第一、二讲Linguistics vs. Sociolinguistics

LINGUISTICSChapter one INTRODUCTION1. What is linguistics?⏹the scientific study of language2. What is language?⏹a system whose parts can and must be considered in their synchronic solidarity)--Ferdinand de Saussure (1857-1913): Course in General Linguistics (1916)⏹a set (finite or infinite) of sentences, each finite in length and constructed out of a finite set of elements(Chomsky,1957)—一种有限或无限的句子系列，每一句子的长度有限，并由一种有限的成分系统构成。

⏹--Noam Chomsky (1928- ): Syntactic Structures (1957)⏹a purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating ,ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols(Sapir,1921)—--Edward Sapir (1884-1939):Language: An Introduction to the Study of Speech (1921)⏹一种纯人类的和非本能的、⏹借助自发产生的符号以交流思想、⏹情感和意愿的方法。

⏹a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.--Ronald Wardhaugh: Introduction to Linguistics (1977)3. (Design)Features of Human Language⏹Arbitrariness⏹Duality⏹Creativity⏹Displacement⏹duality二重性:language as a system with 2 subsystems/structures/levels---meaninglesssounds and units of meaning grouped and regrouped with sounds⏹creativity (productivity)创造性: provides opportunities for sendingmessages that have never been sent before and for understanding novel messages. displacement:移位性can be used to refer to things real or imagined, past, present or future [no matter how eloquently a dog may bark, he cannot tell you that his parents were poor but honest.]⏹4.The functions of Language⏹ 6 functions(by Jacobson):referential,poitic,emotive,conative,phatic,metalingual function(所指、诗学、感情、意动、元语言功能)⏹ 4 functions(by Halliday):⏹the ideational function表意功能: language as a medium that links a person with the world⏹the interpersonal function人际功能: as a medium to get along in a community⏹the textual function篇章功能: create relevance to context⏹5.Some Important Distinctions⏹5.1 prescriptive vs. descriptive规定与描述: aims to lay down rules to tell people what they should say and what they not say.aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use;⏹5.2 synchronic vs. diachronic共时与历时: the description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study ; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.⏹5.3 Langue vs. parole语言与言语: by F. de. Saussure索绪尔. French words. Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of a langue in actual use. Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to abide by, and parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules. Langue is abstract; it is not the language people actually use. Parole is concrete; it refers to the naturally occurring language events. Langue is relatively stable, it does not change frequently; parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.⏹6.Branches of linguistics:⏹microlinguistics introduced in the charter behind.⏹macrolinguistics:Sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, cognitive linguistics,etc.Chapter 2 PHONETICS1.What is phonetics语音学? The study of speech sounds2. Organs of speech: the pharyngeal cavity---the throatthe oral cavity—the mouth,the nasal cavity—the nose3 Broad and narrow transcriptionsInternational Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), a widely used standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription. The basic principle of the IPA is using one letter selected from major European languages to represent a sound.IPA provides it users with another set of symbols called diacritics. (变音符, 如façade上所加的变音符号或résumé上表示发高音的记号)●Broad transcription:letter-symbols only, used in dictionaries and textbooks for general purposes.●Narrow transcription:letter-symbols with diacritics, representing more fine details, used by phoneticians4.Classification of English speech sounds: vowels and consonants---the obstruction of air-stream4.1 classification of vowels: they are differentiated by a number of factors:the position of the tongue in the mouth: the front---[]the central---the back---the openness of the mouth: the close ---the semi-close ---the semi-open---the open---the shape of the lips:the rounded---all the back vowels with the exception of [a]the un-rounded—all the front vowels and central vowels4.2 classification of consonants;Chapter3 PHONOLOGY⏹1. What is phonology音位学?The study of sound systems and patterns. focuses on three fundamental questions: What sounds make up the list of sounds that can distinguish meaning in a particular language? What sounds vary in what ways in what context? What sounds can appear together in a sequence in a particular language?⏹2. Phonology vs. phonetics: concerned with the same aspect of language---the speech sounds, but differ in their approach and focus. Phonetics is of a general nature . It is interested in all the speech sounds in all human languages.⏹Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguisticcommunication. The conclusion we reach about the phonology of one language is very often language specific and should not be applied to another language without discretion.⏹3. Phone音素, phoneme音位, and allophone音位变体:⏹3.1 A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. But a phone does not necessarily distinguish meaning.⏹3.2 A phoneme is an abstract unit. It is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context.⏹3.3 An allophone: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic context are called the allophones of that phoneme.⏹In words” feel” and” leaf”, there are four phones [f, i:, l, ł], but three phonemes/f, i:, l/, and phonemes, the dark [ł ]and clear[ l ]are the allophones of the phoneme/ l / .