过程装备与控制工程专业英语翻译1

17th World Conference on Nondestructive Testing, 25-28 Oct 2008, Shanghai, ChinaA new fully digital system for RT inspection of metal tube to tube sheet jointsof heat exchangersUwe ZSCHERPEL 1, Oleksandr ALEKSEYCHUK 1, Peter ROST 2, Markus SCHMID 2, Konstantinos SPARTIOTIS 3, Alexander WARRIKHOFF 41 Division “NDT – Radiology”, BAM Berlin, GermanyPhone: +49 30 8104 3677, Fax: +49 30 8104 4657; e-mail: uwez@bam.de,oleksandr.alekseychuk@bam.de2 BASF SE; Ludwigshafen, Germany; e-mail: peter.rost@, markus.schmid@3 AJAT Oy, Espoo, Finland; e-mail: kostas@ajat.fi4 rtw RÖNTGEN-TECHNIK DR. WARRIKHOFF GmbH, Neuenhagen, Germany; email:sales@rtwxray.deAbstractA completely novel device was developed for RT inspection of weldments for tube to tube sheet joints on heat exchangers applied in chemical industry. It replaces the Gammamat B3 unit containing an Ir 192 isotope as radiation source and a punched NDT film (system class C3 acc. to EN 584) as detector to allow the one-sided access for inspection.In a first step a special X-ray tube with a rod anode was developed by rtw Röntgentechnik to replace the Ir 192 isotope source to achieve a better inspection sensitivity at 130 kV for thin walled tubes and tube sheets.A new specialized, direct converting detector based on CdTe was designed by Ajat Oy, Finland. Together with the X-ray source a handsome unit was designed with 4 detector tiles arranged around the rod anode, which passes though the detector plane.The handling of this novel inspection unit as well as the computer based image acquisition reduces the expense for this RT inspection considerably. All problems with film chemistry and isotope transportation are avoided. The computer based evaluation of the digital radiographs and the direct connection to the inspection data base of the complete heat exchanger create significant advantages for inspection planning and documentation. First experiences are reported on application of this new technique in the field.Key words: Radiographic inspection, digital detector arrays, one-sided access, tube to tube sheet joints, heat exchangers, chemical industry1.Conventional Inspection TechniqueSince decades state of the art is radiographic testing based on Gammamat B3 containing an Ir 192 isotope as radiation source and NDT film (typically system class C3 acc. to EN 584-1) as detector (see fig. 1). For this application packed films have to be punched light tight to pass the radio isotope source through the imaging plane caused by the one-sided accessibility of the tube sheet. Special wall thickness compensators are used to account for wall thickness changes in penetrating direction across the inspected weld regions. The sensitivity of this testing method is limited by the properties of the radiation source (energy and source size). Also the world wide shipment of radio isotopes gets more and more complicated.Fig.1: Gammamat B3 isotope source with film holder (left side) at inspection position and set-up for inspection of a small heat exchanger in the field (right side)The design, production and inspection of tube-to-tube sheet welds are regulated in the BASF specification E-S-MC 331. For high risk heat exchangers additional inspections by the owner of the heat exchanger (BASF) are required and realize the surveillance of the manufacturing during heat exchanger built-up. The specification requires random tests depending on the mechanical and thermal load of the heat exchanger (in percentage of welds to be tested and acceptance criteria for detected indications) on behalf of the future owner BASF. Depending on the results of the first random test a second random test after repair or a 100% test charged to the manufacturer may be necessary to reach the required weld quality.Typical source size is 1x0.5mm² Ir-192 isotope and 10x12 cm² punched C3 films are used with 0.02 mm Lead screens. The range of inspected tubes is from 16mm x 1.5mm up to 76mm x 4mm (diameter x wall thickness), pore sizes down to 1mm can be detected with this configuration.Fig.2: film exposure (left above) and corresponding cross sections by destructive testing (right side) showing typical flaws like porosities and notches2.The new rod anode X-ray tube /1/A new X-ray tube was developed by rtw Röntgentechnik Dr. Warrikhoff to achieve a better inspection sensitivity and to solve issues with world wide transport of radio isotopes. In Fig. 3this tube is shown. The main reason for this development was the limited detectability with Ir 192. Caused by the energy of the gamma rays the minimal detectable pore size is about 0.8mm in steel. For new materials like Ti enhanced flaw detection was requested.Fig. 3:Rod anode X-ray tube MCTS 130 - 0.6 (left side) and complete inspection setup with controller, right side: HV generator and X-ray tube with film holder (red) at a heat exchanger ready for single-sided inspectionThe rod has an outer diameter of 6 mm and a length of 40 mm, the focal spot is smaller than 1mm at 130kV and 2.4mA (max. 300 W). This new tube was successfully applied in combination with X-ray