平狄克《微观经济学》(第7版)课后习题详解 第18章 外部性与公共品【圣才出品】

CHAPTER 18EXTERNALITIES AND PUBLIC GOODSThis chapter extends the discussion of market failure begun in Chapter 17. To avoid over-emphasis on definitions, stress the main theme of the chapter: the characteristics of some goods lead to situations where price is not equal to marginal cost. Rely on the discussion of market power (Chapter 10) as an example of market failure. Also, point out with each case that government intervention might not be required if property rights can be defined and transaction costs are small (Section 18.3). The first four sections present positive and negative externalities and solutions to market failure. The last two sections discuss public goods and public choice.The consumption of many goods involves the creation of externalities. Stress the divergence between social and private costs. Exercise (5) presents the classic beekeeper/apple-orchard problem, originally popularized in Meade, “External Economies and Diseconomies in a Competitive Situation,” Economic Journal (March 1952). Empirical research on this example has shown that beekeepers and orchard owners have solved many of their problems: see Cheung, “The Fable of the Bees: An Economic Investigation,” Journal of Law and Economics (April 1973).Solutions to the problems of externalities are presented in Sections 18.2 and 18.3. Section 18.2, in particular, discusses emission standards, fees, and transferable permits. Example 18.1 and Exercise (3) are simple applications of these concepts.One of the main themes of the law and economics literature since 1969 is the application of Coase’s insight on the assignment of property rights. The original article is clear and can be understood by students. Stress the problems posed by transactions costs. For a lively debate, ask students whether non-smokers should be granted the right to smokeless air in public places (see Exercise (4)). For an extended discussion of the Coase Theorem at the undergraduate level, see Polinsky, Chapters 3-6, An Introduction to Law & Economics (Little, Brown & Co., 1983).The section on common property resources emphasizes the distinction between private and social marginal costs. Example 18.5 calculates the social cost of unlimited access to common property, and the information provided is used in Exercise (7). Exercise (8) provides an extended example of managing common property.The last two sections focus on public goods and private choice. Point out the similarities and differences between public goods and other activities with externalities. Since students confuse nonrival and nonexclusive goods, create a table similar to the following and give examples to fill in the cells:The next stumbling block for students is achieving an understanding of why we add individual demand curves vertically rather than horizontally. Exercise (6) compares vertical and horizontal summation of individual demand.The presentation of public choice is a limited introduction to the subject, but you can easily expand on this material. A logical extension of this chapter is an introduction to cost-benefit analysis. For applications of this analysis, see Part III, “Empirical Analysis of Policies and Programs,” in Haveman and Margolis (eds.), Public Expenditure and Policy Analysis (Houghton Mifflin, 1983).1. Which of the following describes an externality and which does not? Explain the difference.a. A policy of restricted coffee exports in Brazil causes the U.S. price of coffee to rise,which in turn also causes the price of tea to increase.Externalities cause market inefficiencies by preventing prices from conveying accurateinformation. A policy of restricting coffee exports in Brazil causes the U.S. price ofcoffee to rise, because supply is reduced. As the price of coffee rises, consumers switchto tea, thereby increasing the demand for tea, and hence, increasing the price of tea.These are market effects, not externalities.b. An advertising blimp distracts a motorist who then hits a telephone pole.An advertising blimp is producing information by announcing the availability of somegood or service. However, its method of supplying this information can be distractingfor some consumers, especially those consumers who happen to be driving neartelephone poles. The blimp is creating a negative externality that influences thedrivers’ safety. Since the price charged by the advertising firm does not incorporate theexternality of distracting drivers, too much of this type of advertising is produced fromthe point of view of society as a whole.2. Compare and contrast the following three mechanisms for treating pollution externalities when the costs and benefits of abatement are uncertain: (a) an emissions fee, (b) an emissions standard, and (c) a system of transferable emissions permits.Since pollution is not reflected in the marginal cost of production, its emission createsan externality. Three policy tools can be used to reduce pollution: an emissions fee, anemissions standard, and a system of transferable permits. The choice between a feeand a standard will depend on the marginal cost and marginal benefit of reducingpollution. If small changes in abatement yield large benefits while adding little to cost,the cost of not reducing emissions is high. Thus, standards should be used. However, ifsmall changes in abatement yield little benefit while adding greatly to cost, the cost ofreducing emissions is high. Thus, fees should be used.A system of transferable emissions permits combines the features of fees and standardsto reduce pollution. Under this system, a standard is set and fees are used to transferpermits to the firm that values them the most (i.e., a firm with high abatement costs).However, the total number of permits can be incorrectly chosen. Too few permits willcreate excess demand, increasing price and inefficiently diverting resources to ownersof the permits. Typically, pollution control agencies implement one of threemechanisms, measure the results, reassess the success of their choice, then reset newlevels of fees or standards or select a new policy tool.3. When do externalities require government intervention, and when is such intervention unlikely to be necessary?Economic efficiency can be achieved without government intervention when theexternality affects a small number of people and when property rights are wellspecified. When the number of parties is small, the cost of negotiating an agreementamong the parties is small. Further, the amount of required information (i.e., the costsof and benefits to each party) is small. When property rights are not well specified,uncertainty regarding costs and benefits increases and efficient choices might not bemade. The costs of coming to an agreement, including the cost of delaying such anagreement, could be greater than the cost of government intervention, including theexpected cost of choosing the wrong policy instrument.4. An emissions fee is paid to the government, whereas an injurer who is sued and is held liable pays damages directly to the party harmed by an externality. What differences in the behavior of victims might you expect to arise under these two arrangements?When the price of an activity that generates an externality reflects social costs, anefficient level of the activity is maintained. The producer of the externality reduces (fornegative externalities) or increases (for positive externalities) activity away from(towards) efficient levels. If those who suffer from the externality are not compensated,they find that their marginal cost is higher (for negative externalities) or lower (forpositive externalities), in contrast to the situation in which they would be compensated.5. Why does free access to a common property resource generate an inefficient outcome?Free access to a resource means that the marginal cost to the user is less than the socialcost. The use of a common property resource by a person or firm excludes others fromusing it. For example, the use of water by one consumer restricts its use by another.Because private marginal cost is below social marginal cost, too much of the resource isconsumed by the individual user, creating an inefficient outcome.6. Public goods are both nonrival and nonexclusive. Explain each of these terms and state clearly how they differ from each other.A good is nonrival if, for any level of production, the marginal cost of providing the goodto an additional consumer is zero (although the production cost of an additional unitcould be greater than zero). A good is nonexclusive if it is impossible or very expensiveto exclude individuals from consuming it. Public goods are nonrival and nonexclusive.Commodities can be (1) exclusive and rival, (2) exclusive and nonrival, (3) nonexclusiveand rival, or (4) nonexclusive and nonrival. Most of the commodities discussed in thetext to this point have been of the first type. In this chapter, we focus on commodities ofthe last type.Nonrival refers to the production of a good or service for one more customer. It usuallyinvolves a production process with high fixed costs, such as the cost of building ahighway or lighthouse. (Remember that fixed cost depends on the period underconsideration: the cost of