第一、二讲Linguistics vs. Sociolinguistics

LINGUISTICSChapter one INTRODUCTION1. What is linguistics?⏹the scientific study of language2. What is language?⏹a system whose parts can and must be considered in their synchronic solidarity)--Ferdinand de Saussure (1857-1913): Course in General Linguistics (1916)⏹a set (finite or infinite) of sentences, each finite in length and constructed out of a finite set of elements(Chomsky,1957)—一种有限或无限的句子系列，每一句子的长度有限，并由一种有限的成分系统构成。

⏹--Noam Chomsky (1928- ): Syntactic Structures (1957)⏹a purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating ,ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols(Sapir,1921)—--Edward Sapir (1884-1939):Language: An Introduction to the Study of Speech (1921)⏹一种纯人类的和非本能的、⏹借助自发产生的符号以交流思想、⏹情感和意愿的方法。

⏹a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.--Ronald Wardhaugh: Introduction to Linguistics (1977)3. (Design)Features of Human Language⏹Arbitrariness⏹Duality⏹Creativity⏹Displacement⏹duality二重性:language as a system with 2 subsystems/structures/levels---meaninglesssounds and units of meaning grouped and regrouped with sounds⏹creativity (productivity)创造性: provides opportunities for sendingmessages that have never been sent before and for understanding novel messages. displacement:移位性can be used to refer to things real or imagined, past, present or future [no matter how eloquently a dog may bark, he cannot tell you that his parents were poor but honest.]⏹4.The functions of Language⏹ 6 functions(by Jacobson):referential,poitic,emotive,conative,phatic,metalingual function(所指、诗学、感情、意动、元语言功能)⏹ 4 functions(by Halliday):⏹the ideational function表意功能: language as a medium that links a person with the world⏹the interpersonal function人际功能: as a medium to get along in a community⏹the textual function篇章功能: create relevance to context⏹5.Some Important Distinctions⏹5.1 prescriptive vs. descriptive规定与描述: aims to lay down rules to tell people what they should say and what they not say.aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use;⏹5.2 synchronic vs. diachronic共时与历时: the description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study ; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.⏹5.3 Langue vs. parole语言与言语: by F. de. Saussure索绪尔. French words. Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of a langue in actual use. Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to abide by, and parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules. Langue is abstract; it is not the language people actually use. Parole is concrete; it refers to the naturally occurring language events. Langue is relatively stable, it does not change frequently; parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.⏹6.Branches of linguistics:⏹microlinguistics introduced in the charter behind.⏹macrolinguistics:Sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, cognitive linguistics,etc.Chapter 2 PHONETICS1.What is phonetics语音学? The study of speech sounds2. Organs of speech: the pharyngeal cavity---the throatthe oral cavity—the mouth,the nasal cavity—the nose3 Broad and narrow transcriptionsInternational Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), a widely used standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription. The basic principle of the IPA is using one letter selected from major European languages to represent a sound.IPA provides it users with another set of symbols called diacritics. (变音符, 如façade上所加的变音符号或résumé上表示发高音的记号)●Broad transcription:letter-symbols only, used in dictionaries and textbooks for general purposes.●Narrow transcription:letter-symbols with diacritics, representing more fine details, used by phoneticians4.Classification of English speech sounds: vowels and consonants---the obstruction of air-stream4.1 classification of vowels: they are differentiated by a number of factors:the position of the tongue in the mouth: the front---[]the central---the back---the openness of the mouth: the close ---the semi-close ---the semi-open---the open---the shape of the lips:the rounded---all the back vowels with the exception of [a]the un-rounded—all the front vowels and central vowels4.2 classification of consonants;Chapter3 PHONOLOGY⏹1. What is phonology音位学?The study of sound systems and patterns. focuses on three fundamental questions: What sounds make up the list of sounds that can distinguish meaning in a particular language? What sounds vary in what ways in what context? What sounds can appear together in a sequence in a particular language?⏹2. Phonology vs. phonetics: concerned with the same aspect of language---the speech sounds, but differ in their approach and focus. Phonetics is of a general nature . It is interested in all the speech sounds in all human languages.⏹Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguisticcommunication. The conclusion we reach about the phonology of one language is very often language specific and should not be applied to another language without discretion.⏹3. Phone音素, phoneme音位, and allophone音位变体:⏹3.1 A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. But a phone does not necessarily distinguish meaning.⏹3.2 A phoneme is an abstract unit. It is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context.⏹3.3 An allophone: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic context are called the allophones of that phoneme.⏹In words” feel” and” leaf”, there are four phones [f, i:, l, ł], but three phonemes/f, i:, l/, and phonemes, the dark [ł ]and clear[ l ]are the allophones of the phoneme/ l / .