film and the enhanced detectability for new materials like Ti was proven, so the next step to replace the film was straight forward to omit the necessary chemical development procedure on-site.3.The digital detector array DIC100TH /2/Ajat developed the detector DIC100TH, which is a first of its kind, breakthrough digital imaging device for tube to tube-sheet weld inspection.The detector comprises four 25 mm x 25 mm CdTe-CMOS high resolution elements (100µm pixel size) operating at 50fps and arranged to allow a rod anode tube to pass through the mid-section of the device. The X-Rays are produced at the tip of the rod anode and emit in a direction towards the CdTe-CMOS detector (see fig. 4).The rod-anode tube is fed through the CdTe-CMOS active detector and the two are bound together in a robust mechanical arrangement which can be inserted in the heat exchanger for the tube to tube-sheet weld to be inspected (fig. 5).This image sensor provides for real time and on line tube to tube sheet weld inspection with excellent sensitivity, reliability and speed. The unit addresses requests to replace the traditional film based systems that today are used typically in this field with a real time digital inspection system.The basic spatial resolution and detector calibration limits the maximum contrast sensitivity of the detector. The basic spatial resolution is 100 µm for this direct converting detector and defined by the pixel size. To achieve the best detection sensitivity possible a special calibration procedure was developed. Caused by the strong dependence of X-ray intensity on the radial distance form the rod centre the rod anode X-ray tube cannot be used for pixel calibration of the detector. Also the temperature dependence of the detector calibration is not neglectable. As result of the developed calibration procedure (using a standard X-ray tube at 90kV, 1m distance and a 5 mm steel plate at the detector to generate a suitable flat field for detector calibration) calibrationsets are stored in dependence of the detector temperature in the range between 10°C and 32°C and selected automatically according to the real detector temperature in the field. In this manner the optimal detector calibration is maintained in the field.Fig. 4:The digital detector array DIC 100TH, left side: detector electronics showing the arrangement of the 4 detector tiles around the rod anode X-ray tube, right side: detector-X-ray unit ready for single-sided inspectionFig. 5: The fully digital inspection system with its two main parts (left side) and installed at a heat exchanger ready for inspection4.Software, complete inspection system and first resultsIn fig. 6 a snapshot of the developed user interface of the software is shown. A Laptop equipped with a Cameralink interface for detector connection and an RS-422 interface for control of the X-ray generator is used for image storage, evaluation and report generation. The complete system (X-ray tube and detector) is software controlled and complete configuration set-ups can be stored and re-activated for easiest handling. A list with inspection results is transferred directly to the data base “virtual tube” for documentation of the inspection. Digital filters can be applied for enhancement of flaw detection on the display.Fig. 6:snapshot of the developed software for system control, left side: image display and interactive selection of inspection result, middle: control program for X-ray tube set-up, integration time and description of inspection position, right side: visualization of inspection result summery for the whole heat exchanger (based on the data base virtual tube)A comparison of the achieved detection limits for the novel inspection systems is shown in fig. 7 based on a test mock-up with 25mm diameter pipes and 2mm steel wall thickness.Fig. 7: Comparison of inspection results on a steel test mock-up 25x2mm, left side: conventional system with Ir 192 and film, detection limit 0.8mm drill hole, middle: rod anode and film, detection limit 0.5mm drill hole, right side: rod anode and DIC100TH detector, detection limit better than 0.3mm drill hole.In fig. 8 an example of a real inspection result for a 25mm steel pipe with 2mm wall thickness is given. The visibility of the flaw indications can be improved by digital image processing of the images acquired from the detector.Fig. 8: comparison of inspection results of a real weldment on a heat exchanger 25mm/2mm at 80kV, 0.5mA and 30s exposure, left side: rod-anode and X-ray film, right side: DIC100TH detector and highpass filtering of digital imageField trials are on-going to gain experience with this novel inspection system and to prove the advantages and the extended application range in comparison with the classical set-up.5.ConclusionsAn improved inspection system for RT inspection of metal tube to tube sheet joints of heat exchangers was developed based on a unit combining a rod anode X-ray tube and a new digital detector array arranged in tiles around this rod anode. In this way the single-sided access for weld inspection was realized. The following advantages of this novel fully digital unit were proven: •no radioactive container transport and usage of film chemistry on-site at the heat exchanger production site•improved flaw detection•shorter inspection times•immediate inspection result•software supported evaluation of images•data base supported documentation of inspection results•reduced requirements for radiation protection, considerable smaller controlled area with75 kV X-ray voltage compared with Ir-192 requirements as used beforeThe experiences gained with the presented prototype system will result in optimised follow-up inspection systems.6.References/1/ www.rtwxray.de/2/ www.ajat.fi。

