to a lower incidence of neutral help.Perceived costs of providing assistance can also affect people's willingness to engage in neutral helping behavior.If the cost of helping, such as time, effort, or sacrifice,is seen as too high, people may be less willing to provide help. The social identity of the helper also plays a role in the decision to engage in neutral helping behavior. Group identifiers such as race, gender, and religion can influence people's tendencies to help others by affecting the perceived similarity or dissimilarity of the receiver and helper.The beliefs about the deservingness of the recipient can also affect neutral helping behavior. For instance, if an individual believes that the recipient deserves the help they receive, they are more likely to provide it, while if they believe the recipient is undeserving, they may refrain from extending help. Audience effects, meaning how others may perceive the help given, can also influence whether someone will engage in neutral helping behavior.Implications of neutral helping behaviorNeutral helping behavior has several implications for society, organizations, and individuals. First, forming a strong sense of community among people from different backgrounds, and eliminating the sense of "us" versus "them" is essential in promoting neutral helping behavior. Groups can develop a positive culture of collective workings considering the common good rather than personal benefit. Internalizing such a culture requires rich socialization, involving individuals accepting the norms of the society, and developing strong group beliefs and values.Concerning social policies, organizations should create an accountability culture within their ranks, promoting impartiality and diminishing self-regard or self-interest. Impartiality helps generate an environment where people help each other whenever they can, irrespective of their differences. By implementing such policies, people who potentially benefit can feel empowered and helped.In conclusion, neutral helping behavior is a critical element of social psychology that describes the phenomenon of providing help to others without expectation of compensation or recognition. The decision to engage in neutral helping behavior is affected by a variety of factors, includingsocial norms, perceived cost, audience effects, mood, and beliefs about the recipient's deservingness. Neutral helping has significant implications for society, organizations, and individuals, promoting cooperative and harmonious relationships across cultures, societies, and communities. On the whole, understanding neutral helping behavior is vital in creating stronger, healthier, and supportive groups andreducing conflicts among individuals and groups at various levels of organization.。

第13篇:The Neutrality of American精读原文：The Neutrality of American in the Early World War IIThe establishment of the Third Reich influenced events in American history by starting a chain of events which culminated in war between Germany and the United States. The compete destruction of democracy, the persecution of Jews, the war on religion, the cruelty and barbarism of the Nazis, and especially the plans of Germany and her allies, Italy and Japan, for world conquest caused great indignation in this country and brought on fear of another world war.While speaking out against Hitler' s atrocities, the American people generally favored isolationist policies and neutrality.The Neutrality Acts of 1935 and 1936 prohibited trade with any belligerents or loans to them. In 1937 the President was empowered to declare an arms embargo in wars between nations at his discretion.American opinion began to change somewhat after President Roosevelt' s "quarantine the aggressor" speech at Chicago (1937) in which he severely criticized Hitler' s policies. Germany's seizure of Austria and the Munich Pact for the partition of Czechoslovakia (1938) also aroused the American people.The conquest of Czechoslovakia in March, 1939 was another rude awakening to the menace of the Third Reich. In August,1939 came the shock of the Nazi-soviet Pact and in September the attack on Poland and the outbreak of European war.The United States attempted to maintain neutrality in spite of sympathyfor the democracies arrayed against the Third Reich. The Neutrality Act of 1939 repealed the arms embargo and permitted "cash and carry" exports of arms to belligerent nations. A strong national defense program was begun.A draft act was passed (1940) to strengthen the military services. A Lend Act (1941) authorized the President to sell, exchange, or lend materials to any country deemed necessary by him for the defense of the United States. Help was given to Britain by exchanging certain overage destroyers for the right to establish American bases in British territory in the Western Hemisphere. In August, 1940 President Roosevelt and Prime Minister Churchill met and issued the Atlantic Charter which proclaimed the kind of a world which should be established after the war.In December, 1941, Japan launched the unprovoked attack on the United States at Pearl Harbor.Immediately thereafter, Germany declared war on the United States.【阅读练习题】l.One item occurring before 1937 that the author does not mention in his list of actions that alienatedthe American public was[A] the burning of the Reichstag.[B]German plans for conquest.[D] Nazi barbarism.[D] the persecution of religious groups.2.The Lend-Lease Act was designed to[A] help the British.[B]strengthen the national defense of the United States.[C] promote the Atlantic Charter.[D] avenge Pearl Harbor.3.American Policy during the years 1935-1936 may be described as being[A] watchful.[B]isolationist.[C] peaceful.[D] indifferent.4.The Neutrality Act of 1939[A] permitted the selling of arms to belligerent nations.[B]antagonized Japan.[C] permitted the British to trade only with the Allies.[D] led to Lend-Lease Act.5.We entered the war against Germany[A] because Germany declared war.[B]because Japan was an ally of Germany.[C] after Germany had signed the Nazi-soviet Pact.[D] after peaceful efforts had failed.【答案详解】1.A帝国大厦焚毁，众所周知，这是纳粹希特勒精心策划的一次政治阴谋，旨在迫害德国共产党。

Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen（《人权与公民权宣言》1789.8.26）The representatives of the French people,organized as a National Assembly, believingthat the ignorance, neglect, or contempt ofthe rights of man are the sole cause of publiccalamities and of the corruption ofgovernments, have determined to set forth ina solemn declaration the natural, unalienable,and sacred rights of man, in order that thisdeclaration, being constantly before all themembers of the Social body, shall remind themcontinually of their rights and duties; inorder that the acts of the legislative power,as well as those of the executive power, maybe compared at any moment with the objects andpurposes of all political institutions andmay thus be more respected, and, lastly, inorder that the grievances of the citizens,based hereafter upon simple and incontestableprinciples, shall tend to the maintenance ofthe constitution and redound to the happinessof all. Therefore the National Assemblyrecognizes and proclaims, in the presence andunder the auspices of the Supreme Being, thefollowing rights of man and of the citizen:Articles:1 Men are born and remain free and equal inrights. Social distinctions may be foundedonly upon the general good.2 The aim of all political association isthe preservation of the natural andimprescriptible rights of man. These rightsare liberty, property, security, andresistance to oppression.3. The principle of all sovereignty residesessentially in the nation. No body norindividual may exercise any authority whichdoes not proceed directly from the nation.4. Liberty consists in the freedom to doeverything which injures no one else; hencethe exercise of the natural rights of each manhas no limits except those which assure to theother members of the society the enjoyment ofthe same rights. These limits can only bedetermined by law.5. Law can only prohibit such actions as arehurtful to society. Nothing may be preventedwhich is not forbidden by law, and no one maybe forced to do anything not provided for bylaw.6. Law is the expression of the general will.Every citizen has a right to participatepersonally, or through his representative, inits foundation. It must be the same for all,whether it protects or punishes. All citizens,being equal in the eyes of the law, are equallyeligible to all dignities and to all publicpositions and occupations, according to theirabilities, and without distinction exceptthat of their virtues and talents.7. No person shall be accused, arrested, orimprisoned except in the cases and accordingto the forms prescribed by law. Any onesoliciting, transmitting, executing, orcausing to be executed, any arbitrary order,shall be punished. But any citizen summonedor arrested in virtue of the law shall submitwithout delay, as resistance constitutes anoffense.8. The law shall provide for suchpunishments only as are strictly andobviously necessary, and no one shall sufferpunishment except it be legally inflicted invirtue of a law passed and promulgated beforethe commission of the offense.9. As all persons are held innocent untilthey shall have been declared guilty, ifarrest shall be deemed indispensable, allharshness not essential to the securing of theprisoner's person shall be severely repressedby law.10. No one shall be disquieted on accountof his opinions, including his religiousviews, provided their manifestation does notdisturb the public order established by law.11. The free communication of ideas andopinions is one of the most precious of therights of man. Every citizenmay, accordingly,speak, write, and print with freedom, butshall be responsible for such abuses of thisfreedom as shall be defined by law.12. The security of the rights of man andof the citizen requires public militaryforces. These forces are, therefore,established for the good of all and not forthe personal advantage of those to whom theyshall be intrusted.13. A common contribution is essential forthe maintenance of the public forces and forthe cost of administration. This should beequitably distributed among all the citizensin proportion to their means.14. All the citizens have a right to decide,either personally or by their representatives,as to the necessity of the public contribution;to grant this freely; to know to what uses itis put; and to fix the proportion, the modeof assessment and of collection and theduration of the taxes.15. Society has the right to require ofevery public agent an account of hisadministration.16. A society in which the observance of thelaw is not assured, nor the separation ofpowers defined, has no constitution at all.17. Since property is an inviolable andsacred right, no one shall be deprived thereofexcept where public necessity, legallydetermined, shall clearly demand it, and thenonly on condition that the owner shall havebeen previously and equitably indemnified.The above document was written by The Marquisde Lafayette, with help from his friend and neighbor,American envoy to France, Thomas fayette, you may recall, had come to the Coloniesat age 19, been commissioned a Major General, andwas instrumental in the defeat of the British duringthe American Revolutionary War. He considered onespecial man his 'father': George Washington.French King Louis XVI signed this document,under duress, but never intended to supportit. Indeed, the Revolution in France soonfollowed, leading to the tyrannical rule ofNapolean Bonaparte.Prepared by Gerald Murphy (The ClevelandFree-Net - aa300) Distributed by the CybercastingServices Division of the National PublicTelecomputing Network (NPTN).Permission is hereby granted to download,reprint, and/or otherwise redistribute thisfile, provided appropriate point of origincredit is given to the preparer(s) and theNational Public Telecomputing Network.。

《联合国人权宣言》中英文对照《世界人权宣言》是人权史上具有里程碑意义的文件。

它由来自世界各个地区不同法律和文化背景的代表起草，于1948年12月10日在巴黎召开的大会会议上以第217A(III)号决议通过。

《世界人权宣言》作为所有国家和所有人民的共同成就，第一次规定了基本人权应得到普遍保护。

《世界人权宣言》已被翻译成近500种语言。

《宣言》是1948年12月10日第三届联合国大会通过的，是有组织的国际社会第一次就人权和基本自由作出的世界性宣言。

《宣言》由联合国人权委员会起草，并由联合国经济和社会理事会正式提交联合国大会，在一系列修正案的基础上，大会经过认真讨论、审议后予以通过。

《宣言》是国际人权宪章体系的第一个文件。

它明确提出了联合国系统人权活动的基本原则。

《宣言》在序言中称：鉴于“对人类家庭所有成员的固有尊严及其平等的和不移的权利的承认，乃是世界自由、正义与和平的基础”，及“各会员国业已誓愿同联合国合作以促进对人权和基本自由的普遍尊重和遵行”，因此制定这一宣言。

序言中还说，宣言作为所有人民和国家努力实现的共同标准，期望每一个人和社会机构努力促进权利和自由的实现，并通过国家和国际社会的措施，使这些权利和自由得到普遍和有效的承认与尊重。

《宣言》共30条。

它第一次在国际范围内系统地提出了人权的基本内容和奋斗目标。

《宣言》提出，人人生而自由，在尊严和权利上一律平等；人人都有资格享受本《宣言》所载的一切权利和自由，不论其种族、肤色、性别、语言、财产、宗教、政治或其他见解、国籍或其他出身、身份。

这些权利和自由可分为公民权利和政治权利以及经济、社会和文化权利两大类。

其中，公民权利和政治权利包括：生命权、人身权、不受奴役和酷刑权、人格权、法律面前人人平等权、无罪推定权、财产权、婚姻家庭权、思想良心和宗教自由权、参政权和选举权等等；经济、社会和文化权利包括：工作权、同工同酬权、休息和定期带薪休假权、组织和参加工会权、受教育权、社会保障和享受适当生活水准权、参加文化生活权等等。