lighting the lamp at the lighthouse can vary over time, butdoes not vary with the number of consumers.) Nonexclusive refers to exchange, wherethe cost of charging consumers is prohibitive. Incurring the cost of identifyingconsumers and collecting from them would result in losses. Some economists focus onthe nonexclusion property of public goods because it is this characteristic that poses themost significant problems for efficient provision.7. Public television is funded in part by private donations, even though anyone with a television set can watch for free. Can you explain this phenomenon in light of the free rider problem?The free-rider problem refers to the difficulty of excluding persons from consuming anonexclusive commodity. Non-paying consumers can “free-ride” on commoditiesprovided by paying customers. Public television is funded in part by contributions.Some viewers contribute, but most watch without paying, hoping that someone else willpay so they will not. To combat this problem these stations (1) ask consumers to assesstheir true willingness to pay, then (2) ask consumers to contribute up to this amount,and (3) attempt to make everyone else feel guilty for free-riding.8. Explain why the median voter outcome need not be efficient when majority rule voting determines the level of public spending.The median voter is the citizen with the middle preference: half the voting population ismore strongly in favor of the issue and half is more strongly opposed to the issue.Under majority-rule voting, where each citizen’s vote is weighted equally, the preferredspending level on public-goods provision of the median voter will win an electionagainst any other alternative.However, majority rule is not necessarily efficient, because it weights each citizen’spreferences equally. For an efficient outcome, we would need a system that measuresand aggregates the willingness to pay of those citizens consuming the public good.Majority rule is not this system. However, as we have seen in previous chapters,majority rule is equitable in the sense that all citizens are treated equally. Thus, weagain find a trade-off between equity and efficiency.1. A number of firms located in the western portion of a town after single-family residences took up the eastern portion. Each firm produces the same product and, in the process, emits noxious fumes that adversely affect the residents of the community.a. Why is there an externality created by the firms?Noxious fumes created by firms enter the utility function of residents. We can assumethat the fumes decrease the utility of the residents (i.e., they are a negative externality)and lower property values.b. Do you think that private bargaining can resolve the problem with the externality?Explain.If the residents anticipated the location of the firms, housing prices should reflect thedisutility of the fumes; the externality would have been internalized by the housingmarket in housing prices. If the noxious fumes were not anticipated, privatebargaining could resolve the problem of the externality only if there are a relativelysmall number of parties (both firms and families) and property rights are well specified.Private bargaining would rely on each family’s willingness to pay for air quality, buttruthful revelation might not be possible. All this will be complicated by theadaptability of the production technology known to the firms and the employmentrelations between the firms and families. It is unlikely that private bargaining willresolve the problem.c. How might the community determine the efficient level of air quality?The community could determine the economically efficient level of air quality byaggregating the families’ willingne ss to pay and equating it with the marginal cost ofpollution reduction. Both steps involve the acquisition of truthful information.2. A computer programmer lobbies against copyrighting software. He argues that everyone should benefit from innovative programs written for personal computers and that exposure to a wide variety of computer programs will inspire young programmers to create even more innovative programs. Considering the marginal social benefits possibly gained by his proposal, do you agree with the programmer’s position?Computer software as information is a classic example of a public good. Since it can becostlessly copied, the marginal cost of providing software to an additional user is nearzero. Therefore, software is nonrival. (The fixed costs of creating software are high, butthe variable costs are low.) Furthermore, it is expensive to exclude consumers fromcopying and using software because copy protection schemes are available only at highcost or high inconvenience to users. Therefore, software is also nonexclusive. As bothnonrival and nonexclusive, computer software suffers the problems of public goodsprovision: the presence of free-riders makes it difficult or impossible for markets toprovide the efficient level of software. Rather than regulating this market directly, thelegal system guarantees property rights to the creators of software. If copyrightprotection were not enforced, it is likely that the software market would collapse.Therefore, we do not agree with the computer programmer.3. Four firms located at different points on a river dump various quantities of effluent into it. The effluent adversely affects the quality of swimming for homeowners who live downstream. These people can build swimming pools to avoid swimming in the river, and firms can purchase filters that eliminate harmful chemicals in the material that is dumped in the river. As a policy advisor for a regional planning organization, how would you compare and contrast the following options for dealing with the harmful effect of the effluent:a. An equal-rate effluent fee on firms located on the river.First, one needs to know the value to homeowners of swimming in the river. Thisinformation can be difficult to obtain, because homeowners will have an incentive tooverstate this value. As an upper boundary, if there are no considerations other thanswimming, one could use the cost of building swimming pools, either a pool for eachhomeowner or a public pool for all homeowners. Next, one needs to know the marginalcost of abatement. If the abatement technology is well understood, this informationshould be readily obtainable. If the abatement technology is not understood, anestimate based on the firms’ knowledge must be used.The choice of a policy tool will depend on the marginal benefits and costs of abatement.If firms are charged an equal-rate effluent fee, the firms will reduce effluents to thepoint where the marginal cost of abatement is equal to the fee. If this reduction is nothigh enough to permit swimming, the fee could be increased. Alternatively, revenuefrom the fees could be to provide swimming facilities, reducing the need for effluentreduction.b. An equal standard per firm on the level of effluent each firm can dump.Standards will be efficient only if the policy maker has complete information regardingthe marginal costs and benefits of abatement. Moreover, the standard will notencourage firms to reduce effluents further when new filtering technologies becomeavailable.c. A transferable effluent permit system, in which the aggregate level of effluent isfixed and all firms receive identical permits.A transferable effluent permit system requires the policy maker to determine theefficient effluent standard. Once the permits are distributed and a market develops,firms with a higher cost of abatement will purchase permits from firms with lowerabatement costs. However, unless permits are sold initially, rather than merelydistributed, no revenue will be generated for the regional organization.4. Recent social trends point to growing intolerance of smoking in public areas. Many people point out the negative effects of “second hand” smoke. If you are a smoker and you wish to continue smoking despite tougher anti smoking laws, describe the effect of the following legislative proposals on your behavior. As a result of these programs, do you, the individual smoker, benefit? Does society benefit as a whole?Since smoking in public areas is similar to polluting the air, the programs proposedhere are similar to those examined for air pollution. A bill to lower tar and nicotinelevels is similar to an emissions standard, and a tax on cigarettes is similar to anemissions fee. Requiring a smoking permit is similar to a system of emissions permits,assuming that the permits would not be transferable. The individual smoker in all ofthese programs is being forced to internalize the externality of “second-hand” smokeand will be worse off. Society will be better off if the benefits of a particular proposaloutweigh the cost of implementing that proposal. Unfortunately, the benefits ofreducing second-hand smoke are uncertain, and assessing those benefits is costly.a. A bill is proposed that would lower tar and nicotine levels in all cigarettes.The smoker will most likely try to maintain a constant level of consumption of nicotine,and will increase his or her consumption of cigarettes. Society may not benefit fromthis plan if the total amount of tar and nicotine released into the air