普通高等学校本科专业目录和专业介绍(摘录)长江大学工程技术学院教学事务部2009年5月05 学科门类:文学0502 外国语言文学类学科:文学门类:外国语言文学类专业名称:英语专业代码:050201业务培养目标:本专业培养具有扎实的英语语言基础和比较广泛的科学文化知识，能在外事、经贸、文化、新闻出版、教育、科研、旅游等部门从事翻译、研究、教学、管理工作的英语高级专门人才。

业务培养要求:本专业学生主要学习英语语言、文学、历史、政治、经济、外交、社会文化等方面基本理论和基本知识，受到英语听、说、读、写、译等方面的良好的技巧训练，掌握-定的科研方法，具有从事翻译、研究、教学、管理工作的业务水平及较好的素质和较强能力。

毕业生应获得以下几方面的知识和能力:1(了解我国有关的方针、政策、法规;2(掌握语言学、文学及相关人文和科技方面的基础知识;3(具有扎实的英语语言基础和较熟练的听、说、读、写、译的能力;4(了解我国国情和英语国家的社会和文化;5(具有第二外国语的一定的实际应用能力;6(掌握文献检索、资料查询的基本方法，具有初步科学研究和实际工作能力。

主干学科:外国语言文学主要课程:基础英语、高级英语、报刊选读、视听、口语、英语写作、翻译理论与实践、语言理论、语言学概论、主要英语国家文学史及文学作品选读、主要英语国家国情。

修业年限:四年授予学位:文学学士07 学科门类:理学0703 化学类学科:理学门类:化学类专业名称:应用化学专业代码:070302业务培养目标:本专业培养具备化学的基本理论、基本知识相较强的实验技能，能在科研机构、高等学校及企事业单位等从事科学研究、教学工作及管理丁作的高级专门人才。

业务培养要求:本专业学生主要学习化学方面的基础知识、基本理论、基本技能以及相关的工程技术知识，受到基础研究和应用基础研究方面的科学思维和科学实验训练，具有较好的科学素养，具备运用所学知识和实验技能进行应用研究、技术开发和科技管理的基本技能。

过程装备与控制工程相关书籍
与过程装备与控制工程相关的书籍有《过程设备与工业应用丛书》。

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Engineering纺织材料与纺织品设计 Textile Material and Textiles Design纺织化学与染整工程 Textile Chemistry and Dyeing and Finishing Engineering服装设计与工程 Clothing Design and Engineering轻工技术与工程 The Light Industry Technology and Engineering 制浆造纸工程 Pulp and Paper Engineering制糖工程 Sugar Engineering发酵工程 Fermentation Engineering皮革化学与工程 Leather Chemistry and Engineering交通运输工程 Communication and Transportation Engineering道路与铁道工程 Highway and Railway Engineering交通信息工程及控制 Traffic Information Engineering & Control 交通运输规划与管理 Transportation Planning and Management载运工具运用工程 Vehicle Operation Engineering船舶与海洋工程 Naval Architecture and Ocean Engineering船舶与海洋结构物设计制造 Design and Construction of Naval Architecture and Ocean Structure轮机工程 Marine Engine Engineering水声工程 Underwater Acoustics Engineering航空宇航科学与技术 Aeronautical and Astronautical Science and Technology飞行器设计 Flight Vehicle Design航空宇航推进理论与工程 Aerospace Propulsion Theory and Engineering航空宇航器制造工程 Manufacturing Engineering of Aerospace Vehicle人机与环境工程 Man-Machine and Environmental Engineering兵器科学与技术 Armament Science and Technology武器系统与运用工程 Weapon Systems and Utilization Engineering 兵器发射理论与技术 Armament Launch Theory and Technology火炮、自动武器与弹药工程 Artillery, Automatic Gun and Ammunition Engineering军事化学与烟火技术 Military Chemistry and Pyrotechnics核科学与技术 Nuclear Science and Technology核能科学与工程 Nuclear Energy Science and Engineering核燃料循环与材料 Nuclear Fuel Cycle and Materials核技术及应用 Nuclear Technology and Applications辐射防护及环境保护 Radiation and Environmental Protection农业工程 Agricultural Engineering农业机械化工程 Agricultural Mechanization Engineering农业水土工程 Agricultural Water-Soil Engineering农业生物环境与能源工程 Agricultural Biological Environmental and Energy Engineering农业电气化与自动化 Agricultural Electrification and Automation林业工程 Forestry Engineering森林工程 Forest Engineering木材科学与技术 Wood Science and Technology林产化学加工工程 Chemical Processing Engineering of Forest Products环境科学与工程 Environmental Science and Engineering环境科学 Environmental Science环境工程 Environmental Engineering生物医学工程 Biomedical Engineering食品科学与工程 Food Science and Engineering食品科学 Food Science粮食、油脂及植物蛋白工程 Cereals, Oils and Vegetable Protein Engineering农产品加工及贮藏工程 Processing and Storage of Agriculture Products水产品加工及贮藏工程 Processing and Storage of Aquatic Products农学 Agriculture作物学 Crop Science作物栽培学与耕作学 Crop Cultivation and Farming System作物遗传育种学 Crop Genetics and Breeding园艺学 Horticulture果树学 Pomology蔬菜学 Olericulture茶学 Tea Science农业资源利用学 Utilization Science of Agricultural Resources 土壤学 Soil Science植物营养学 Plant Nutrition植物保护学 Plant Protection植物病理学 Plant Pathology农业昆虫与害虫防治 Agricultural Entomology and Pest Control 农药学 Pesticide Science畜牧学 Animal Science动物遗传育种与繁殖 Animal Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction Science动物营养与饲料科学 Animal Nutrition and Feed Science草业科学 Practaculture Science特种经济动物饲养学（含蚕、蜂等） The Rearing of Special-type EconomicAnimals (including Silkworm, Honeybees, etc.)