●4 Phonemic contrast: as two distinctive phonemes, /p/ and /b/ in [pit] and [bit]●5 Complementary distribution: allophones of the same phoneme occurring in different phonetic environments, e.g. clear [l] and dark [ł]●6 Minimal pair: Two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, pill and bill,till and kill, kill and dill7.Some rules in phonologySequential rules: rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language, blik but not lbki; there are rules governing the combination of three consonants clustering together (see p. 26); phonological patterning is language specific, e.g. [☠] not as initial inEnglish and standard Chinese, but can occur in Vietnamese, Shanghai dialect and Cantonese●Assimilation rules:when a sound is pronounced, the feature of the consonant which follows it is copied, vowels may be nasalized in bean, green, and team;and in incorrect [n] becomes [☠]; assimilation reflected in spelling: impossible for inpossible●Deletion rules: the sound is deleted when it occurs before a final nasalconsonant, e.g. sign, design, and paradigm8.Suprasegmental features : stress, tone, intonationAttention: such features also convey meanings.●Chapter4 MORPHOLOGY1.What is morphology形态学?The study of the internal structure of words and the rules by which the words are formed .2.Open class: nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs to which new words can be added. For example: beatnik (a person who rejects or avoids conventional behavior)3.Closed class: conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns to which new word are not usually added4.morpheme: the minimal meaningful unit of language.5.Classification of morphemes语素:5.1 free morphemes: roots, morphemes as words5.2 bound morphemes: affixes, morphemes attached to free morphemes to form new words5.3 inflectional morphemes: morphemes indicating case and number of n.s, tense and aspect of v.s, and degree of adj.s and adv.s5.4 derivational morphemes: bound morphemesadded to existing forms to construct new words6.Formation of English words6.1 derivation:forms a word by adding an affix to a free morpheme.Since derivation can apply more than once,it is possible to creae a derived word with a number of affixes.6.2 compounding:the combination of free morphemes.6.3 others: conversion, clipping, blending, backformation, acronyms and abbreviations, etc⏹Conversion:a process that puts an existing word of one class into another class.This happens more frequently between n.s and v.s.e.g.LOOK in take a look is a noun converted from a verb.⏹Clipping :A process that shortens a word ,e.g.bus-omnibus,gym-gymnasium⏹Blending:To create a new word by combining one part of a word with one part of another word.e.g.motor+hotel=motel,breastfast+lunch=brunch⏹Backformation:To create a new word by dropping a real or supposed suffix.e.g.edit--editor⏹Acronym&abbreviation:Putting together the initial letters of some words.The difference between the two is the former can be read as a word .The latter,letter by letter.NATO,USA…….Chapter5 SYNTAX⏹1.What is syntax句法学?How words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.⏹2.Different approaches to syntax: Knowledge of sentence structure is the object of study of all schools of grammar. One school of grammar is comparatively more successful in dealing with certain aspects of syntax. Among all grammars, four appear to be well recognized, namely, traditional grammar, structural grammar, T.G grammar and systemic-functional grammar.⏹2.1 traditional G.:initially based on European languages, particularly on Latin and Greek. termed pedagogic grammar. In analyzing sentences, the method adopted is called parsing切分法.⏹1) identifying elements of the sentence,⏹2) identifying part of speech of each word⏹3) pointing out the inflection of the words,⏹4) describing the relationship between the words,⏹5) generalizing the order of the words.(3 weaknesses)⏹2.2 structural grammar:the early 20 century. American anthropologists and linguists. dying American Indian language. 2 concepts: form class形式类, immediate constituent 直接成分.⏹ A sentence can be cut into sections. Each section is its immediate constituent. Then each section can be further cut into constituent. This on-going cutting is termed immediate constituent analysis. This way of syntactic analysis adds a new dimension to the analysis of sentence structure. IC analysis can accounting for the linearity and the hierarchy of sentence structure, and, therefore, structural ambiguity .(but no pedagogic grammar of a language has been written following this approach )⏹2.3 T.G grammar转换生成语法: TO Chomsky, a grammar as the tacit shared knowledge of all speakers is a system of finite rules by which an infinite number of sentences can be generated. The task of the linguist is to describe adequately this system of rules and explain how they wok.⏹ 2.3.1 The model of the standard theory 标准理论based on Chomsky1965 :⏹According to the model, we select words from the lexicon (our mental dictionary) and string them together, following P.S rules. The sentence structure at this stage is the deep structure, which will be further manipulated according to transformational rules. The actual form of the sentence is the surface structure, which is represented phonetically in speech or orthographically in writing. If this model is right, then writing a TG grammar of a language means working out 2 sets of rules which are followed by speakers of the language.⏹2.3.2 P.S rules短语规则: rules that specify the constituents of syntactic categories. They are part of speaker's syntactic knowledge. Such knowledge exists in the mind of speakers.4 tentative ps rules:⏹A)S →NP VP⏹B)NP →[(Det) (Adj) N⏹[Pron⏹C)VP →(Aux) V (NP)(PP)⏹D)PP →P NP⏹2.3.3转换及转换规则transformational rules⏹我们在谈及转换时需要引入两个概念：深层结构（Deep Structure简称DS）和表层结构（Surface Structure简称SS）。