缓冲国buffer state治国术statecraftcomprehensive power 综合国力双重国籍dual nationality东道国host country附庸国vassal stateprotectorate 保护国战败国 a defeated country卫星国satellite state战胜国 victorious nation中立国neutrality stated, neutral country永久中立国neutralized statedAxis Powers 轴心国不结盟国家nonaligned state缔约国 signatory state of the treaty (convention) hegemonic state霸权国策源国政治学political science比较政治学comparative politics低级政治low politics高级政治high politics规模政治politics of scaleRealpolitik 现实政治官僚政治bureaucratic politics政治地理political geography政治化politicization政治精神心理学 political psychophysiology生态政治学ecopolitics政治精英political elitezero-sum game 零和游戏nonzero-sum game 非零和游戏game theory 博弈论two-level game or two-tier game双层博弈 paradigm 范式本土化localization不可逆转性irreversibilityconvention 常规解构deconstructionbalance of power 均势联系协定association agreementexclusivity排他性批判理论critique theoriesequilibrium 平衡globalization全球化identity 认同或特性外溢spill-overrelative gain相对收益absolute gain 绝对收益相互依赖interdependence效忠转移loyalty-transferring边际成本marginal costpublic domain 公共领域公共选择理论public choice theory国家间交易成本 interstate transaction cost交易收益transaction benefit利益集团interests group囚徒困境prisoner’s dilemma权利让渡transferring rightsanarchy 无政府状态constitutionalism宪政信息不对称 asymmetric information定量分析quantitative analysis定性分析qualitative analysis交流理论transactionism复合相互依赖 complex interdependencecase study 个案研究理论体系theoretical framework辩证法dialectical method世界体系理论world system theoryalienation 异化物竞天择natural selectionpagan 异教徒证伪falsificationappeasement 绥靖不对称战略 asymmetrical strategy代议制政府 representative forms of government dependency theory 依附理论电讯革命 telecommunications revolution遏制政策containment policy反主流文化counterculture非西方化dewesternization非线性nonlinearity功利主义哲学utilitarian philosophysupply-side economics供应学派经济学理性行为体模型rational actor model古典自由主义学派classical liberal schooldecentralization分散化乌托邦理论utopian theorynormative theory 规范理论value judgment 价值判断阶级斗争class strugglemirror image 镜像比较研究comparative study控制论cybernetic theory; cyberneticspredictability可预测性跨文化比较分析cross-cultural comparative analysis边缘化marginalization确保摧毁assured destruction知识产权intellectual property同质文明[,hɔmə'dʒi:niəs, ,həu-] homogeneous civilizationhomogenization 同质化Heterogeneou 异质化[,hetərəu'dʒi:njəs]futurology 未来学文明的冲突clash of civilizationstheoretical foundation理论基础grand theory 大理论信息革命information revolution意识形态冲突ideological conflictbarbarism 野蛮状态lobbying 游说nonwhite people 有色人种metaphysics 形而上学长周期理论long-circle theoryresource theory资源理论autonomous 自治case study 案例研究cyclical theory周期理论共同观念shared ideas全球治理global governancethe nature of man人性认知心理学cognitive psychologycivil society市民社会ideology 意识形态智囊团brain trustbandwagon 搭便车autarky 自给自足, 闭关自守democratization民主化宪政民主constitutional democracy当代史方法current history approachend of history历史终结社会化socialization自我实现的预言self-fulfilling prophecy结构性暴力structural violence适者生存survival of the fittestxenophobia 仇外, 排外ontology 本体论Copenhagen School 哥本哈根学派结构二重性duality of structure内化internalization制度化institutionalization世俗化secularizationthink tank 思想库public goods 公共物品非关税壁垒non-tariff barrier非正式协议informal agreement关税减让tariffs reduction关税同盟Tariffs Union互惠reciprocityGreat Depression 大萧条Industrial Revolution工业革命工业时代Industrial Age反托拉斯法antitrust law工业化industrialization股票市场崩溃stock market clash浮动汇率floating exchange rate固定汇率fixed exchange rate外汇汇率currency exchange rategold standard金本位金融机构financial institutioneconomic determinism 经济决定论economic globalization经济全球化economic sanction 经济制裁经济周期economic circletransnational corporation, multinational corporation跨国公司 money laundering 洗钱能源危机energy crisisUruguay Round 乌拉圭回合剩余价值surplus value贸易平衡balance of trade贸易赤字trade deficit公债treasury bond中央银行central bankfree market system自由市场体系城市化urbanizationeconomic growth 经济增长可持续发展 sustainable development customs union 关税同盟emerging market 新兴市场滞胀stagflationnondiscrimination非歧视原则非关税壁垒 nontariff barriers (NTBs) package deal 一揽子交易市场失灵market failurebourgeoisie 资产阶级民族自决 national self-determination民族解放 national liberation种族问题racial issue民族身份ethnic identity种族冲突ethnic conflictgeopolitics地缘政治sea power 海权land power 陆权air power 空权Balkan 巴尔干Age of Exploration地理大发现时代 Geoeconomics 地缘经济学 Indochina 印度支那Formosa 福摩萨Pacific Rim 环太平洋地区 heartland 大陆心脏Latin American 拉丁美洲马六甲海峡Strait of Malacca大陆国家 continental countryKashmir 克什米尔地理位置 geographic locationSerbia 塞尔维亚破碎地带shatterbeltNetherlands 尼德兰Eurasia 欧亚大陆lebensraum 生存空间中心-边缘模式core-periphery modelGlobal North 北方世界Global South 南方世界人名Karl W. Deutsch 卡尔•多伊奇Francis Fukuyama 弗朗西斯•福山Hans J. Morgenthau 汉斯•摩根索Jean Monnet 让•莫内Joseph S. Nye 约瑟夫•奈Kenneth N. Waltz 肯尼思•沃尔兹Hugo Grotius 雨果•格劳秀斯Jean Bodin 让•博丹William Olson 威廉•奥尔森John Ikenberry 约翰•伊肯伯里Harold Nicolson 哈罗德•尼科尔森 《外交学》弗朗切斯科•圭恰迪尼 《意大利史》 Francesco GuicciardiniThomas Hobbes 托马斯•霍布斯Henry Kissinger 亨利•基辛格Robert Gilpin 罗伯特•吉尔平Arnord Wolfers 阿诺德•沃尔弗斯Edward Karl 爱德华•卡尔彼得•卡赞斯坦Peter KatzensteinGeorge Kennan 乔治•凯南Stephen Krasner 史蒂芬•克拉斯纳Paul Kennedy 保罗•肯尼迪John Ruggie 约翰•鲁杰Niccol Machiavelli马基雅维利John Mearsheirmer 约翰•米尔斯海默Adam Smith 亚当•斯密David A. Baldwin 大卫•鲍德温Thucydides 修昔底德Raymond Aron 雷蒙•阿隆Stephen Walt 斯蒂芬•沃尔特Martin Wight 马丁•怀特Max Weber 马克斯•韦伯(德国社会学家)Alexander Wendt 亚历山大•温特Brace Russett 布鲁斯•拉西特伊曼纽尔•沃勒斯坦Immanuel Wallerstein让•雅克•卢梭Jean-Jaques Rousseau欧内斯特•萨道义爵士 《外交实践指南》 Sir Ernest SatowJohn Locke 约翰•洛克Jeremy Bentham 杰里米•边沁France Bacon 弗朗西斯•培根Hedley Bull 赫德利•布尔赫伯特•巴特菲尔德Herbert ButterfieldGeorge Canning 乔治•坎宁Socrates 苏格拉底Plato 柏拉图本尼迪克特•德•斯宾诺莎Benedict