兽医学 Veterinary Medicine基础兽医学 Basic Veterinary Medicine预防兽医学 Preventive Veterinary Medicine临床兽医学 Clinical Veterinary Medicine林学 Forestry林木遗传育种学 Forest Tree Genetics and Breeding森林培育学 Silviculture森林保护学 Forest Protection森林经理学 Forest Management野生动植物保护与利用 Wildlife Conservation and Utilization 园林植物与观赏园艺 Ornamental Plants and Horticulture水土保持与荒漠化防治 Soil and Water Conservation and Desertification Combating水产学 Fisheries Science水产养殖学 Aquaculture Science捕捞学 Fishing Science渔业资源学 Science of Fisheries Resources医学 Medicine基础医学 Basic Medicine人体解剖与组织胚胎学 Human Anatomy, Histology and Embryology 免疫学 Immunology病原生物学 Pathogenic Organisms病理学与病理生理学 Pathology and Pathophysiology法医学 Forensic Medicine放射医学 Radiation Medicine航空航天与航海医学 Aerospace and Nautical medicine临床医学 Clinical Medicine内科学（含心血管病学、血液病学、呼吸系病学、消化系病学、内分泌与代谢病学、肾脏病学、风湿病学、传染病学） Internal medicine (including Cardiology, Hematology, Respiratory, Gastroenterology, Endocrinology and Metabolism, Nephrology, Rheuma-tology, Infectious Diseases)儿科学 Pediatrics老年医学 Geriatrics神经病学 Neurology精神病与精神卫生学 Psychiatry and Mental Health皮肤病与性病学 Dermatology and Venereology影像医学与核医学 Imaging and Nuclear Medicine临床检验诊断学 Clinical Laboratory Diagnostics护理学 Nursing外科学（含普通外科学、骨外科学、泌尿外科学、胸心血管外科学、神经外科学、整形外科学、烧伤外科学、野战外科学） Surgery (General Surgery, Orthopedics, Urology, Cardiothoracic Surgery, Neurosurgery, Plastic Surgery, Burn Surgery, Field Surgery)妇产科学 Obstetrics and Gynecology眼科学 Ophthalmic Specialty耳鼻咽喉科学 Otolaryngology肿瘤学 Oncology康复医学与理疗学 Rehabilitation Medicine & Physical Therapy 运动医学 Sports Medicine麻醉学 Anesthesiology急诊医学 Emergency Medicine口腔医学 Stomatology口腔基础医学 Basic Science of Stomatology口腔临床医学 Clinical Science of Stomatology公共卫生与预防医学 Public Health and Preventive Medicine 流行病与卫生统计学 Epidemiology and Health Statistics劳动卫生与环境卫生学 Occupational and Environmental Health 营养与食品卫生学 Nutrition and Food Hygiene儿少卫生与妇幼保健学 Maternal, Child and Adolescent Health 卫生毒理学 Hygiene Toxicology军事预防医学 Military Preventive Medicine中医学 Chinese Medicine中医基础理论 Basic Theories of Chinese Medicine中医临床基础 Clinical Foundation of Chinese Medicine中医医史文献 History and Literature of Chinese Medicine方剂学 Formulas of Chinese Medicine中医诊断学 Diagnostics of Chinese Medicine中医内科学 Chinese Internal Medicine中医外科学 Surgery of Chinese Medicine中医骨伤科学 Orthopedics of Chinese Medicine中医妇科学 Gynecology of Chinese Medicine中医儿科学 Pediatrics of Chinese Medicine中医五官科学 Ophthalmology and Otolaryngoloy of Chinese Medicine针灸推拿学 Acupuncture and Moxibustion and Tuina of Chinese medicine民族医学 Ethnomedicine中西医结合医学 Chinese and Western Integrative Medicine中西医结合基础医学 Basic Discipline of Chinese and Western Integrative中西医结合临床医学 Clinical Discipline of Chinese and Western Integrative Medicine药学 Pharmaceutical Science药物化学 Medicinal Chemistry药剂学 Pharmaceutics生药学 Pharmacognosy药物分析学 Pharmaceutical Analysis微生物与生化药学 Microbial and Biochemical Pharmacy药理学 Pharmacology中药学 Science of Chinese Pharmacology军事学 Military Science军事思想学及军事历史学 Military Thought and Military History 军事思想学 Military Thought军事历史学 Military History战略学 Science of Strategy军事战略学 Military Strategy战争动员学 War Mobilization战役学 Science of Operations联合战役学 Joint Operation军种战役学（含第二炮兵战役学） Armed Service Operation (including Operation of Strategic Missile Force)战术学 Science of Tactics合同战术学 Combined-Arms Tactics兵种战术学 Branch Tactics军队指挥学 Science of Command作战指挥学 Combat Command军事运筹学 Military Operation Research军事通信学 Military Communication军事情报学 Military Intelligence密码学 Cryptography军事教育训练学（含军事体育学） Military Education and Training (including Military Physical Training)军制学 Science of Military System军事组织编制学 Military Organizational System军队管理学 Military Management军队政治工作学 Science of Military Political Work军事后勤学与军事装备学 Science of Military Logistics and Military Equipment军事后勤学 Military Logistics后方专业勤务 Rear Special Service军事装备学 Military Equipment管理学 Management Science管理科学与工程 Management Science and Engineering工商管理学 Science of Business Administration会计学 Accounting企业管理学（含财务管理、市场营销学、人力资源管理学） Corporate Management (including Financial Management, Marketing, and Human Resources Management)旅游管理学 Tourist Management技术经济及管理学 Technology Economy and Management农林经济管理学 Agricultural and Forestry Economics & Management农业经济管理学 Agricultural Economics & Management林业经济管理学 Forestry Economics & Management公共管理学 Science of Public Management行政管理学 Administration Management社会医学与卫生事业管理学 Social Medicine and Health Management教育经济与管理学 Educational Economy and Management社会保障学 Social Security土地资源管理学 Land Resource Management图书馆、情报与档案学 Science of Library, Information and Archival图书馆学 Library Science情报学 Information Science档案学 Archival Science。

新疆大学各个学院各个专业的英语翻译。

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Reading material 14Evaporation1． IntroductionThe objective of evaporation is to concentrate a solution consisting of a nonvolatile solute and a volatile solvent. In the overwhelming majority of evaporations the solvent is water. Evaporation is conducted by vaporizing a portion of the solvent to produce a concentrated solution of thick liquor. Evaporation differs from drying in that the residue is a liquid-sometimes is highly viscous one-rather than a solid; it differs from distillation in that the vapor usually is a single component, and even when the vapor is a mixture, no attempt is made in the evaporation step to separate the vapor into fractions; it differs from crystallization in that emphasis is placed on concentrating a solution rather than forming and building crystals. In certain situations, e.g., in the evaporation of brine to produce common salt, the line between evaporation and crystallization is far from sharp. Evaporation sometimes produces a slurry of crystal in a saturated mother liquor.Normally, in evaporation the thick liquor is the valuable product and the vapor is condensed and