is the same.b. A tax is levied on each pack of cigarettes sold.Smokers might turn to cigars, pipes, or might start rolling their own cigarettes. Theextent of the effect of a tax on cigarette consumption depends on the elasticity ofdemand for cigarettes. Again, it is questionable whether society will benefit.c. Smokers would be required to carry smoking permits at all times. These permitswould be sold by the government.Smoking permits would effectively transfer property rights to clean air from smokers tonon-smokers. The main obstacle to society benefiting from such a proposal would bethe high cost of enforcing a smoking permits system.5. A beekeeper lives adjacent to an apple orchard. The orchard owner benefits from thebees because each hive pollinates about one acre of apple trees. The orchard owner pays nothing for this service, however, because the bees come to the orchard without his having to do anything. There are not enough bees to pollinate the entire orchard, and the orchard owner must complete the pollination by artificial means, at a cost of $10 per acre of trees.Beekeeping has a marginal cost of MC = 10 + 2Q, where Q is the number of beehives.Each hive yields $20 worth of honey.a. How many beehives will the beekeeper maintain?The beekeeper maintains the number of hives that maximizes profits, when marginalrevenue is equal to marginal cost. With a constant marginal revenue of $20 (there is noinformation that would lead us to believe that the beekeeper has any market power)and a marginal cost of 10 + 2Q:20 = 10 + 2Q, or Q = 5.b. Is this the economically efficient number of hives?If there are too few bees to pollinate the orchard, the farmer must pay $10 per acre forartificial pollination. Thus, the farmer would be willing to pay up to $10 to thebeekeeper to maintain each additional hive. So, the marginal social benefit, MSB, ofeach additional hive is $30, which is greater than the marginal private benefit of $20.Assuming that the private marginal cost is equal to the social marginal cost, we setMSB = MC to determine the efficient number of hives:30 = 10 + 2Q, or Q = 10.Therefore, the beekeeper’s private choice of Q = 5 is not the socially efficient number ofhives.c. What changes would lead to the more efficient operation?The most radical change that would lead to more efficient operations would be themerger of the farmer’s business with the beekeeper’s business. This merger wouldinternalize the positive externality of bee pollination. Short of a merger, the farmerand beekeeper should enter into a contract for pollination services.7. Reconsider the common resource problem as given by Example 18.5. Suppose that crawfish popularity continues to increase, and that the demand curve shifts from C = 0.401 - 0.0064F to C = 0.50 - 0.0064F. How does this shift in demand affect the actual crawfish catch, the efficient catch, and the social cost of common access? (Hint: Use the marginal social cost and private cost curves given in the example.)The relevant information is now the following:Demand: C = 0.50 - 0.0064FMSC: C = -5.645 + 0.6509F.With an increase in demand, the demand curve for crawfish shifts upward, intersectingthe price axis at $0.50. The private cost curve has a positive slope, so additional effortmust be made to increase the catch. Since the social cost curve has a positive slope, thesocially efficient catch also increases. We may determine the socially efficient catch bysolving the following two equations simultaneously:0.50 - 0.0064F = -5.645 + 0.6509F, or F* = 9.35.To determine the price that consumers are willing to pay for this quantity, substituteF* into the equation for marginal social cost and solve for C:C = -5.645 + (0.6509)(9.35), or C = $0.44.Next, find the actual level of production by solving these equations simultaneously:Demand: C = 0.50 - 0.0064FMPC: C = -0.357 + 0.0573F0.50 - 0.0064F = -0.357 + 0.0573F, or F** = 13.45.To determine the price that consumers are willing to pay for this quantity, substituteF** into the equation for marginal private cost and solve for C:C = -0.357 + (0.0573)(13.45), or C = $0.41.Notice that the marginal social cost of producing 13.45 units isMSC = -5.645 +(0.6509)(13.45) = $3.11.With the increase in demand, the social cost is the area of a triangle with a base of 4.1million pounds (13.45 - 9.35) and a height of $2.70 ($3.11 - 0.41), or $5,535,000 morethan the social cost of the original demand.8. The Georges Bank, a highly productive fishing area off New England, can be divided into two zones in terms of fish population. Zone 1 has the higher population per square mile but is subject to severe diminishing returns to fishing effort. The daily fish catch (in tons) in Zone 1 isF 1 = 200(X1) - 2(X1) 2where X1is the number of boats fishing there. Zone 2 has fewer fish per mile but is larger, and diminishing returns are less of a problem. Its daily fish catch isF 2 = 100(X2) - (X2) 2where X2is the number of boats fishing in Zone 2. The marginal fish catch MFC in each zone can be represented asMFC1 = 200 - 4(X1) MFC2= 100 - 2(X2).There are 100 boats now licensed by the U.S. government to fish in these two zones. The fish are sold at $100 per ton. The total cost (capital and operating) per boat is constant at $1,000 per day. Answer the following questions about this situation.a. If the boats are allowed to fish where they want, with no government restriction,how many will fish in each zone? What will be the gross value of the catch?Without restrictions, the boats will divide themselves so that the average catch (AF 1and AF 2) for each boat is equal in each zone. (If the average catch in one zone is greaterthan in the other, boats will leave the zone with the lower catch for the zone with thehigher catch.) We solve the following set of equations:AF 1 = AF 2 and X 1 + X 2 = 100 where 11121120022002AF X X X X =-=- and 222222100100AF X X X X =-=-. Therefore, AF 1 = AF 2 implies200 - 2X 1 = 100 - X 2,200 - 2(100 - X 2) = 100 - X 2, or X 21003= and 320031001001=⎪⎭⎫ ⎝⎛-=X . Find the gross catch by substituting the value of X 1 and X 2 into the catch equations:()(),,,,F 444488983331332002320020021=-=⎪⎭⎫ ⎝⎛-⎪⎭⎫ ⎝⎛= and ().,,,F 2222111133333100310010022=-=⎪⎭⎫ ⎝⎛-⎪⎭⎫ ⎝⎛= The total catch is F 1 + F 2 = 6,666. At the price of $100 per ton, the value of the catch is$666,600. The average catch for each of the 100 boats in the fishing fleet is 66.66 tons.To determine the profit per boat, subtract total cost from total revenue:π = (100)(66.66) - 1,000, or π = $5,666.Total profit for the fleet is $566,000.b. If the U.S. government can restrict the boats, how many should be allocated to eachzone? What will the gross value of the catch be? Assume the total number of boats remains at 100.Assume that the government wishes to maximize the net social value of the fish catch,i.e., the difference between the total social benefit and the total social cost. Thegovernment equates the marginal fish catch in both zones, subject to the restrictionthat the number of boats equals 100:MFC 1 = MFC 2 and X 1 + X 2 = 100,MFC 1 = 200 - 4X 1 and MFC 2 = 100 - 2X 2.Setting MFC 1 = MFC 2 implies:200 - 4X 1 = 100 - 2X 2, or 200 - 4(100 - X 2) = 100 - 2X 2, or X 2 = 50 andX 1 = 100 - 50 = 50.Find the gross catch by substituting X 1 and X 2 into the catch equations:F 1 = (200)(50) - (2)(502) = 10,000 - 5,000 = 5,000 andChapter 18: Externalities and Public Goods242 F 2 = (100)(50) - 502 = 5,000 - 2,500 = 2,500.The total catch is equal to F 1 + F 2 = 7,500. At the market price of $100 per ton, thevalue of the catch is $750,000. Total profit is $650,000. Notice that the profits are notevenly divided between boats in the two zones. The average catch in Zone A is 100 tonsper boat, while the average catch in Zone B is 50 tons per boat. Therefore, fishing inZone A yields a higher profit for the individual owner of the boat.c. If additional fishermen want to buy boats and join the fishing fleet, should agovernment wishing to maximize the net value of the fish catch grant them licenses to do so? Why or why not?To answer this question, first determine the profit-maximizing number of boats in eachzone. Profits in Zone A areππA A X X X X X =--=-1002002100019000200112112b g e j,,, or . To determine the change in profit with a change in X 1 take the first derivative of theprofit function with respect to X 1:d dX X A π1119000400=-,. To determine the profit-maximizing level of output, setd dX A π1equal to zero and solve for X 1:19,000 - 400X 1 = 0, or X 1 = 47.5.Substituting X 1 into the profit equation for Zone A gives: ()()()()()()()()250,451$5.47000,15.4725.472001002=--=A π.For Zone B follow a similar procedure. Profits in Zone B areππB B X X X X X =--=-100100100090002002222222b g e j,,, or . Taking the derivative of the profit function with respect to X 2 givesd X B π229000200=-,. Setting d B π2equal to zero to find the profit-maximizing level of output gives 9,000 - 200X 2 = 0, or X 2 = 45.Substituting X 2 into the profit equation for Zone B gives:πB = (100)((100)(45) - 452) - (1,000)(45) = $202,500.Total profit from both zones is $653,750, with 47.5 boats in Zone A and 45 boats in ZoneB. Because each additional boat above 92.5 decreases total profit, the governmentshould not grant any more licenses.。