第1章导言1.1复习笔记本章要点：1.The definition and main branches of linguistics study语言学的定义和研究的范围2.The definition and the origins of language语言的定义与起源3.The design feature and the function of language语言的特征和功能4.Some major concepts in linguistics语言学中重要的概念本章考点：1.有关语言学的常考考点(1)语言学的定义，现代语言学与传统语法学研究的区别。

(2)语言学中几组重要概念，每组两个概念的含义、区分及其意义。

(3)普通语言学的主要分支学科及各自的研究范畴。

(4)宏观语言学及应用语言学的主要分支及各自的研究范畴。

2.有关语言的常考考点(1)语言的定义；语言的基本特征(任意性、二重性、多产性、移位性、互换性、专门性和文化传递性)；(2)语言的功能(寒暄、指示、信息、疑问、表达、劝说和施为)；(3)语言的起源(叮咚说、唱歌说、哒哒说、汪汪、噗噗、哟嘿吼理论等。

)本章内容索引：I.Definition of linguisticsII.Linguistics vs.traditional grammarIII.Scope of linguistics1.Microlinguistics2.MacrolinguisticsIV.Definition of languageV.Origins of language1.Ding-Dong Theory2.Sing-Song Theory3.Pooh-Pooh Theory4.Yo-He-Ho Theory5.Ta-Ta Theory6.Bow-Wow TheoryVI.Design features of language1.Arbitrariness2.Duality3.Productivity4.Interchangeability5.Displacement6.Specialization7.Cultural transmissionVII.Functions of language1.Phatic function/communion2.Directive functionrmative function4.Interrogative function5.Expressive function6.Evocative function7.Performative functionVIII.Some major concepts in linguistics1.Descriptive and prescriptive grammar2.Synchronic and diachronic linguisticsngue and parolepetence and performance5.Syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations6.Functionalism and formalismI.Definition of linguistics(语言学的定义)【考点：名词解释】The scientific or systemic study of language,which is always guided by the-three canons ofscience:exhaustiveness,consistency and economy.语言学是对语言的科学或系统的研究。