discarded. In one specific situation, however, the reverse is true. Mineral-bearing water often is evaporated to give a solid-free product for boiler feed, for special process requirements, or for human consumption. This technique is often called water distillation, but technically it is evaporation. Large-scale evaporation processes have been developed and used for recovering potable water from seawater. Here the condensed water is the desired product. Only a fraction of the total water in the feed is recovered, and the remainder is returned to the sea.2. Liquid CharacteristicsThe practical solution of an evaporation problem is profoundly affected by the character of the liquor to be concentrated. It is the wide variation in liquor characteristics (which demands judgment and experience in designing and operating evaporators) that broadens this operation from simple heat transfer to a separate art. Some of the most important properties of evaporating liquids are as follows. Concentration Although the thin liquor fed to an evaporator may be sufficiently dilute to have many of the physical of water, as the concentration increases, the solution becomes more and more individualistic. The density and viscosity increase with solid content until either the solution becomes saturated or the liquor becomes too viscous for adequate heat transfer. Continued boiling of a saturated solution causes crystals to form; these must be removed or the tubes clog. The boiling point of the solution may also rise considerably as the solid content increases, so that the boiling temperature of a concentrated solution may be much higher than that of water at the same pressure.FoamingSome materials, especially organic substances, foam during vaporization. A stable foam accompanies the vapor out of the evaporator, causing heavy entertainment. In the extreme cases, the entire mass of liquid may boil over into the vapor outletand be lost.Temperature sensitivity Many fine chemicals pharmaceutical products, and foods are damaged when heated to moderate temperatures for relatively short times. In concentrating such materials special techniques are needed to reduce both the temperature of the liquid and the time of heating.Scale Some solutions deposit scale on the heating surface. The overall coefficient then steadily diminished, until the evaporator must be shut down and the tubes cleaned. When the scale is hard and insoluble, the cleaning is difficult and expensive.Materials of construction Whenever possible, evaporator are made of some kind of steel. Many solutions, however, attack ferrous metals or are contaminated by them. Special materials such as copper, nickel, stainless steel, aluminum, imperious graphite, and lead are then used. Since these materials are expensive, high heat transfer rates become especially desired to minimize the first cost of the equipment. Many other liquid characteristics must be considered by the designer of an evaporator. Some of these are specific heat, heat of concentration, freezing point, gas liberation on boiling, toxicity, explosion hazards, radioactivity, and necessity for sterile operation. Because of the variation in liquor properties, many different evaporator designers have been developed. The choice for any specific problem depends primarily on the characteristics of the liquid.3. Single and multiple-effect operationMost evaporators are heated by steam condensing on the metal tubes. Nearly always the material to be evaporated flows inside the tubes. Usually the steam is at low pressure, below 3 atm abs; often the boiling liquid is under moderate vacuum, at pressure down to about 0.05 atm abs. Reducing the boiling temperature of the liquid increase the temperature difference between the steam and the boiling liquid and thus increase the heat transfer rate in the evaporator.When a single evaporator is used, the vapor from the boiling liquid is condensed and discarded. This method is called single-effect evaporation, and although it is simple, it utilizes steam ineffectively. To evaporate 1 kg water from a solution call for from 1 to 1.3 kg of steam. If the vapor from one evaporator is fed into steam chest of a second evaporator and the vapor from second is then sent to a condenser, the operation becomes double-effect. The heat in the original steam is reused in the second effect, and the evaporation achieved by a unit mass of steam fed to the first effect is approximately doubled. Additional effects can be added in the same manner. The general method of increasing the evaporation per kilogram of steam by using a series of evaporator between the steam supply and the condenser is called multiple-effect evaporation.4. General types of evaporatorHorizontal-tube natural circulation evaporator the horizontal bundle of heating tubes is similar to the bundle of tubes in a heat exchanger. The steam enters into the tubes, where it condenses. The steam condensate leaves at the other end of the tubes. The boiling liquid solution covers the tubes. The vapor leaves the liquid surface, often goes through some