平狄克《微观经济学》第9版笔记和课后习题详解第18章外部性与公共物品18.1复习笔记【知识框架】【考点难点归纳】考点一：外部性★★★外部性是指一个经济主体的经济活动对他人和社会造成的非市场化影响，这种影响既可以是正向也可以是负向。

当某个经济主体的行为使他人或社会受益，而受益者无须付出任何代价时，称之为正的外部性；当某个经济主体的行为使他人或社会受损，而行为主体却无须为此承担成本时，称之为负的外部性。

由于外部性并不反应在市场价格中，因此可能会导致经济无效率和市场失灵。

1．负的外部性和无效率当存在负的外部性时，边际社会成本（MSC）大于边际私人成本（MC），差额就是边际外部成本（MEC）。

从社会的角度看，由于厂商未能将与负外部性伴随的成本纳入考虑，导致生产过剩。

有效产出水平应当是价格等于生产的边际社会成本。

外部性既导致短期也导致长期的无效率。

厂商通过对比产品价格和生产的平均成本来决定是否进入行业：价格高于成本，厂商就进入；价格低于成本，厂商就退出。

在长期均衡中，价格等于（长期）平均成本。

当存在负的外部性时，平均私人生产成本低于平均社会成本，厂商判断产品价格高于其生产的成本即平均私人成本，选择留在产业内，但对社会而言是无效率的。

2．正的外部性和无效率当存在正的外部性时，边际社会收益（MSB）大于边际私人收益（D），差额就是边际外部收益（MEB），即MSB＝D＋MEB。

有效产出水平处于MSB和MC曲线的相交处。

正的外部性也会导致无效率。

一个正的外部性导致无效率的例子就是厂商在研究与开发上所花费的钱，研究带来的创新常常难以受到保护而被别的厂商得到，研发投资得不到回报就无法再获得资金支持。

考点二：纠正市场失灵的办法★★★污染是外部性导致市场失灵的一般例子，可以通过排污标准、排污费、可转让排污许可证或者通过鼓励再生利用得到纠正。

在成本和收益都存在不确定性时，这些机制的选择，取决于边际社会成本和边际收益曲线的形状。

第4篇信息、市场失灵以及政府的角色第16章一般均衡与经济效率16.1课后复习题详解1．为什么反馈效应能使一般均衡分析与局部均衡分析发生很大的差异？答：（1）局部均衡分析主要研究的是一个市场上供给和需求的相互影响，它忽略了其他市场如替代品、互补品、要素投入市场对单一产品市场的供给和需求的影响。

一般均衡分析则是考虑反馈效应，同时决定所有市场的价格和数量。

反馈效应是指某一个市场的价格和数量调整所导致的相关市场的价格或数量调整。

（2）忽略反馈效应可能导致对单一市场上的变动的预测不准确。

需求在单一市场上的移动可能导致其他相关市场上的需求移动，最终又导致原市场上需求的再次移动。

局部均衡分析停留在初始移动，而一般均衡分析则根据反馈效应继续分析相关市场的需求变动情况，并最终反馈到原市场，对初始的需求曲线发生影响。

由此可知，反馈效应能使得一般均衡分析与局部分析发生很大的差异。

（3）考察录像带租赁和影剧院门票这两个竞争市场。

这两个市场有紧密的联系，现在假定政府对购买每一张电影票征收1美元的税。

这一税收的局部均衡效应就是使对电影的需求曲线向上提高1美元。

因为电影和录像是替代品，一般均衡分析则认为电影税会提高录像的需求，录像市场受到影响后，又通过反馈效应进一步影响电影票价格，结果必然同时决定电影和录像两者的均衡价格和均衡数量，与局部均衡分析的结果存在很大差异。

2．解释埃奇沃思盒形图中的一点是如何同时代表两个消费者所拥有的商品配置的。

答：假定两种产品分别为和，其既定数量为和，两个消费者分别为A和B，如图16－1所示的埃奇沃思盒形图，盒子的水平长度表示整个经济中的第一种产品的消费量，盒子的垂直长度表示第二种产品的数量，表示第一个消费者A的原点，表示第二个消费者B的原点，从水平向右测量消费者A对第一种商品的消费量，垂直向上测量它对第二种商品的消费量；从水平向左测量消费者B对第一种商品的消费量，垂直向下测量消费者B对第二种商品的消费量。

第一章复习题1．市场是通过相互作用决定一种或一系列产品价格的买卖双方的集合，因此可以把市场看作决定价格的场所。

行业是出售相同的或紧密相关的产品的厂商的集合，一个市场可以包括许多行业。

2．评价一个理论有两个步骤：首先，需要检验这个理论假设的合理性；第二，把该理论的预测和事实相比较以此来验证它。

如果一个理论无法被检验的话，它将不会被接受。

因此，它对我们理解现实情况没有任何帮助。

3．实证分析解释“是什么”的问题，而规范分析解释的是“应该是什么”的问题。

对供给的限制将改变市场的均衡。

A中包括两种分析，批评这是一种“失败的政策”——是规范分析，批评其破坏了市场的竞争性——是实证分析。

B向我们说明在燃油的配给制下总社会福利的被损坏——是实证分析。

4．由于两个市场在空间上是分离的，商品在两地间的运输是套利实现的条件。

如果运输成本为零，则可以在Oklahoma购买汽油，到New Jersey出售，赚取差价；如果这个差价无法弥补运输成本则不存在套利机会。

5．商品和服务的数量与价格由供求关系决定。

鸡蛋的实际价格从1970年至1985年的下降，一方面是由于人们健康意识的提高而导致鸡蛋需求的减少，同时也因为生产成本的降低。

在这两种因素下，鸡蛋的价格下降了。

大学教育的实际价格的升高，是由于越来越多的人倾向于获得大学教育而导致需求提高，同时教育的成本也在升高。

在这两方面因素作用下，大学教育费用提高了。

6．日圆相对美圆来说，价值升高，升值前相比，兑换同样数量的日圆需要付出更多的美圆。

由汇率的变化引起购买力的变化，在日本市场出售的美国汽车，由于美圆贬值日圆升值，持有日圆的消费者将较以前支付较底的价格；而在美国市场出售的日本汽车，由于日圆升值美圆贬值，持有美圆的消费者将面对较以前提高的价格。