de SpinozaDante 但丁Lassa Oppenheim 拉萨•奥本海约瑟夫•A•熊彼特Joseph A. SchumpeterHans Kelsen 汉斯•凯尔森Voltaire 伏尔泰Montesquieu 孟德斯鸠John Courtney Murray 约翰•考特尼•默里Reinhold Niebuhr 莱因霍尔德•尼布尔John Dowey 约翰•杜威Denis Diderot 丹尼斯•狄德罗Erasmus 伊拉斯谟Ludwig Feuerbach 路德维希•费尔巴哈本杰明•富兰克林Benjamin FranklinHomer 荷马Graham T. Allison 格雷汉姆•艾利森Tommaso Campanella 托马索•康帕内拉David Hume 大卫•休谟Jack S. Levy 杰克•列维Walter Lippmann 沃尔特•李普曼Quincy Wright 昆西•赖特Susan Strange 苏珊•斯特兰奇Richard Ashley 理查德•阿什利David Mitrany 戴维•米特兰尼Charles de Visscher查理•德维舍Michael W. Doyle 迈克尔•多伊尔John Hertz 约翰•赫茨Fredric Latzel弗里德里希•拉采尔鲁道夫•契伦Rudolf KjellenKarl Haushofer 卡尔•豪斯霍夫Nicolas Spykman 尼古拉斯•斯皮克曼Sir Halford Mackinder麦金德Douhet 杜黑Alfred Thayer Mahan 艾尔弗雷德•马汉David Mitrany 戴维•米特兰尼Alexander Hamilton 亚历山大•汉密尔顿Stanley Hoffmann 斯坦利•霍夫曼Kenneth W. Thompson 肯尼思•汤普逊Robert O. Keohane 罗伯特•基欧汉Robert Cox 罗伯特•考克斯弗里德里希•冯•哈耶克Friedrich von HayekJohn W. Burton 约翰•伯顿Morton Kaplan 莫顿•卡普兰John Ikenberry 约翰•埃肯伯里Arnold Toynbee 阿诺德•汤因比弗朗索瓦•德•卡利埃 《外交的艺术》 Francois de CallieresAbraham de Wicquefort 亚伯拉罕•德•威克福 ,《大使及其职能》 Robbery Jervis 罗伯特•杰维斯Barry Buzan 巴里•布赞Joseph Grieco 约瑟夫•格里科Sigmund Freud 西蒙•弗洛伊德Jurgen Habermas 尤尔根•哈贝马斯George W. F. Hegal 黑格尔Immanuel Kant 伊曼纽尔•康德Walter Lippmann 沃尔特•李普曼Thomas Aquinas 托马斯•阿奎那Fernand Braudel 费尔南•布罗代尔凯尔•冯•克劳塞维茨Karl von ClausewitzChristopher Columbus 克里斯托弗•哥伦布Auguste Comte 奥古斯特•孔德Herodotus 希罗多德Martin Luther 马丁•路德Richelieu 黎塞留John L. Gaddis 约翰•加迪斯Herbert Spencer 赫伯特•斯宾塞(英国社会学家)Oswald Spengler 奥斯瓦尔德•施宾格勒(德国历史哲学家) Talleyrand 塔列朗Caliphate 哈里发斯大林Joseph StalinDwight D. Eisenhower 德怀特•艾森豪威尔Eisenhower Doctrine 艾森豪威尔主义Harry Truman 哈里•杜鲁门Truman Doctrine 杜鲁门主义Jimmy Carter 吉米•卡特Ronald Reagan 罗纳德•里根Thomas Jefferson 托马斯•杰斐逊Coolidge 柯立芝Monroe Doctrine 门罗主义Richard Nixon 理查德•尼克松Nixon Doctrine 尼克松主义温斯顿•丘吉尔Winston ChurchillWoodrow Wilson 伍德罗•威尔逊Wilsonianism 威尔逊主义内维尔•张伯伦Neville Chamberlain阿道夫•希特勒Adolf HitlerOtto von Bismarch 奥托•冯•俾斯麦Napoleon Bonaparte 拿破仑•波拿巴亚历山大大帝Alexander the GreatAristotle 亚里士多德Augustine 奥古斯丁腓特烈大帝Frederick the Great梅特涅亲王Prince Metternich戴高乐Charles de Gaulle阿拉法特Yassir Arafat凯撒Julius CaesarBrezhnev Doctrine 勃列日涅夫主义Abbas I 阿拔斯一世君士坦丁(拜占庭皇帝)Constantine (Byzantine emperor)Hideyoshi 丰臣秀吉Oliver Cromwell 奥利弗•克伦威尔伊凡雷帝Ivan the Terrible (Tsar)Justinian 查士丁尼Genghis Khan 成吉思汗Mahomet 穆罕默德Peter the Great彼得大帝威廉一世 William I (Duke of Normandy, the Conqueror, King of England) Yoshida Doctrine 吉田主义Robespierre 罗伯斯庇尔Catherine the Great 叶卡捷琳娜大帝Charlemagne 查理曼大帝Sun Yat-sen 孙中山Khrushchev 赫鲁晓夫军事基地military basemilitary coup军事政变军费开支military expenditures军事援助military assistance军事一体化military integration军事干预military intervention军事挑衅military provocation军事技术革命military-technical revolution相互威慑mutual deterrence外层空间的非军事化demilitarization of outer spacearmed force 军队, 武装力量大规模报复massive retaliationWMD, Weapons of mass destruction大规模杀伤性武器preemption 先发制人巡航导弹cruise missileballistic missile defense弹道导弹防御洲际弹道导弹intercontinental ballistic missile中程弹道导弹intermediate-range ballistic missiletheater missile defense(TMD) (战区)导弹防御系统低烈度冲突low-intensity conflict第一次打击战略first-strike strategy第二次打击能力second-strike capacityatomic bomb 原子弹战略武器strategic weapon战术武器tactical weaponnaval blockade 海上封锁海军naval force空军air forceland force 陆军arms race 军备竞赛arms control 军备控制海军实力naval capabilityPentagon 五角大楼维和行动peace keeping operation防务政策defense policyguerilla war游击战信息战information warfare (IW), infowarmercenary 雇佣军open sea 公海 high seas international waters 公海；国际水域 outer space 外层空间领土完整territorial integrity领土管辖权territorial jurisdiction领水territorial water领空territorial air领海territorial sea领海范围limits of territorial sea增长极限论limits-to-growth propositionPersian Gulf War 海湾战争印巴战争Indo-Pakistani WarVietnam War 越南战争常规战争conventional warwar by proxy 代理人战争Indo-Chinese War 中印战争just war 正义战争有限核战争limited nuclear war预防性战争preventive warpostmodern war 后现代战争total war 总体战争Korean War 朝鲜战争preemptive war 先发制人的战争Crimean War 克里米亚战争[krai'miən]Falklands War 马岛战争Franco-Prussian 普法战争Russo-Japanese War 日俄战争Opium War 鸦片战争['əupiəm]Great Northern War 北方战争太平洋战争War of PacificThirty Years War 三十年战争the Peloponnesian War伯罗奔尼撒战争[,peləpə'ni:ʃən] Boer War 布尔战争Boer ['bəuə; bɔ:]nuclear weapons 核武器nuclear free zone无核区不首先使用(核武器)non-first usenonlethal weapon 非致使武器切尔诺贝利核事故 Chernobyl nuclear accident核查verification反核运动antinuclear movements核威慑nuclear deterrence核冬天nuclear winter核技术nuclear technologynuclear age 核时代全面禁止核试验CTB, Comprehensive test ban全面禁止核试验条约 Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty和平解决争端 peaceful settlement of disputes和平红利peace dividend和平共处peaceful coexistence民主和平论democratic peaceinstitutional peace theory 制度和平论partnership of peace 和平伙伴关系genocide 种族屠杀apartheid 种族隔离racial discrimination 种族歧视ethnic cleansing 种族清洗ethnocentrism 种族优越感国际组织：The Andean Pact 安第斯条约集团NAFTA, the North American Free Trade Agreement 北美自由贸易协定the Council of Ministers （欧盟）部长理事会（即 欧盟理事会）the COREPER, Committee of Permanent Representatives 常驻代表委员会the Dayton Peace Accords 代顿协议ASEAN, the Association of Southeast Asian nations 东南亚国家联盟community sense 共同体意识economic integration 经济一体化EMU, Economic and Monetary Union 经济与货币联盟ECJ, the European Court of Justice 欧洲法院EC, European Community 欧洲共同体the European Council 欧洲委员会（Council of Europe-------注：1）Council of the European Union ：欧盟理事会2（俗称欧盟部长理事会the C ouncil of Ministers ）1 Council of Europe：欧洲委员会，是由爱尔兰、比利时、丹麦、法国、荷兰、卢森堡、挪威、瑞典、意大利和英国通过1949年5月5日在伦敦签订《欧洲委员会法规》所成立，具有国际法地位、并且为联合国观察员身份的国际组织，是欧洲整合东欧进程中最早成立的机构。