《英语语言学》导学手册程可拉主编英语语言学教学大纲一、教学目的和要求英语语言学是英语本科专业的自考课程。

本课程的目的是帮助学生系统地学习语言学基本理论知识和研究方法，为从事英语语言教学与研究打下良好的基础。

本课程教学的具体要求是：１．系统掌握语言学的基本理论和基本知识。

２．能应用语言学知识分析各种语言现象。

３．能应用语言学的基本理论来指导中学英语教学。

二、教学内容I. Introduction1. Linguistics1.1 What is linguistics?1.2 Linguistics vs. traditional grammar1.3 The scope of linguistics2. Language2.1 What is language?2.2 The defining properties of human languageII. Phonology1. The phonic medium of language2. Phonetics2.1 What is phonetics?2.2 The speech organs2.3 Narrow and broad transcriptions2.4 Some major articulatory variables2.5 Classification of English speech sounds3. Phonology3.1 Phonetics and phonology3.2 Phone, phoneme and allophone3.3 Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, and minimal pair3.4 Some rules of phonology3.5 Suprasegmental features---Stress, tone, intonationIII. Morphology1. Morphology1.1 Open classes and closed classes1.2 Internal structure of words and rules for word formation2. Morphemes---the minimal units of meaning3. Derivational and inflectional morphemes4. Morphological rules of word formation5. CompoundsIV. Syntax1. Syntax1.1 What is syntax?1.2 Sentence2. Structuralist approach2.1 Form classes2.2 Constituent structure2.3 Immediate constituent analysis2.4 Endocentric and exocentric constructions2.5 Advantage of IC analysis2.6 Labelled tree diagram2.7 Discontinuous constituents3. Transformational-generative grammar3.1 Competence and performance3.2 Criteria for judging grammars3.3 Generative aspect3.4 Transformational aspect3.5 Deep and surface structures4. The Standard Theory4.1 Components of a TG4.2 The base4.3 Transformations4.4 The form of T-rules4.5 The phonological component4.6 The semantic componentV. Semantics1. Semantics1.1 What is semantics?2. Some views on semantics2.1 Naming things2.2 Concepts2.3 Context and behaviourism2.4 Mentalism3. Lexical meaning3.1 Sense and reference3.2 Synonymy3.3 Polysemy and homonymy3.4 Hyponymy3.5 Antonymy3.6 Relational opposites4. Componential analysis4.1 Componets of meaning4.2 Meaning relations in terms of componential analysis5. Sentence meaning5.1 How to define the meaning of a sentence?5.2 Selectional restrictions5.3 Basic statements about meaning6. The semantic structure of sentences6.1 Extended use of componential analysis6.2 Prediction analysis6.3 Subordinate and downgraded predictions6.4 Advantages of predication analysisVI. Pragmatics1. What does pragmatics study?2. Speech act theory3. Principles of conversation3.1 The co-operative principle3.2 The politeness principleVII. Language change1. Introduction2. Sound change3. Morphological and syntactic change3.1 Change in “agreement” rule3.2 Change in negation rule3.3 Process of simplification3.4 Loss of inflections4. V ocabulary change4.1 Addition of new words4.2 Loss of words4.3 Changes in the meaning of words5. Some recent trends5.1 Moving towards greater informality5.2 The influence of American English5.3 The influence of science and technology6. Causes of language changeVIII. Language and society1. The scope of sociolinguistics1.1 Indications of relatedness between language and society1.2 Sociolinguistics vs. traditional linguistic study1.3 Two approaches in sociolinguistics2. Varieties of language2.1 Varieties of language related to the user2.2 Standard dialect2.3 Varieties of language related to the use3. Communicative competence4. Pidgin and creole5. Bilingualism and diglossiaIX. Language and culture1. Introduction2. What is culture?3. Language and meaning4. Interdependence of language and culture5. The significance of cultural teaching and learning6. Linguistics evidence of cultural differences6.1 Greetings6.2 Thanks and compliments6.3 Terms of address6.4 Colour words6.5 Privacy and taboos6.6 Rounding off numbers7. Cultural overlap and diffusion8. ConclusionX. Language acquisition1. Introduction1.1 Language acquisition1.2 The beginning of language1.3 Stages in first language acquisition1.4 Age and native language acquisition1.5 Common order in the development of language1.6 Different rate of language development2. Phonological development2.1 Regular sound development2.2 Mother and father words2.3 Grammatical development2.4 Vocabulary development2.5 Sociolinguistic development3. Theories of child language acquisition3.1 A behaviorist view of language acquisition3.2 A nativist view of language acquisitionXI. Errors analysis and second language acquisition1. Differences and similarities between first and second language acquisition2. The inadequacy of imitation theory3. Interference3.1 Phonological evidence3.2 Lexical evidence3.3 Grammatical evidence4. Cross-association5. Overgeneralization6. Strategies of communication7. Performance errors三、教学原则和方法１．启发式教学原则：教师积极引导学生理解分析问题，发挥学生的主观能动性，培养他们综合分析问题解决问题的能力。