第二章复习题1.假设供给曲线固定，炎热天气通常会引起需求曲线右移，在当前价格上造成短期需求过剩。

消费者为获得冰激凌，愿意为每一单位冰激凌出价更高。

第18章外部性和公共品18.1本章框架结构图18.2重难点解读一、外部性1．外部性的含义一般来说，当一个消费者的福利或者一家企业的生产可能性直接受到经济中的另一个当事人的行为影响时，就说该经济中存在着外部性（externality）。

外部性的影响会造成私人成本和社会成本之间，或私人收益和社会收益之间的不一致，因此容易造成市场失灵。

对于外部性，要理解以下几点：（1）“直接受到”。

即个人A的福利“直接受到”个人B的行为的影响。

这种影响是直接的，不是通过市场价格机制的中介而施加的。

（2）外部性存在于消费领域，也存在于生产领域。

（3）外部性可分为正的外部性和负的外部性。

2．外部性的分类外部性的影响方向和作用结果具有两面性，可以分为外部经济和外部不经济。

那些能为社会和其他个人带来收益或能使社会和个人降低成本支出的外部影响被称为外部经济，它是对个人或社会有利的外部性；那些能够引起社会和其他个人成本增加或导致收益减少的外部影响被称为外部不经济，它是对个人或社会不利的。

具体来说，外部影响可分为：生产的外部经济、消费的外部经济、生产的外部不经济和消费的外部不经济。

3．负的外部性和无效率由于存在负外部性，边际私人成本MC 会小于边际社会成本MSC ，差额就是边际外部成本MEC 。

从社会角度来看，具有负外部性的厂商生产的产出太多了。

有效产出水平应当是价格等于生产的边际社会成本一一边际生产成本加上边际外部成本。

负外部性使一些低效率的厂商继续保留在行业内，从而导致长期内的过量生产。

图18-1外部成本如图18-1所示，当存在负的外部性时，边际社会成本MSC 大于边际私人成本MC ，差额就是边际外部成本MEC 。

在（a）图中，利润最大化的产量为1q ，价格等于MC 。

有效产出是q *。

在（b）图中，产业的竞争性产出是1Q ，有效产出Q *要比它低，由需求和边际社会成本1MSC 的交点决定。

4．正的外部性和无效率当有正外部性时，一项经济活动所带来的私人边际成本与社会边际成本相等，但边际社会收益MSB大于边际私人收益D，差额就是边际外部收益MEB。

第十八章外部性和公共产品1．在居民住宅占据了城镇的东部之后，几家工厂设立在西部。

每家厂商生产相同的产品，并且在生产中排放有害气体，对社区的居民产生不利的影响。

（1）为什么厂商生产会产生外部性？工厂产生的有害气体会影响居民的效用函数，而且居民不能控制气体的量。

我们可以认为有害气体会减少居民的效用（即负的外部性），降低房地产的价值。

（2）你认为私下讨价还价会解决这一外部性问题吗？请解释。

如果居民预计到工厂的设立，那么房屋价格会反映出有害气体造成的效用低下；通过房屋市场的价格调节使外部性内部化。

如果预计到有害气体，只有当存在数量较少的团体（企业或家庭）且产权界定清晰时，私下的讨价还价才能解决外部性的问题。

私下的讨价还价取决于每个家庭为空气质量支付的意愿，但是真实的信息披露几乎不可能。

工厂已有的生产技术的转化以及工厂和家庭之间的雇佣关系都会使这个问题更加复杂。

私下的讨价还价不大可能解决这个问题。

（3）社区可能会怎样决定空气质量的有效水平?社区可以通过把家庭的支付意愿相加并使其等于减少污染的边际成本来求出空气质量的经济效率水平。

这两步都要求获得真实的信息。

2．一个电脑编程人员游说反对对软件进行版权保护。

他的论点是，每个人都应当从为个人电脑编写的创新程序中获益，，与各种各样电脑程序的接触甚至会鼓舞年轻的编程人员编出更多的创新程序。

考虑到由于它的建议而可能得到的边际社会收益，你同意该编程人员的主张吗？信息中给出的计算机软件是一个经典的公共产品的例子。

因为它可以无成本的复制，所以向一个额外的消费者提供软件的边际成本几乎为零。

所以软件是非竞争性的。

（编写软件的固定成本很高，但可变成本却很低。

）另外，防止消费者复制和使用软件的代价很高，因为只有付出很高的成本或给消费者带来很大不便才能保护版权。

所以，软件也是非排他性的。

由于具有非竞争性和非排他性，计算机软件面临着公共产品：免费搭车者的存在使得市场很难或不可能提供有效率的软件水平。

平狄克《微观经济学》（第7版）第18章外部性与公共品课后复习题详解跨考网独家整理最全经济学考研真题，经济学考研课后习题解析资料库，您可以在这里查阅历年经济学考研真题，经济学考研课后习题，经济学考研参考书等内容，更有跨考考研历年辅导的经济学学哥学姐的经济学考研经验，从前辈中获得的经验对初学者来说是宝贵的财富，这或许能帮你少走弯路，躲开一些陷阱。

以下内容为跨考网独家整理，如您还需更多考研资料，可选择经济学一对一在线咨询进行咨询。

1．下列哪个描述了外部性，哪个没有？解释它们的区别。

（1）巴西限制咖啡出口的政策导致美国咖啡的价格上升，它反过来又导致茶叶的价格上升。

（2）一则广告传单使一个驾驶汽车的人分心，结果使他撞上一根电线杆。

答：（1）巴西限制咖啡出口的政策没有外部性。

巴西限制咖啡出口的政策导致美国咖啡的价格上升，是因为美国所面临的咖啡的供给减少了。

因为咖啡的价格提高，所以消费者转向咖啡的替代品茶，从而使得茶的需求增加，因此导致茶叶价格的上升。

这是市场的作用，而不是外部性。

（2）广告传单有外部性。

广告传单通过宣传某些产品或服务而传达信息。

但是，它传达这些信息的方式可能会使驾驶汽车的人分心，对那些在电线杆附近的驾驶者就可能会造成事故。

因为广告公司索取的广告费中并不包含使驾驶者分心的外部性的成本，传单对驾驶者产生了危害他们安全的负的外部性。

两者的区别在于：巴西的这项政策对美国产生的影响并没有造成其私人成本和社会成本之间，或其私人收益和社会收益之间的不一致，所以没有外部性；而广告传单对它所处的经济环境产生负面影响，所以具有外部性。

2．在减污的成本和收益不确定时，比较和对照下列三种对付污染外部性的机制：（a）排污费；（b）排污标准；（c）可转让排污许可证制度。

答：（1）三种机制的含义排污费是对厂商每单位污染物的收费。

征收一定的排污费将产生有效率的行为。

排污标准是对厂商可以排放多少污染物的法定限制。

如果厂商超过限制，它就会面临经济惩罚甚至刑事惩罚。

第18章外部性和公共物品一、选择题1．某一经济活动存在外部不经济是指该活动的（）。

A．私人成本大于社会成本B．私人成本小于社会成本C．私人收益大于社会收益D．私人收益小于社会收益【答案】B【解析】外部不经济是从私人成本与社会成本的角度来衡量的，相应的，外部经济则是从私人收益与社会收益的角度来衡量的。