英语国家概况（课后问答题）第一部分英国概况1 What are the differences between Britain and the British Isles, Great Britain, England, the United Kingdom and the British Commonwealth?Britain is the shortened form of the United kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland while the British Isles is a geographical name.2 What are the three political divisions on the island of Great Britain?They are England, Scotland and Wales 3. What is the official name of Great Britain？The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland4. Where did the King Harold defeat Tostig and Harold Hardrada?( At Stanford Bridge)5.What did William do after he suppressed镇压the Saxon risings in the north?(He built a string of defense防卫castles to ensure his military control of the whole country.)6. How long was Britain under the Roman occupation?( For nearly 400 years)7 What was the peculiar features of the feudal system of England?(All landowners, whether the tenants-in-chief or subtenants, took the oath of allegiance for the land they held, not only to their immediate lord, but also to the king.)8 What did Willliam I leave to his sons after he died?( He left Normandy to his eldest son, Robert, and England to his second son William, and a large sum of money to his third son, Henry.) 9 What was William I’s policytowards the church?(He wanted to keep it completely underhis control, but at the same time toupload its power.)10 When was the Domesday Bookcompleted?( In 1086)11 What was the consequence of theHundred Years’ War?(The French drove the English out oftheir land. By 1453, Calais was theonly part of France that was still in thehands of English)12 What did the Lollards preach?(The Lollards preached the equality ofmen before God)13 What were the two countriesElizabeth I successfully played offagainst each other for nearly 30years?( France and Spain were the twocountries that Elizabeth I successfullyplayed off against each other for nearly30 years)14 What was the outcome结果ofthe English Civil War?(It not only overthrew feudal system inEngland but also shook the foundationof the feudal rule in Europe. It isgenerally regarded as the beginning ofmodern world history.)15 What were the three main causesof Henry VIII’s religious reform ofthe Church?( The three main causes were: a desirefor change and reform in the Churchhad been growing for many years andnow, encouraged by the success ofMarin Luther, many people believed itstime had come; the privilege andwealth of the clergy were also resented;and Henry needed money)16 Which party did MargaretThatcher represent in the 1970s?(She represented the ConservativeParty)17 What did the Whigs stand for inthe early 19th century?Whigs stood for a reduction in Crownpatronage, sympathy towardsNonconformists, and care for theinterests of merchants and bankers.18 Why did changes in farmingmethods改变耕作方式affect lives ofmillions in the 18th century?(Because village and agriculture werethe backbone of England at that time.)19 When did Britain finally becomea full member of the EuropeanEconomic Community?(Britain finally became a full memberof the European Economic Communityin January, 1973)没背20 Why was Mrs. Thatcherremoved from office in 1990?(It was because of her opposition toEuropean Union and her imposition ofan extremely unpopular flatrate ‘polltax’ in place of property taxes to payfor local government service.21 What were the two groups of theChartiests? What was theirdifference?(The Chartists could be divided intotwo groups: the Moral Force Chartistsand the Physical Force Chartists. Theformer wanted to realize their aims bypeaceful means while the latter wantedto achieve their purpose by violence)22 What was the goal of the LondonWorking Men’s Association in itsstruggle?(It aimed to ‘ to seek by every legalmeans to place all classes of society inpossession of equal political and socialrights)叮叮小文库23 Why was Britain known as the factory of the world in the mid-19th century?(Because the British economy was among the strongest in the world)24 Who has the power to declare war and make peace in the UK?(The Queen)25 How many members of Parliament does the House of Commons in the UK consist of ? (651Members of Parliament)26 What does the British Parliament consist of ?(It consists of the Sovereign, the House of Lords and the House of Commons) 27 What did the term ‘parliament’ originally mean?( It originally meant a meeting for parley or discussion)28 Where does the Sovereign’s coronation take place?(It takes place at Westminster Abbey威斯敏斯特教堂in London)29Where does the Queen’s expenditure arising from支出所产生的public duties come from?( The Queen’s expenditure arising from public duties comes from the Civil List and government departments)30 How is the British House of Commons elected?The House of Commons is elected by universal adult suffrage.31 What is a ‘shadow cabinet’ 影子内阁in Britain?( The party which wins the second largest number of seats in parliament becomes the Official Opposition and it forms its own ‘cabinet’ known as ‘shadow cabinet’32 What are the three main Christian festivals in Britain? (The three main Christian festivals inBritain are Christmas. Easter, and WhitSunday.)33 Who is directly responsible for theNHS in Britain?谁直接负责国民保健制度在英国(Central government is directlyresponsible for the NHS in Britain)34 What are the two establishedchurches in Britain?(They are the Church of England andthe Church of Scotland in Scotland)35 How many provinces does theChurch of England have?(The Church of England has twoprovinces: Canterbury and York)36What is the National Day inBritain?(The birthday of the British Monarch isa National Day in Britain)37 What does ‘Oxbridge’ refer to inGreat Britain?(It refers to the Universities of Oxfordand Cambridge)没背38 What kind of schools are theindependent schools in Britain?(The independent schools are thosesupported entirely by fees and privatefuns)39What are the three groups ofnation newspapers?(They are quality, popular andmid-market papers.)40 Which religion in Ireland is thelargest non-Catholic denomination?(The Anglican Church圣公会ofIreland is the largest non-Catholicdenomination.)没背41 What was the consequence ofthe Anglo-Irish Treaty of 1921?什么是后果，英爱条约1921？(Violentopposition to the treaty byultranationalists led to a civil war.)没背42 What was the result ofgrowing Irish nationalism in theearly decades of the 20th century?(Irish nationalism became stronger andeven more violent in the early decadesof the 20th century and climaxed in theEastern Uprising of 1916 in which anIrish Republic was proclaimed.)没背43 Wht happened after theEnglish king was declared the headof the Church of Ireland replaceingthe Pope?英国国王宣布爱尔兰教会领袖代替教皇(There followed centuries of religiousas well as political persecution政治迫害, which helped to strengthen anddeepen Ireland’s Catholic spirit.)第二部分美国部分1What are the two novels giving avivid description of the miserable lifeof the black slaves?(Uncle Tom’s Cabin and Roots)2 What is the reason for the growthof population in Florida?(Florida’s population growth owesmuch to its attractiveness both as aplace to retire and as a convenientplace for business with and travel toCentral and South America)3 When did the higher birth rateappear in the United States?(The birth rate appeared during ‘thebaby boom’[1946-1964]) ？？4 When was the Declaration ofIndependence adopted?(It was adopted on July4,1776)没背5Please write any three of the13 colonies the British establishedalong the east coast of NorthAmerica between 1607 and1733.(Virginia, Maine, New叮叮小文库Hampshire)6What are the implications of the ‘Manifest Destiny’?The implications of ‘manifest Destiny’ are three fold(1)the inevitability of the founding of the United States of America;是必然的(2)the legitimacy 合法的of the expansion of America Territory美国领土; (3) the spread of American democracy美国民主being the task任务of American people who were cho sen to do the Lord’s work.没背7 What were the two serious weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation?邦联条款They were:(1)There was no national executive or law-enforcing branch;没有执行或执法部门(2)Congress国会was too large a body to function功能as government. And Congress had no power to raise taxes.国会无权征税8What agreement did America and Britain sign in 1783 by which Britain recognized the independence of the United States? The Treaty of Paris9 What were the features in the colonial period which had influence on later American development?They were representive form of government, rule of law, respect of individual rights, religious tolerance and a strong spirit of individual enterprise.。