Chapter 1 Introduction1. What is linguistics? Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study oflanguage.2.The scope of linguistics:(1 ). phonetics 语音学；phonology 音位学；morphology 形态学；syntax 句法学；pragmatics 语用学(2). sociolinguistics 社会语言学；psycholinguistics 心理语言学；applied linguistics应用语言学3.Some important distinction in linguistics(1)Descriptive vs. prescriptive 描述性与规定性①If a linguistics study aims to describe and analyze the language peopleactually use, it is said to be descriptive;②If the linguistics study aims to lay down rules for” correct and standard”behavior in using language, i.e. to tell people what they should say andwhat they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.(2)Synchronic vs. diachronic 共时性与历时性①A synchronic description takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily,the present) as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind.②Diachronic linguistics is the study of a language through the course of its history.(2)Langue & parole 语言与会话①Language refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all themembers of a speech community.②Parole refers to the realization of language in actual use.(4)Competence and performance 语言能力与语言运用①A language user's unconscious knowledge about the system of rules iscalled his linguistic competence.②Performance refers to the actual use of language in concrete situations.(5)speech and writing 语言与文字Speech and writing are the two major media of communication.(6)traditional grammar and modern linguistic 传统语法与现代语言学4.Definition of language:Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Language is a system, i.e., elements of language are combined according to rules.Language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistics symbol and what the symbol stands.Language is vocal because the primary medium for all languages is sound.The term “human” in the definition is meant to specify that language is human-specific.5.Design features of language6.(1) Arbitrariness 任意性refers to the forms of linguistic signs bear no naturalrelationship to their meaning. (sounds and meanings)(2) Productivity(creativity)能产性Language is productive in that it makes possiblethe construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.(3) duality双重性The property of having two levels of structures, such that units ofthe primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.(4) displacement移位性Human Languages enable their users to symbolize objects,events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at moment of communication.(5)cultural transmission 文化传承性7.Functions of language(1) referential (to convey message and information),(2) poetic (to indulge in language for its own sake),(3) emotive (to express attitudes, feelings and emotions),(4) conative (to persuade and influence others through commands and requests),(5) phatic (to establish communion with others)(6) metalingual (to clear up intentions and meanings).①Informative(信息功能): to give information about facts. (ideational)②Interpersonal(人际功能): to establish and maintain social status in asociety.(age, sex, language, background, accent, status)③Performative(施为功能) : language is used to do things, to perform certainactions. (name, promise, apologize, sorry, declare)④. Emotive/Expressive (情感功能): to express feelings and attitudes of thespeaker.⑤Phatic communion(寒暄交流) : to use small and meaningless expressions toestablish a comfortable relationship or maintain social contact between people without any factual content. (health, weather)⑥Recreational function(娱乐): the use of language for sheer joy. (lyrics, poetry)⑦Metalingual function(元语言功能): to talk about language itself.8.9.Chapter 2 Phonology1.Phonetics（语音学）is the study of the phonic medium of language; it isconcerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages. Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived.2.Orthographic representation of speech sounds：broad transcription（宽式标音）and narrow transcription（严式标音）A broad transcription（宽式标音）is the transcription with letter-symbols only.A narrow transcription（严式标音）is a transcription with letter symbols togetherwith diacritics.3.Phonology（音位学）is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems oflanguages.4.The differences between phonetics and phonology:（语音的正字表征）①Both are concerned with the same aspect of language----the speech sounds. Butthey differ in their approach and focus.②Phonetics is of general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in allhuman languages; it aims to answer questions like: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they have, how they can be classified, etc.③Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.5.Phone（音素）, phoneme（音位）, allophone（音位变体）A phone---- a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produceduring linguistic communication are all phones.A phoneme---- is a phonological unit; it is a unit of distinctive value; an abstract unit,not a particular sound, but it is represented by a certain phone in certain phonetic context6.Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution and minimal pair.（音位对立，互补分布，最小对立体）7.Some rules of phonology（音位学规则）Sequential rules 序列规则Assimilation rule 同化规则Deletion rule省略规则8.Suprasegmental features （超音段特征）：stress重音，tone音调，intonation语调9.10.Chapter 3 Morphology1.Classification of words（1）Variable vs. invariable words:可变词类和不可变词类Variable words: One could find ordered and regular series of grammatically different word forms; on the other hand, part of the word remains constant follow, follows, following, followed; mat, matsInvariable words: those words such as since, when, seldom, through, hello. They do not have inflective endings.（2）Grammatical words vs. lexical words:语法词类和词汇词类Grammatical words: express grammatical meanings, such as conjunctions, prepositions, articles, pronounsLexical words: have lexical meanings, those which refer to substance, action and quality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs.（3）Closed-class words vs. open-class words:封闭词类和开放词类Closed-class: a word whose membership is fixed or limited. New members are not regularly added. Pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, etc.Open-class: A word whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited. Nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbsGrammatical---lexical words closed-class---open-class words2.Morphere(词素)：the minimal meaningful unit of language.3.Linguistics use the term morphology to refer the part of the grammar that isconcerned with word formation and word structure.4.Free morpheme & bound morpheme(自由语素和黏着语素)A morpheme which can be a word by itself is called a free morpheme; a morphemethat must be attached to another one is a bound morpheme.5.The variant forms of a morpheme are called its allomorphs.(词素变体)6.Inflectional affix & derivational affix(屈折词缀和派生词缀)pound: those words that consist of more than one free morphemes, the way tojoin two separate words to produce a single form.In compounds, the lexical morphemes can be of different word classes.pounds can be further divided into two kinds:the endocentric compound (向心复合词) the exocentric compound(离心复合词)9.Endocentric: one element serves as the head, the relationship of “a kind of”; egself-control: a kind of control armchair: a kind of chair10.Exocentric: there is no head, so not a relationship of “a kind of something”, egscarecrow: not a kind of crow breakneck: not a kind of neck11.Chapter 4 Syntax1.What is Syntax （句法）?Syntax is the study of the rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to form sentences. 句法就是研究语言的不同成分组成句子的规则2.Syntactic relations can be analyzed into three kinds:relations of position 位置关系relations of substitutability 替代关系relations of co-occurrence 同现关系3.4.5.Chapter 5 Semantics1.What is Semantics?Semantics is the study of the meaning of words, phrases and sentences.语义学是研究单词、短语和句子的意义的学科2.The conceptualist view①The conceptualist view holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic formand what it refers to (i.e. between language and the real world); rather, in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.②This is illustrated by the classic semantic triangle or triangle of significancesuggested by Ogden and Richard.Thought/reference/conceptSymbol/form referencentword/phrase/sentence③The symbol or form refers to the linguistic elements (words andphrases);The referent refers to the object in the world of experience;Thought or reference refers to concept.The symbol or a word signifies things by virtue of the concept associated withthe form of the word in the minds of the speaker; and the concept looked atfrom this point of view is the meaning of the word.3.The contextualismMeaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context—elements closely linked with language behavior. Two types of contexts are recognized:Situational context: spatiotemporal situationLinguistic context: the probability of a word’s co-occurrence or collocation.4.BehaviorismBehaviorists attempted to define meaning as “the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer”.5.Lexical meaningSense and reference are both concerned with the study of word meaning. They are two related but different aspects of meaning.Sense---- is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized.It is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are interested in.Reference----what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.6.Major sense relations（1）Synonymy 同义词①Dialect synonymy 方言同义词②Stylistic synonymy 文体同义词③Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning④Collocational synonyms⑤Semantically different synonyms（2）Antonym 反义词①Gradable antonyms 等级反义词②Complementary antonyms 互补反义词③Relational opposites 关系反义词（3）Polysemy 一词多义（4）Homonymy 同形异义词（5）Hyponymy 上下义关系①Superordinate 上义词②Hyponyms下义词ponential analysis 成分分析法——a way of analyze lexical meaningIt is a way proposed by the structural semanticists to analyze word meaning.The.word可编辑.approach is based on the belief that the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features.8.. 专业.专注.。