2．汽车排放废气导致的对健康的影响属于下述情况中的（）。

A．私人成本B．外部成本C．内部成本D．不属于上述任何一种情况【答案】B【解析】外部性是指某个经济活动的参与者对他的周围经济环境的影响。

外部性会造成私人成本和社会成本、私人收益和社会收益之间的差异。

具体而言，当其活动造成的私人成本小于社会成本时，称为外部不经济；当其经济活动造成的私人收益小于社会收益时，称为外部经济。

汽车排放尾气属于对他人和社会造成了不利影响的外部不经济。

3．从社会角度来看，效率要求（）之间相等。

A．社会边际收益和社会边际成本B．社会边际收益和私人边际收益C．社会边际成本和私人边际收益D．社会边际成本和私人边际成本【答案】A【解析】当社会边际收益和社会边际成本相等时，社会实现了帕累托最优状态。

4．如果一种产品的社会边际收益大于私人边际收益，（）。

A．价格低于有效率的价格B．社会应减少产品的生产C．私人有效率的结果也是社会有效率的D．社会应增加产品的生产【答案】D【解析】当社会边际收益大于私人边际收益时，存在外部经济，私人活动的水平常常低于社会所要求的最优水平。

为达到帕累托最优状态，社会应当增加产品生产。

5．被称作外部经济效果的市场失灵发生在（）。

A．当市场价格不能反映一项交易的所有成本和收益时B．当竞争建立在自身利益最大化的前提上时C．当厂商追求利润最大化目标时D．当市场不能完全出清时【答案】A【解析】外部性是指某个经济活动的参与者对他的周围经济环境的影响，外部性出现的主要原因是私人成本与社会成本、私人收益与社会收益的不一致。

因此当市场价格不能反映一项交易的所有成本和收益时，容易出现外部性。

第18章外部性和公共物品一、名词解释1．非竞争性产品（nonrival good）（厦门大学2012研）答：非竞争性产品是指该产品被提供出来以后，增加一个消费者不会减少任何一个人对该产品的消费数量和质量，其他人消费该产品的额外成本为零。

换句话说，向一个额外消费者提供商品的边际成本为零。

非竞争性包含四层含义：（1）同一单位的公共产品可以被许多人消费，它对某一个人的供给并不减少对其他人的供给。

（2）某人享用该公共产品得到收益并不减少其他人享用该产品所得到的收益，也就是说根本不会带来“拥挤成本”。

（3）公共产品一旦被提供，消费者的增多并不导致该公共产品生产成本的增加，也就是说，生产方面无需追加资源的投入来增加供给。

（4）不可或没有能力竞争。

2．外部性（华中科技大学2017研；中南财经政法大学2017、2016研；中央财经大学2016研；厦门大学2011研）答：外部性也称为外溢性、相邻效应，指一个经济活动的主体对他所处的经济环境的影响。

外部性的影响会造成私人成本和社会成本之间，或私人收益和社会收益之间的不一致，这种成本和收益差别虽然会相互影响，却没有得到相应的补偿，因此容易造成市场失灵。

外部性的影响方向和作用结果具有两面性，可以分为外部经济和外部不经济。

那些能为社会和其他个人带来收益或能使社会和个人降低成本支出的外部性称为外部经济，它是对个人或社会有利的外部性；那些能够引起社会和其他个人成本增加或导致收益减少的外部性称为外部不经济，它是对个人或社会不利的。

福利经济学认为，除非社会上的外部经济效果与外部不经济效果正好相互抵消，否则外部性的存在使得帕累托最优状态不可能达到，从而也不能达到个人和社会的最大福利。

外部性理论可以为经济政策提供某些建议，它为政府对经济的干预提供了一种强有力的依据，政府可以根据外部性的影响方向与影响程度的不同制定相应的经济政策，并利用相应的经济手段，以消除外部性对成本和收益差别的影响，实现资源的最优配置和收入分配的公平合理。

第2章供给和需求的基本原理一、单项选择题1．若需求曲线为直角双曲线，则商品价格的上升将引起消费者在该商品上的总花费（）。

A．增加B．下降C．不变D．以上均有可能【答案】C【解析】因为直角双曲线上点弹性处处相等且等于1，即处处为单位弹性。

单位弹性的商品降价或提高价格对厂商的销售收入都没有影响，因此消费者在该商品上的总花费不变。

2．下列说法中正确的是（）。

A．收入弹性取决于商品本身的属性B．不同商品在一定收入范围内具有相同的收入弹性C．同一商品在不同的收入范围内具有相同的收入弹性D．同一商品在不同的收入范围内具有不同的收入弹性【答案】D【解析】收入弹性取决于商品本身的属性和消费者的收入水平。

例如，对同一个消费者而言，任一收入水平下，都会有必需品和奢侈品，其收入弹性自然不同；同时，对同一个消费者而言，收入水平极低时，水果是奢侈品，收入弹性，但收入水平提高后，也许就成了必需品了，收入弹性。

因此，商品不同、收入水平不同，都会有不同的收入弹性。

3．需求价格弹性等于（ ）。

A ．需求曲线上两点间价格的变动量除以需求的变动量B ．需求曲线上需求的变动量除以价格的变动量C ．需求曲线上价格的变动比除以需求的变动比D ．需求曲线上需求的变动比除以价格的变动比【答案】D【解析】需求价格弹性表示商品需求量对自身价格变动的反应程度，即：。

4．商品是正常品，则当其价格下降时（ ）。

A ．商品的需求量会下降B ．商品的需求会下降C ．商品的需求量会上升D ．商品的需求会上升【答案】C【解析】需求变动是指价格之外的变量变化对消费者决策的影响，它与整个需求曲线的移动是对应的；需求量的变动则是价格变化对消费者均衡购买量的影响，它对应于一条需求曲线上点的移动。

因此当商品价格下降时，其需求量会上升。

1I E >1I E <//P Q Q E P P∆=∆x x x x x x5．如果某商品的价格下降5%后，消费者对此商品的货币支出增加了2%，则需求曲线在这一区域内的需求弹性为（ ）。

第18章外部性和公共物品一、选择题1．某一经济活动存在外部不经济是指该活动的（）。

A．私人成本大于社会成本B．私人成本小于社会成本C．私人收益大于社会收益D．私人收益小于社会收益【答案】B【解析】外部不经济是从私人成本与社会成本的角度来衡量的，相应的，外部经济则是从私人收益与社会收益的角度来衡量的。

2．汽车排放废气导致的对健康的影响属于下述情况中的（）。

A．私人成本B．外部成本C．内部成本D．不属于上述任何一种情况【答案】B【解析】外部性是指某个经济活动的参与者对他的周围经济环境的影响。

外部性会造成私人成本和社会成本、私人收益和社会收益之间的差异。

具体而言，当其活动造成的私人成本小于社会成本时，称为外部不经济；当其经济活动造成的私人收益小于社会收益时，称为外部经济。

汽车排放尾气属于对他人和社会造成了不利影响的外部不经济。

3．从社会角度来看，效率要求（）之间相等。

A．社会边际收益和社会边际成本B．社会边际收益和私人边际收益C．社会边际成本和私人边际收益D．社会边际成本和私人边际成本【答案】A【解析】当社会边际收益和社会边际成本相等时，社会实现了帕累托最优状态。