历史上的今天（9月18日）在历史的长河中，每一天都有着其独特的意义和影响力。

9月18日，作为一个重要的节点，也留下了许多值得回顾的历史事件。

让我们一起来看看历史上的今天，即9月18日，发生了哪些重要的事件。

9月18日，历史上发生了许多重要事件。

下面，让我们一起回顾其中一些具有特殊意义的事件。

1. 1739年，英国首都伦敦的拉德诺桥(London Bridge)正式开放。

这座桥是伦敦市中心重要的交通干线之一，也是世界上历史悠久的桥梁之一。

拉德诺桥的开放，为伦敦市的发展提供了方便，并成为该市的一张城市名片。

2. 1793年，美国共和国第一任总统乔治·华盛顿签署了《中立宣言》(Proclamation of Neutrality)。

该宣言宣布美国在法国大革命期间保持中立立场，并禁止美国公民向参与该战争的国家提供任何军事援助。

这一宣言旨在保护美国的利益，并确保国家免于被卷入外交纷争。

3. 1851年，美国第十一任总统詹姆斯·加菲尔德(James Garfield)出生。

加菲尔德是美国历史上为数不多的务实政治家之一，他在担任总统期间推动了许多重要的改革措施，如提升公务员的职业素质和推动教育改革等。

4. 1948年，联合国大会通过了《世界人权宣言》(Universal Declaration of Human Rights)。

这一历史性的宣言确认了每个人都有天赋人权，无论其种族、国籍、性别、宗教或社会地位如何。

《世界人权宣言》对世界各国的立法和国际人权事务产生了深远的影响。

5. 1977年，美国航天局(NASA)的旅行者1号(Voyager 1)探测器成功发射。

旅行者1号是人类历史上首个能够离开太阳系进入星际空间的探测器。

它携带着一块金唱片，上面记录了地球文化和人类的声音、图像等信息，并成为了一份向宇宙传递人类文明的礼物。

6. 1997年，苏格兰和威尔士分别举行公投，决定是否成立苏格兰议会和威尔士国民议会。

撒提亚谏言录
Peace within, Peace between, Peace among.
内在和谐，人际和睦，世界和平。

We are all unique manifestations of the same Life Force.
我们每个人都来自同一生命力，各自以独特的方式展现。