第一章语言学导论Chapter1 Invitations to LinguisticsLinguistics is nowadays coming into wide use with combination of theories and practice as wellas linguistics and other disciplines.Linguistics is of great use with very wide application. —人工智能，人机对话，机器翻译The research of linguistics has already gone beyond language itself.Definition of LinguisticsHow do you define linguistics? What is linguistics?—— Linguistics can be defined as the scientific or systematic study of language. It is a sciencein the sense that it scientifically studies the rules, systems and principles of human language.What are we going to learn about linguistics?1.It is generally agreed that linguistics should include at least five parameters, namely, phonological, morphological, syntactic, semantic and pragmatic. These can be called microlinguistics.语音学 (phonetics); 音系学 (phonology); 形态学 (morphology); 句法学 (syntax) — Schools of Modern Linguistics 现代语言学流派; 语义学 (semantics) ; 语用学 (pragmatics) (chapter2-6) 2. Macrolinguistics —— interdisciplinary learningSaussure, father of modern linguistics( 现代语言学之父) were intended to establish the autonomy of linguistics, giving it a well-defined subject of study and freeing it from reliance onother disciplines. However, the interactive links between linguistics and other sciences are developing fast.尽管索绪尔的目的是给予语言学自主性，给它定义明确的研究对象，将它从对其他学科的依赖中解放出来。