4．如果一种产品的社会边际收益大于私人边际收益，（）。

A．价格低于有效率的价格B．社会应减少产品的生产C．私人有效率的结果也是社会有效率的D．社会应增加产品的生产【答案】D【解析】当社会边际收益大于私人边际收益时，存在外部经济，私人活动的水平常常低于社会所要求的最优水平。

为达到帕累托最优状态，社会应当增加产品生产。

5．被称作外部经济效果的市场失灵发生在（）。

A．当市场价格不能反映一项交易的所有成本和收益时B．当竞争建立在自身利益最大化的前提上时C．当厂商追求利润最大化目标时D．当市场不能完全出清时【答案】A【解析】外部性是指某个经济活动的参与者对他的周围经济环境的影响，外部性出现的主要原因是私人成本与社会成本、私人收益与社会收益的不一致。

因此当市场价格不能反映一项交易的所有成本和收益时，容易出现外部性。

平狄克《微观经济学》（第7版）第18章外部性与公共品课后复习题详解跨考网独家整理最全经济学考研真题，经济学考研课后习题解析资料库，您可以在这里查阅历年经济学考研真题，经济学考研课后习题，经济学考研参考书等内容，更有跨考考研历年辅导的经济学学哥学姐的经济学考研经验，从前辈中获得的经验对初学者来说是宝贵的财富，这或许能帮你少走弯路，躲开一些陷阱。

以下内容为跨考网独家整理，如您还需更多考研资料，可选择经济学一对一在线咨询进行咨询。

1．下列哪个描述了外部性，哪个没有？解释它们的区别。

（1）巴西限制咖啡出口的政策导致美国咖啡的价格上升，它反过来又导致茶叶的价格上升。

（2）一则广告传单使一个驾驶汽车的人分心，结果使他撞上一根电线杆。

答：（1）巴西限制咖啡出口的政策没有外部性。

巴西限制咖啡出口的政策导致美国咖啡的价格上升，是因为美国所面临的咖啡的供给减少了。

因为咖啡的价格提高，所以消费者转向咖啡的替代品茶，从而使得茶的需求增加，因此导致茶叶价格的上升。

这是市场的作用，而不是外部性。

（2）广告传单有外部性。

广告传单通过宣传某些产品或服务而传达信息。

但是，它传达这些信息的方式可能会使驾驶汽车的人分心，对那些在电线杆附近的驾驶者就可能会造成事故。

因为广告公司索取的广告费中并不包含使驾驶者分心的外部性的成本，传单对驾驶者产生了危害他们安全的负的外部性。

两者的区别在于：巴西的这项政策对美国产生的影响并没有造成其私人成本和社会成本之间，或其私人收益和社会收益之间的不一致，所以没有外部性；而广告传单对它所处的经济环境产生负面影响，所以具有外部性。

2．在减污的成本和收益不确定时，比较和对照下列三种对付污染外部性的机制：（a）排污费；（b）排污标准；（c）可转让排污许可证制度。

答：（1）三种机制的含义排污费是对厂商每单位污染物的收费。

征收一定的排污费将产生有效率的行为。

排污标准是对厂商可以排放多少污染物的法定限制。

如果厂商超过限制，它就会面临经济惩罚甚至刑事惩罚。

平狄克《微观经济学》（第7版）笔记和课后习题详解第16章一般均衡与经济效率16.1复习笔记1．一般均衡分析局部均衡是指在假设其他市场不变的情况下，某一特定产品或要素市场的市场均衡。

一般均衡指在一个经济体系中，所有市场的供给和需求同时达到均衡的状态。

一般均衡分析从微观经济主体行为的角度出发，考察每一种产品和每一个要素的供给和需求同时达到均衡状态所需具备的条件和相应的均衡价格以及均衡供销量应有的量值。

（1）两个相互依赖的市场——向一般均衡移动录像带租赁和影剧院门票这两个竞争性市场存在紧密的联系，因为录像机的普遍拥有使大多数顾客可以选择在家而不是去影剧院看电影。

影响某一市场的价格政策变动也会影响另一个市场，而该市场的变化又会对第一个市场产生反馈效应。

可以用一般均衡分析来进一步考察：①电影税对录像市场的影响；②录像市场对电影市场是否有反馈效应。

（2）一般均衡的实现经济社会是由相互联系的各个局部组成的体系，当消费者偏好、要素供给和生产函数为已知时，就能从数学上论证所有商品市场和要素市场可以同时达到均衡状态，即整个经济可以处于一般均衡状态。

在这种状态下，所有商品和要素的价格和数量都有确定的量值，均衡条件是消费者的效用最大化和生产者的利润最大化，所有市场的供需总量相等。

2．交换的效率一个不受管制的竞争性市场是有效率的，因为它使消费者和生产者的剩余达到最大。

（1）贸易的好处：商品在两个消费者之间分配的原则只有当商品的分配使任何一对商品的边际替代率对所有消费者都相同时，这些商品的配置才是有效率的。

（2）埃奇沃思盒形图埃奇沃思盒形图是20世纪初的英国经济学家埃奇沃思最先创造的一种分析方法。

这种“盒形图”在于表示两种经济活动的交互作用，其中假设，在这种活动中所消费的产品或所投入的生产要素在数量上是固定的，这个假设是这种分析工具的一个很大的限制条件。

埃奇沃思盒形图用以分析交换过程和消费活动的情况。

其主要特点是，这种长方形“盒形图”的长度和宽度代表消费者双方共有的两种商品的总量，而在“方盒”内的每一点则代表这两种商品的总供给量在这两个消费者之间的分配。

目　录第1篇　导论：市场和价格第1章　绪　论第2章　供给和需求的基本原理第2篇　生产者、消费者与竞争性市场第3章　消费者行为第4章　个人需求和市场需求第5章　不确定性与消费者行为第6章　生　产第7章　生产成本第8章　利润最大化与竞争性供给第9章　竞争性市场分析第3篇　市场结构与竞争策略第10章　市场势力：垄断和买方垄断第11章　有市场势力的定价第12章　垄断竞争和寡头垄断第13章　博弈论与竞争策略第14章　投入要素市场第15章　投资、时间与资本市场第4篇　信息、市场失灵与政府的角色第16章　一般均衡与经济效率第17章　信息不对称的市场第18章　外部性和公共物品附　录　指定平狄克《微观经济学》教材为考研参考书目的院校列表第1篇　导论：市场和价格第1章　绪　论一、单项选择题1．经济学可以被定义为（ ）。

A ．政府对市场制度的干预B ．企业赚取利润的活动C ．研究稀缺资源如何有效配置的问题D ．个人的生财之道2．经济物品是指（ ）。

A ．有用的东西B ．稀缺的物品C ．要用钱购买的物品D ．有用且稀缺的物品C【答案】经济学是研究人们和社会如何做出选择，来使用可以有其他用途的稀缺的经济资源在现在或是将来生产各种物品，并把物品分配给社会的各个成员或集团以供消费之用的一门社会科学。