deentraining device such as a baffle to preventcarryover of liquid droplets, and leaves out the top. This type is relatively cheap and is used for no viscous liquid having high heat transfer coefficients and liquids that do not deposit scale. Since liquid circulation is poor, they are unsuitable for viscous liquid. In almost all cases, this evaporator and the types discussed below are operating continuously, where the feed enters at a constant rate and the concentrate leaves at a concentrate rate.Vertical-type natural circulation evaporator in this type of evaporator, vertical rather than horizontal tubes are used, and the liquid is inside the tubes and the steam condenses outside the tubes. Because of boiling and decreases in density, the liquid rises in the tubes by natural circulation and flows downward through a large central open space or downcomer. This natural circulation increases the heat transfer coefficient. It is not used with viscous liquid. This type is often called the short-tube evaporator. A variation of this is the basket type. Where vertical tubes are used, but the heating element is held suspended in the body so there is an annular open space as the downcomer. The basket type differs from the vertical natural circulation evaporator, which has a central instead of annular open space as the downcomer, this type is widely used in the sugar, salt, and caustic soda industries.Long-tube vertical-type evaporator since the heat transfer coefficient on the steam side is very high compared to that on the evaporating liquid side, high liquid velocities are desirable. In a long-tube vertical-type evaporator the liquid is inside the tubes. The tubes are 3 to 10 m long and the formation of vapor bubbles inside the tubes causes a pumping action giving quite high liquid velocities. Generally, the liquid passes through the tubes only once and is not reticulated. Contact times can be quite low in this type. In some case,as when the ratio of the feed to evaporation rate is low.Natural recirculation of the product through the evaporators done by adding a large pipe connection between the outlet concentrate line and the feed line. This is widely used for producing condensed milk. Falling-film evaporator a variation of the long tube type is the falling-film evaporator, wherein the liquid is fed to the top of the tubes and flows down the walls as a thin film. Vapor-liquid separation usually takes place at the bottom. This type is widely used for concentrating heat-sensitive material such as orange juice and the other fruit juices, because the holdup time is very small (5 to 10 s or more).and the heat-transfer coefficients are high.Forced-circulation type evaporator this liquid film heat transfer coefficient can be increased by pumping to cause forced circulation of the liquid inside the tubes. This could be done in the long tube vertical type by adding a pipe concentrate with a pump between the outlet concentrate line and the feed line. However, usually in a forced-circulation type, the vertical tubes are shorter than in the long-tube type. Also, in other cases a separate and external horizontal heat exchanger is used. This type is very useful for viscous liquids.阅读材料14蒸发1、介绍蒸发的目的是浓缩不易挥发的溶质和易挥发的溶剂组成的溶液。

毕业设计（论文）外文文献翻译文献、资料中文题目：U形管换热器文献、资料英文题目：文献、资料来源：文献、资料发表（出版）日期：院（部）：专业：过程装备与控制工程专业班级：姓名：学号：指导教师：翻译日期： 2017.02.14毕业设计（论文）外文翻译毕业设计（论文）题目： U形管式换热器设计外文题目： U-tube heat exchangers译文题目：指导教师评阅意见U-tube heat exchangersM. Spiga and G. Spiga, Bologna1 Summary:Some analytical solutions are provided to predict the steady temperature distributions of both fluids in U-tube heat exchangers. The energy equations are solved assuming that the fluids remain unmixed and single-phased. The analytical predictions are compared with the design data and the numerical results concerning the heat exchanger of a spent nuclear fuel pool plant, assuming distinctly full mixing and no mixing conditions for the secondary fluid (shell side). The investigation is carried out by studying the influence of all the usual dimensionless parameters (flow capacitance ratio, heat transfer resistance ratio and number of transfer units), to get an immediate and significant insight into the thermal behaviour of the heat Exchanger.More detailed and accurate studies about the knowledge of the fluid temperature distribution inside heat exchangers are greatly required nowadays. This is needed to provide correct evaluation of thermal and structural performances, mainly in the industrial fields (such as nuclear engineering) where larger, more efficient and reliable units are sought, and where a good thermal design can not leave integrity and safety requirements out of consideration [1--3]. In this view, the huge amount of scientific and technical informations available in several texts [4, 5], mainly concerning charts and maps useful for exit temperatures and effectiveness considerations, are not quite satisfactory for a more rigorous and local analysis. In fact the investigation of the thermomechanieal behaviour (thermal stresses, plasticity, creep, fracture