Real control means YOU have CHOICES.
真正的主权在于“你拥有许多选择”。

Change is always possible.
改变永远是可能的。

EMPOWER people so they can do their work.
当人们接触自己的力量，就能够做自己。

In our differences we grow; in our sameness we connect.
我们因彼此的相似而连接，因彼此的差异而成长。

World peace begins at HOME.
世界和平由家开始。

Healing the family, we heal the world.
治疗家庭，我们便治疗了世界。

Problem is not the problem, coping is.
问题本身不是问题，如何应对才是问题。

Negative events don’t have to be responded to negatively.
没有必要以负面的态度来回应负面的事件。

1.解放宣言the Emancipation ProclamationThe Emancipation Proclamation is an executive order issued by United States President Abraham Lincoln on January 1, 1863, during the American Civil War using his war powers. It was not a law passed by Congress. It proclaimed the freedom of slaves in the ten states then in rebellion, thus applying to 3.1 million of the 4 million slaves in the U.S. at that time. The Proclamation immediately freed 50,000 slaves, with nearly all the rest (of the 3.1 million) freed as Union armies advanced. The Proclamation did not compensate the owners, did not itself outlaw slavery, and did not make the ex-slaves (called freedmen) citizens. On September 22, 1862, Lincoln issued a preliminary proclamation that he would order the emancipation of all slaves in any state of the Confederate States of America that did not return to Union control by January 1, 1863. None returned, and the order, signed and issued January 1, 1863, took effect except in locations where the Union had already mostly regained control. The Proclamation made abolition a central goal of the war (in addition to reunion), outraged white Southerners who envisioned a race war, angered some Northern Democrats, energized anti-slavery forces, and weakened forces in Europe that wanted to intervene to help the Confederacy. Slavery was made illegal everywhere in the U.S. by the Thirteenth Amendment, which took effect in December 1865.2.独立宣言The Declaration of Independence was a statement adopted by the Continental Congress on July 4, 1776, which announced that the thirteen American colonies, then at war with Great Britain, regarded themselves as independent states, and no longer a part of the British Empire. Drafted by Thomas Jefferson between June 11 and June 28, 1776, the Declaration of Independence is at once the nation's most cherished symbol of liberty and Jefferson's most enduring monument. Here, in exalted and unforgettable phrases, Jefferson expressed the convictions in the minds and hearts of the American people. The political philosophy of the Declaration was not new; its ideals of individual liberty had already been expressed by John Locke and the Continental philosophers. What Jefferson did was to summarize this philosophy in "self-evident truths" and set forth a list of grievances against the King in order to justify before the world the breaking of ties between the colonies and the mother country.3.感恩节Thanksgiving, or Thanksgiving Day, is a holiday celebrated in the United States on the fourth Thursday in November. It has officially been an annual tradition since 1863, when, during the Civil War, President Abraham Lincoln proclaimed a national day of "Thanksgiving and Praise to our beneficent Father who dwelleth in the Heavens," to be celebrated on Thursday, November 26. As a federal and popular holiday in the U.S., Thanksgiving is one of the major holidays of the year. Together with Christmas and the New Year, Thanksgiving is a part of the broader holiday season.The event that some Americans commonly call the "First Thanksgiving" was celebrated by the Pilgrims to give thanks to God for guiding them safely to the New World. The first Thanksgiving feast lasted three days, providing enough food for 53 Pilgrims and 90 Native Americans.The feast consisted of fish(cod, eels, and bass) and shellfish (clams, lobster, and mussels), wild fowl (ducks, geese, swans, and turkey), venison, berries and fruit, vegetables (peas, pumpkin, beetroot and possibly, wild or cultivated onion), harvest grains (barley and wheat), and the Three Sisters: beans, dried Indian maize or corn, and squash.The New England colonists were accustomed to regularly celebrating "thanksgivings"—days of prayer thanking God for blessings such as military victory or the end of a drought4.自由女神像The Statue of Liberty (Liberty Enlightening the World) is a colossal neoclassical sculpture on Liberty Island in New York Harbor, dedicated on October 28, 1886. The statue, a gift to the United States from the people of France, is of a robed female figure representing Libertas, the Roman goddess of freedom, who bears a torch and a tabula ansata (a tablet evoking the law) upon which is inscribed the date of the American Declaration of Independence, July 4, 1776. A broken chain lies at her feet. The statue has become an icon of freedom and of the United States.The statue was administered by the United States Lighthouse Board until 1901 and then by the Department of War; since 1933 it has been maintained by the National Park Service. The statue was closed for renovation for much of 1938. In the early 1980s, it was found to have deteriorated to such an extent that a major restoration was required. While the statue was closed from 1984 to 1986, the torch and a large part of the internal structure were replaced.5.新政The New Deal was a series of economic programs implemented in the United States between 1933 and 1936. They involved presidential executive orders or laws passed by Congress during the first term of President Franklin D. Roosevelt. The programs were a liberal response to the Great Depression, and focused on what historians call the "3 Rs": Relief, Recovery, and Reform. That is, Relief for the unemployed and poor; Recovery of the economy to normal levels; and Reform of the financial system to prevent a repeat depression. The New Deal produced a political realignment, making the Democratic Party the majority, with its base in liberal ideas, the white South, traditional Democrats, big city machines, and the newly empowered labor unions and ethnic minorities.6.常春藤联盟The Ivy League is an athletic conference comprising eight private institutions of higher education in the Northeastern United States. The conference name is also commonly used to refer to those eight schools as a group. The eight institutions are Brown University, Columbia University, Cornell University, Dartmouth College, Harvard University, Princeton University, the University of Pennsylvania, and Yale University. The term Ivy League also has connotations of academic excellence, selectivity in admissions, and social elitism. The term became official after the formation of the NCAA Division I athletic conference in 1954. Ivy League schools are often viewed by the public as some of the most prestigious and are often ranked amongst the best universities in the United States and worldwide.7.Constitution宪法The Constitution of the United States is the supreme law of the United States of America. The first three Articles of the Constitution establish the rules and separate powers of the three branches of the federal government: a legislature, the bicameral Congress; an executive branch led by the President; and a federal judiciary headed by the Supreme Court. The last four Articles frame the principle of federalism. The Tenth Amendment confirms its federal characteristics.The Constitution was adopted on September 17, 1787, by the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, and ratified by conventions in eleven states. It went into effect on March 4, 1789. The Constitution guides American society in law and political culture. It is the oldest charter of supreme law in continuous use, and it influenced later international figures establishing national constitutions. Recent impulses for reform center on concerns for extending democracy and balancing the federal budget.8.