语言学第一讲Lecture One Brief Introduction to Ling and Lang1. Linguistics1.1 Definition of linguistics Page 1-2“scientific study of language”.ling is a discipline which describes lang in all its respects (e.g. its system, its internal structure, its social functions, its use and its historical development) and formulates theories as to how it works.1.2linguistics versus traditional grammarTraditional grammar, as a pre-20th century language description andpre-linguistic product of research, was based upon earlier grammars of Latin or Greek, and laid emphasis on correctness, literary excellence, the use of Latin models, and the priority of written language----A gram which states rules for what is considered the best or most correct usage. The three sources from which the rules of prescriptive gram come:1)Latin and Greek----unchanging form of these langs----high prestige in European education----brilliance of classical literature.e.g “It is I” and not “It is me”2) the written langespecially the works of great writers. People are told to speak as they would write.e.g Whom did you speak to?3) LogicGram should be judged insofar as it follows the principles of logic.e.g You shouldn’t say“I haven’t done nothing”I don’t know nothing about the matter. (一无所知)Nobody hardly took notice of him. (几乎没有一个人注意他)Features of Modern linguistics----priority is given to spoken language;----focus is on synchronic study of contemporary language than in the study of the evolution of languages;----modern linguistics is descriptive rather than prescriptive in nature;----it is theoretically rather than pedagogically oriented.1.3. Use of studying linguistics Page 3-41.4 The scope of linguistics Page 4-8Linguistics can be classified from different angles1) general linguistics, particular linguistics,2) synchronic linguistics and diachronic linguistics3) comparative-historical linguistics and contrastive linguistics4) theoretical linguistics, applied linguistics (the structure/system)5) prescriptive ling, descriptive ling6) microlinguistics and macrolinguisticsMicrolinguistics:Phonetics ----Phonology---Morphology--Syntax---Semantics---PragmaticsMacrolinguistics:Sociolinguistics—Psycholinguistics—Neurolinguistics—Anthropological linguistics---Applied linguistics---Corpus linguistics----Discourse Analysis----Cognitive linguistics----Computational linguistics----. ExerciseComment on the differences between human language and animal communication, and provide examples if you can.第二讲differences between human language and animal communication：1) language has the ability to refer to things far removed in time and space. Human frequently say things such as “My uncle went to Shanghai last week.”. In contrast, it may be impossible for an animal to convey similar information.2) humans have the ability to produce and understand an indefinite number of novel utterances, but no animal can communicate creatively with another animal.3) learning/acquiring is much more important as a factor in human language than in animal communication.4) Human language structure and language use are vastly more complex than any known animal communication system.5) animal communication systems are closed, whereas human languages are open-ended.6) humans can perform acts with language.2. Language2.1 Definition of language (Page 8)Tool for human communicationMeans by which we express our feeling…..Comprehensive definitionIt is really just as difficult to define language as it is to define man.人：是一切社会关系的总和；是唯一能把动物养成宠物和煮成食物的动物；是一种会笑的动物；"Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication"Wardhaugh in his "Introduction to Linguistics" (1972).（语言是用于人类交际的、任意的、有声的符号系统）Short as it is, this definition has captured the main features of language.First of all, language is a system.Second, language is arbitrary.Third, language is vocal.Fourth, language is symbolic.Fifth, language is used for human communication and language ishuman-specific.2.2 Origine of language (page3-4)In general, there are two contrasting viewpoints: the divinist and evolutionist The divinists---- ----language was God’s gift to mankindAccording to Christian beliefs, God gave Adam the power to name all things. Whatever Adam called everything God created. Language is the creation of God. Evolutionists----language is the product of human evolution. It was originated in the process of labor.According to the evolution theory proposed by Darwin, language is a product of evolutionary development of the human species. It is a human invention.The earliest human being is believed to live in Africa around 200,000 years ago, and modern language emerged perhaps around 100,000 years ago (Aitchison, 1996). In the beginning there was one language developed by Afican men. As these ancient ancestors walked out of Afica and spread around the world about 35, 000 to 12, 000 years ago, more and more languages were developed.2.3 Design Features of Language1) Arbitrariness---There is no logical (intrinsic or direct) connection between the sound/sign and meaning, between the word and its object, between the grammar and the meaning it carries;or the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.A building we live in with our family is called house in English, maison in French, dom in Russion, casa in Spanish, fangzi in ChineseHowever, language is not entirely arbitrary; there are cases where there seems to be some association between sounds and meaning, e.g.Onomatopoetic words: P10Motivated wordsSome compound words: tractor driver shoe-makerThe other side of the coin of arbitrariness is conventionality. The link between linguistic sign and its meaning is a matter of convention.A pair of trousers----一条裤子 A pair of shirts---两件衬衣Go shopping *go buying go hunting冬瓜(white gourd) （夏天吃的）北戴河is not a river 中南海is not a sea.食堂餐厅*餐堂*食厅英国的语言----英语英文中国的语言----中文（*中语）汉语昨天昨晚*昨早*昨月*昨年去年*去天*去晚*去月明天明年*明月*明周今天今年*今月两百二十元----*二百两十元二百五----傻里傻气的人生前好友（死前好友）已婚夫妇未婚妻（未婚怎么能称妻）三长两短、七上八下三下五除二2) DualityTwo levels:Lower level---- a limited set of sounds, meaninglessHigher level----units of meaning coming from the combination of the units of lower level Phoneme—morpheme—words—phrase—clause—sentence3) Productivity/creativity--The users of a language can utilize limited linguistic rules to produce or understand infinite meaningful linguistic forms, including those they have never heard before.This is the cat that killed the rat that ate the malt that lay in the house that Jack built.The man that the girl that my wife taught married published many poems.(和我妻子教的那个女孩结婚的那个男人发表了许多诗)他一边脱衣服，一边穿裤子。