mechanics) of tubes, plates, fins and structural components in the heat exchanger insists on the temperature distribution. So it should be very useful to equip the stress analysis codes for heat exchangers withsimple analytical expressions for the temperature map (without resorting to time consuming numerical solutions for the thermal problem), allowing a sensible saving in computer costs. Analytical predictions provide the thermal map of a heat exchanger, aiding in the designoptimization.Moreover they greatly reduce the need of scale model testing (generally prohibitively expensive in nuclear engineering), and furnish an accurate benchmark for the validation of more refined numerical solutions obtained by computer codes. The purpose of this paper is to present the local bulk-wall and fluid temperature distributions forU-tube heat exchangers, solving analytically the energy balance equations.122 General assumptionsLet m, c, h, and A denote mass flow rate (kg/s), specific heat (J/kg -1 K-l), heat transfer coefficient(Wm -2 K-l), and heat transfer surface (m2) for each leg, respectively. The theoretical analysis is based on classical assumptions [6] :-- steady state working conditions,-- equal flow distribution (same mass flow rate for every tube of the bundle),-- single phase fluid flow,-- constant physical properties of exchanger core and fluids,-- adiabatic exchanger shell or shroud,-- no heat conduction in the axial direction,-- constant thermal conductances hA comprehending wall resistance and fouling.According to this last assumption, the wall temperature is the same for the primary and secondary flow. However the heat transfer balance between the fluids is quite respected, since the fluid-wall conductances are appropriately reduced to account for the wall thermal resistance and thefouling factor [6]. The dimensionless parameters typical of the heat transfer phenomena between the fluids arethe flow capacitance and the heat transfer resistance ratiosand the number of transfer units, commonly labaled NTU in the literature,where (mc)min stands for the smaller of the two values (mc)sand (mc)p.In (1) the subscripts s and p refer to secondary and primary fluid, respectively. Only three of the previous five numbers are independent, in fact :The boundary conditions are the inlet temperatures of both fluids3 Parallel and counter flow solutionsThe well known monodimensional solutions for single-pass parallel and counterflow heat exchanger,which will be useful later for the analysis of U-tube heat exchangers, are presented below. If t, T,νare wall, primary fluid, and secondary fluid bulk temperatures (K), and ξ and L represent the longitudinal space coordinate and the heat exchanger length (m), the energy balance equations in dimensionless coordinate x = ξ/L, for parallel and counterflow respectivelyread asM. Spiga and G. Spiga: Temperature profiles in U-tube heat exchangersAfter some algebra, a second order differential equation is deduced for the temperature of the primary (or secondary) fluid, leading to the solutionwhere the integration constants follow from the boundary conditions T(0)=T i , ν(0)≒νifor parallel T(1) = Ti ,ν(0) = νifor counter flow. They are given-- for parallel flow by - for counterflow byWishing to give prominence to the number of transfer units, it can be noticed thatFor counterflow heat exchangers, when E = 1, the solutions (5), (6) degenerate and the fluidtemperatures are given byIt can be realized that (5) -(9) actually depend only on the two parametersE, NTU. However a formalism involving the numbers E, Ns. R has been chosen here in order to avoid the double formalism (E ≤1 and E > 1) connected to NTU.4 U-tube heat exchangerIn the primary side of the U-tube heat exchanger, whose schematic drawing is shown in Fig. 1, the hot fluid enters the inlet plenum flowing inside the tubes, and exits from the outlet plenum. In the secondary side the fluid flows in the tube bundle (shell side). This arrangement suggests that the heat exchanger can be considered as formed by the coupling of a parallel and a counter-flow heat exchanger, each with a heigth equal to the half length of the mean U-tube. However it is necessary to take into account the interactions in the secondary fluid between the hot and the cold leg, considering that the two flows are not physically separated. Two extreme opposite conditions can be investigated: no mixing and full mixing in the two streams of the secondary fluid. The actual heat transfer phenomena are certainly characterized by only a partial mixing ofthe shell side fluid between the legs, hence the analysis of these two extreme theoretical conditions will provide an upper and a lower limit for the actual temperature distribution.4.1 No mixing conditionsIn this hypothesis the U-tube heat exchanger can be modelled by two independent heat exchangers, a cocurrent heat exchanger for the hot leg and a eountercurrent heat exchanger for the cold leg. The only coupling condition is that, for the primary fluid, the inlet temperature in the cold side must be the exit temperature