【解析】D【答案】现实世界中绝大多数的物品都是不能自由取得的，因为资【解析】3．一个经济体必须作出的基本选择是（ ）。

A ．生产什么B ．生产多少，何时生产C ．为谁生产D ．以上都是4．宏观经济学与微观经济学的关系是（ ）。

A ．相互独立的B ．两者建立在共同的理论基础上C ．两者既有联系又有矛盾D ．毫无联系源是稀缺的，要获得这些有限的物品就必须付出代价，这种物品就被称为“经济物品”。

D【答案】经济学所要解决的问题包括：①生产什么；②如何生产；③为谁生产；④何时生产。

【解析】C【答案】宏观经济学所研究的总量经济特征正是由经济体系中无数微观主体（家庭和厂商）的经济行为所决定的，因而微观经济主体的决策行为就构成了宏观经济分析的基础，宏观经济学需要构建自己的微观基础。

平狄克《微观经济学》（第7版）【教材精讲＋考研真题解析】讲义与视频课程【32小时高清视频】目录第一部分开篇导读[0.5小时高清视频讲解]第二部分辅导讲义[27小时高清视频讲解]第1章绪论第2章供给和需求的基本原理2.1 本章框架结构图2.2 重难点解读第3章消费者行为3.1 本章框架结构图3.2 重难点解读第4章个人需求和社会需求4.1 本章框架结构图4.2 重难点解读第5章不确定性与消费者行为5.1 本章框架结构图5.2 重难点解读第6章生产6.1 本章框架结构图6.2 重难点解读第7章成产成本7.1 本章框架结构图7.2 重难点解读第8章利润最大化和竞争性供给8.1 本章框架结构图8.2 重难点解读第9章竞争性市场分析9.1 本章框架结构图9.2 重难点解读第10章市场势力：垄断与买方垄断10.1 本章框架结构图10.2 重难点解读第11章有市场势力的定价11.1 本章框架结构图11.2 重难点解读第12章垄断竞争和寡头竞争12.1 本章框架结构图12.2 重难点解读第13章博弈论和竞争策略13.1 本章框架结构图13.2 重难点解读第14章投入要素市场14.1 本章框架结构图14.2 重难点解读第15章投资、时间及资本市场15.1 本章框架结构图15.2 重难点解读第16章一般均衡与经济效率16.1 本章框架结构图16.2 重难点解读第17章信息不对称市场17.1 本章框架结构图17.2 重难点解读第18章外部性和公共品18.1 本章框架结构图18.2 重难点解读第三部分名校考研真题名师精讲及点评[4.5小时高清视频讲解]一、名词解释二、简答题三、计算题四、论述题内容简介本书特别适用于参加研究生入学考试指定考研参考书目为平狄克《微观经济学》的考生，也可供各大院校学习平狄克《微观经济学》的师生参考。

平狄克所著的《微观经济学》（中国人民大学出版社）被列为“十一五”国家重点图书出版规划项目，是我国众多高校采用的经济学优秀教材，也被众多高校（包括科研机构）指定为“经济类”专业考研参考书目。

第1章绪论1.1 复习笔记1．微观经济学的主题（1）微观经济学的研究对象微观经济学研究的是单个经济个体（如消费者、工人、投资者、资源所有者和厂商）的行为，也研究构成市场与行业的消费者和厂商的相互影响。

微观经济学的核心内容是论证亚当·斯密的“看不见的手”原理。

（2）经济模型经济模型是现代经济理论的一种主要分析方法，也称为经济数学模型，指用数学形式所表述的经济过程或经济理论结构。

现实世界的情况是由各种主要变量和次要变量构成的，因而非常复杂，只有把次要因素排除在外，才能对经济运行进行严格的分析。

运用经济模型，事先做出某些假设，可以排除掉许多次要因素，从而建立起一定的模型，然后通过运用这一模型，可以对错综复杂的现实世界作出简单的描述。

（3）经济理论的局限性在经济学中，理论的有用性和合理性取决于它是否对其试图解释和预测的一系列现象成功地做出了解释和预测。

比如说，厂商并不总是追求其利润的最大化的，因此，厂商理论只在解释厂商某些行为（如资本投资决策的时机）时才获得了有限的成功。

尽管如此，这一理论确实解释了有关厂商和行业的行为、成长和演变方面的大量现象，所以它已经成为决策者手中一个重要的工具。

2．实证分析和规范分析（1）微观经济学的分析方法微观经济学既研究实证问题，也研究规范问题。

实证问题主要涉及解释和预测，规范问题则研究应该如何。

实证分析和规范分析都是重要的经济学分析方法。

（2）实证分析和规范分析的含义实证分析是进行经济分析的一种重要方法，特点是它对有关命题的逻辑分析，旨在理解经济过程实际是什么、将会是什么、为什么，而不涉及对结果好坏和是否公平的评价，其中不包含任何价值判断。

实证分析既有定性分析，也有定量分析。

规范分析也是经济学分析经济问题的一种方法，它以一定的价值判断作为出发点，提出行为的标准，并研究如何才能符合这些标准。

它力求说明“应该是什么”的问题，或者说，它回答这样的问题：为什么要做出这种选择，而不做出另一种选择？（3）实证分析和规范分析的关系实证分析和规范分析既有联系又有区别。

目　录第1篇　导论：市场和价格第1章　绪　论1.1　课后复习题详解1.2　课后练习题详解第2章　供给和需求的基本原理2.1　课后复习题详解2.2　课后练习题详解第2篇　生产者、消费者以及竞争性市场第3章　消费者行为3.1　课后复习题详解3.2　课后练习题详解第4章　个人需求和市场需求4.1　课后复习题详解4.2　课后练习题详解第4章附录　需求理论——一种数学的处理方法课后练习题详解第5章　不确定性与消费者行为5.1　课后复习题详解5.2　课后练习题详解第6章　生　产6.1　课后复习题详解6.2　课后练习题详解第7章　生产成本7.1　课后复习题详解7.2　课后练习题详解第7章附录　生产与成本理论——一种数学的处理方法课后练习题详解第8章　利润最大化和竞争性供给8.1　课后复习题详解8.2　课后练习题详解第9章　竞争性市场分析9.1　课后复习题详解9.2　课后练习题详解第3篇　市场结构和竞争策略第10章　市场势力：垄断与买方垄断10.1　课后复习题详解10.2　课后练习题详解第11章　有市场势力的定价11.1　课后复习题详解11.2　课后练习题详解第11章附录　联合厂商的内部转移定价课后练习题详解第12章　垄断竞争和寡头垄断12.1　课后复习题详解12.2　课后练习题详解第13章　博弈论和竞争策略13.1　课后复习题详解13.2　课后练习题详解第14章　投入要素市场14.1　课后复习题详解14.2　课后练习题详解第15章　投资、时间及资本市场15.1　课后复习题详解15.2　课后练习题详解第4篇　信息、市场失灵以及政府的角色第16章　一般均衡与经济效率16.1　课后复习题详解16.2　课后练习题详解第17章　信息不对称市场17.1　课后复习题详解17.2　课后练习题详解第18章　外部性与公共品18.1　课后复习题详解18.2　课后练习题详解附录：指定平狄克《微观经济学》教材为考研参考书目的院校列表第1篇　导论：市场和价格第1章　绪　论1.1　课后复习题详解1．人们常说，一个好的理论是可以用经验研究和实证研究来加以证伪的。