联邦制Federalism refers to a dual form of government in which there is a functional and territorial division of authority. In other words, it refers to a political system in which there are local units of government, as well as a national government. There is a division of political authority. There are certain powers that both levels have, for example, the power to tax. The two levels can cooperate.9.制宪会议The Constitutional Convention took place from May 14 to September 17, 1787, in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, to address problems in governing the United States of America, which had been operating under the Articles of Confederation following independence from Great Britain. The delegates elected George Washington to preside over the convention. The result of the Convention was the United States Constitution, placing the Convention among the most significant events in the history of the United States.The most contentious disputes revolved around the composition and election of the senate, how "proportional representation" was to be defined, whether to divide the executive power between three persons or divest the power into a single president, how to elect the president, how long his term was to be and whether he could stand for reelection, what offenses should be impeachable, the nature of a fugitive slave clause, whether to allow the abolition of the slave trade, and whether judges should be chosen by the legislature or executive. Once the convention began, the delegates first agreed on the principles of the convention. A Committee of Detail assembled during the July 4 recess and produced a rough draft. Most of this rough draft remained in place, and can be found in the final version of the constitution.10.国会The United States Congress is the bicameral legislature of the federal government of the United States, consisting of the Senate, its upper house, and the House of Representatives, its lower house. Congress meets in the Capitol in Washington, D.C.Both representatives and senators are chosen through direct election. There are 535 voting Members of Congress; the House of Representatives has a membership of 435 and the Senate has a membership 100. Members of the House of Representatives serve two-year terms representing the people of a district. Congressional districts are apportioned to states by population using the United States Census results, each state in the union having at least one representative in the Congress. Regardless of population, each of the 50 states has two senators; the 100 senators each serve a six-year term. The terms are staggered so every two years approximately one-third of the Senate is up for election. Most incumbents seek re-election, and their historical likelihood of winning subsequent elections exceeds 90 percent 11.总统选举团The Electoral College consists of the electors appointed by each state who formally elect the President and Vice President of the United States. Since 1964, there have been 538 electors in each presidential election.[1]Article II, Section 1, Clause 2 of the Constitution specifies how many electors each state is entitled to have and that each state's legislature decides how its electors are to be chosen. U.S. territories are not represented in the Electoral College. The Electoral College is an example of an indirect election, as opposed to a direct election by United States citizens (such as for members of the United States House of Representatives).美国政府的构成与功能The Government of the United States of America is the federal government of the constitutional republic of fifty states that comprise the United States of America, as well as one capitol district, and several other territories. The federal government is composed of three distinct branches: legislative, executive and judicial, which powers are vested by the U.S. Constitution in the Congress, the President, and the federal courts, including the Supreme Court, respectively; the powers and duties of these branches are further defined by acts of Congress, including the creation of executive departments and courts inferior to the Supreme Court.如何理解个人主义Individualism is the moral stance, political philosophy, ideology, or social outlook that stresses "the moral worth of the individual".[1]Individualists promote the exercise of one's goals and desires and so value independence and self-reliance[2] while opposing external interference upon one's own interests by society or other institutions such as the government.[2]Individualism makes the individual its focus[1] and so starts "with the fundamental premise that the human individual is of primary importance in the struggle for liberation." Liberalism, existentialism and anarchism are examples of movements that take the human individual as a central unit of analysis.[3]It has also been used as a term denoting "The quality of being an individual; individuality"[2]related to possessing "An individual characteristic; a quirk."[2]Individualism is thus also associated with artistic and bohemian interests and lifestyles where there is a tendency towards self creation and experimentation as opposed to tradition or popular mass opinions and behaviors[2][4]as so also with humanist philosophical positions and ethics.美国政党的功能1.Parties offer choices and simplify issues, which makes the vote’s job easier.2.The selection of candidates is a job in itself.3.In the general election itself,parties play a crucial role.4.Parties help shape public opinion.5.The party in power is expected to develop policies and govern.6.The party out of power is expected to criticize the party in power.7.The political party is an organization that allows like-minded and public-spirited people tomeet,socialize,and,get started in a career in politics.法律制定的过程Either House may propose a bill→{1.read 2.studied mented 4.amended →vote(if pass)→the other HouseApproval of both House—president{1.agree 2.veto—Congress 213 majority1.a bill is introduced2.the bill is then referred to the committee by leadership in that particular house.3.the committee takes action.4.the bill goes on a calendar, which is a traffic-regulating device.5.the bill goes to the floor6.after a bill is passed by one house,it goes to the other.7.if there are similar bills from both houses,a conference committee will meet to resolve differences.8.once the exact wording is agreed upon by both houses,the bill goes to the president for his approval or veto.9 only when the president signs the bill does it become law.。