of the hot side. The numbers R, E, N, NTU can have different values for the two legs, because of thedifferent values of the heat transfer coefficients and physical properties. The energy balance equations are the same given in (2)--(4), where now the numbers E and Ns must be changed in E/2 and 2Ns in both legs, if we want to use in their definition the total secondary mass flow rate, since it is reduced in every leg to half the inlet mass flow rate ms. Of course it is understood that the area A to be used here is half of the total exchange area of the unit, as it occurs for the length L too. Recalling (5)--(9) and resorting to the subscripts c and h to label the cold and hot leg, respectively, the temperature profile is given bywhere the integration constants are:M. Spiga and G. Spiga: Temperature profiles in U-tube heat exchangersIf E, = 2 the solutions (13), (14) for the cold leg degenerate into4.2 Full mixing conditionsA different approach can be proposed to predict the temperature distributions in the core wall and fluids of the U-tube heat exchanger. The assumption of full mixing implies that the temperaturesof the secondary fluid in the two legs, at the same longitudinal section, are exactly coinciding. In this situation the steady state energy balance equations constitute the following differential set :The bulk wall temperature in both sides is thenand (18)--(22) are simplified to a set of three equations, whose summation gives a differential equation for the secondary fluid temperature, withgeneral solutionwhere # is an integration constant to be specified. Consequently a second order differential equation is deduced for the primary fluid temperature in the hot leg :where the numbers B, C and D are defined asThe solution to (24) allows to determine the temperaturesand the number G is defined asThe boundary conditions for the fluids i.e. provide the integration constantsAgain the fluid temperatures depend only on the numbers E and NTU.5 ResultsThe analytical solutions allow to deduce useful informations about temperature profiles and effectiveness. Concerning the U-tube heat exchanger, the solutions (10)--(15) and (25)--(27) have been used as a benchmark for the numerical predictions of a computer code [7], already validated, obtaining a very satisfactory agreement.M. Spiga and G. Spiga: Temperature profiles in U-tube heat exchangers 163 Moreover a testing has been performed considering a Shutte & Koerting Co. U-tube heat exchanger, designed for the cooling system of a spent nuclear fuel storage pool. The demineralized water of the fuel pit flows inside the tubes, the raw water in the shell side. The correct determination of the thermal resistances is very important to get a reliable prediction ; for every leg the heat transfer coefficients have been evaluated by the Bittus-Boelter correlation in the tube side [8], by the Weisman correlation in the shell side [9] ; the wall material isstainless steel AISI 304.and the circles indicate the experimental data supplied by the manufacturer. The numbers E, NTU, R for the hot and the cold leg are respectively 1.010, 0.389, 0.502 and 1.011, 0.38~, 0.520. The difference between the experimental datum and the analytical prediction of the exit temperature is 0.7％ for the primary fluid, 0.9% for the secondary fluid. The average exit temperature of the secondary fluid in the no mixing model differs from the full mixing result only by 0.6%. It is worth pointing out the relatively small differences between the profiles obtained through the two different hypotheses (full and no mixing conditions), mainly for the primary fluid; the actual temperature distribution is certainly bounded between these upper and lower limits,hence it is very well specified. Figures 3-5 report the longitudinal temperaturedistribution in the core wall, τw = (t -- νi)/(Ti -- νi), emphasizing theeffects of the parameters E, NTU, R.As above discussed this profile can be very useful for detailed stress analysis, for instance as anM. Spiga and G. Spiga: Temperature profiles in U-tube heat exchangersinput for related computer codes. In particular the thermal conditions at the U-bend transitions are responsible of a relative movement between the hot and the cold leg, producing hoop stresses with possible occurrence of tube cracking . It is evident that the cold leg is more constrained than the hot leg; the axial thermal gradient is higher in the inlet region and increases with increasing values of E, NTU, R. The heat exchanger effectiveness e, defined as the ratio of the actual heat transfer rate(mc)p (Ti-- Tout), Tout=Tc(O), to the maximum hypothetical rateunder the same conditions (mc)min (Ti- νi), is shown in Figs. 6, 7respectively versus the number of transfer units and the flow capacitance ratio. As known, the balanced heat exchangers E = 1) present the worst behaviour ; the effectiveness does not depend on R and is the same for reciprocal values of the flow capacitance ratio.U形管换热器m . Spiga和g . Spiga,博洛尼亚摘要:分析解决方案提供一些两相流体在u形管换热器中的分布情况。

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