●4 Phonemic contrast: as two distinctive phonemes, /p/ and /b/ in [pit] and [bit]●5 Complementary distribution: allophones of the same phoneme occurring in different phonetic environments, e.g. clear [l] and dark [ł]●6 Minimal pair: Two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, pill and bill,till and kill, kill and dill7.Some rules in phonologySequential rules: rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language, blik but not lbki; there are rules governing the combination of three consonants clustering together (see p. 26); phonological patterning is language specific, e.g. [☠] not as initial inEnglish and standard Chinese, but can occur in Vietnamese, Shanghai dialect and Cantonese●Assimilation rules:when a sound is pronounced, the feature of the consonant which follows it is copied, vowels may be nasalized in bean, green, and team;and in incorrect [n] becomes [☠]; assimilation reflected in spelling: impossible for inpossible●Deletion rules: the sound is deleted when it occurs before a final nasalconsonant, e.g. sign, design, and paradigm8.Suprasegmental features : stress, tone, intonationAttention: such features also convey meanings.●Chapter4 MORPHOLOGY1.What is morphology形态学?The study of the internal structure of words and the rules by which the words are formed .2.Open class: nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs to which new words can be added. For example: beatnik (a person who rejects or avoids conventional behavior)3.Closed class: conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns to which new word are not usually added4.morpheme: the minimal meaningful unit of language.5.Classification of morphemes语素:5.1 free morphemes: roots, morphemes as words5.2 bound morphemes: affixes, morphemes attached to free morphemes to form new words5.3 inflectional morphemes: morphemes indicating case and number of n.s, tense and aspect of v.s, and degree of adj.s and adv.s5.4 derivational morphemes: bound morphemesadded to existing forms to construct new words6.Formation of English words6.1 derivation:forms a word by adding an affix to a free morpheme.Since derivation can apply more than once,it is possible to creae a derived word with a number of affixes.6.2 compounding:the combination of free morphemes.6.3 others: conversion, clipping, blending, backformation, acronyms and abbreviations, etc⏹Conversion:a process that puts an existing word of one class into another class.This happens more frequently between n.s and v.s.e.g.LOOK in take a look is a noun converted from a verb.⏹Clipping :A process that shortens a word ,e.g.bus-omnibus,gym-gymnasium⏹Blending:To create a new word by combining one part of a word with one part of another word.e.g.motor+hotel=motel,breastfast+lunch=brunch⏹Backformation:To create a new word by dropping a real or supposed suffix.e.g.edit--editor⏹Acronym&abbreviation:Putting together the initial letters of some words.The difference between the two is the former can be read as a word .The latter,letter by letter.NATO,USA…….Chapter5 SYNTAX⏹1.What is syntax句法学?How words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.⏹2.Different approaches to syntax: Knowledge of sentence structure is the object of study of all schools of grammar. One school of grammar is comparatively more successful in dealing with certain aspects of syntax. Among all grammars, four appear to be well recognized, namely, traditional grammar, structural grammar, T.G grammar and systemic-functional grammar.⏹2.1 traditional G.:initially based on European languages, particularly on Latin and Greek. termed pedagogic grammar. In analyzing sentences, the method adopted is called parsing切分法.⏹1) identifying elements of the sentence,⏹2) identifying part of speech of each word⏹3) pointing out the inflection of the words,⏹4) describing the relationship between the words,⏹5) generalizing the order of the words.(3 weaknesses)⏹2.2 structural grammar:the early 20 century. American anthropologists and linguists. dying American Indian language. 2 concepts: form class形式类, immediate constituent 直接成分.⏹ A sentence can be cut into sections. Each section is its immediate constituent. Then each section can be further cut into constituent. This on-going cutting is termed immediate constituent analysis. This way of syntactic analysis adds a new dimension to the analysis of sentence structure. IC analysis can accounting for the linearity and the hierarchy of sentence structure, and, therefore, structural ambiguity .(but no pedagogic grammar of a language has been written following this approach )⏹2.3 T.G grammar转换生成语法: TO Chomsky, a grammar as the tacit shared knowledge of all speakers is a system of finite rules by which an infinite number of sentences can be generated. The task of the linguist is to describe adequately this system of rules and explain how they wok.⏹ 2.3.1 The model of the standard theory 标准理论based on Chomsky1965 :⏹According to the model, we select words from the lexicon (our mental dictionary) and string them together, following P.S rules. The sentence structure at this stage is the deep structure, which will be further manipulated according to transformational rules. The actual form of the sentence is the surface structure, which is represented phonetically in speech or orthographically in writing. If this model is right, then writing a TG grammar of a language means working out 2 sets of rules which are followed by speakers of the language.⏹2.3.2 P.S rules短语规则: rules that specify the constituents of syntactic categories. They are part of speaker's syntactic knowledge. Such knowledge exists in the mind of speakers.4 tentative ps rules:⏹A)S →NP VP⏹B)NP →[(Det) (Adj) N⏹[Pron⏹C)VP →(Aux) V (NP)(PP)⏹D)PP →P NP⏹2.3.3转换及转换规则transformational rules⏹我们在谈及转换时需要引入两个概念：深层结构（Deep Structure简称DS）和表层结构（Surface Structure简称SS）。

第1章导言1.1复习笔记本章要点：1.The definition and main branches of linguistics study语言学的定义和研究的范围2.The definition and the origins of language语言的定义与起源3.The design feature and the function of language语言的特征和功能4.Some major concepts in linguistics语言学中重要的概念本章考点：1.有关语言学的常考考点(1)语言学的定义，现代语言学与传统语法学研究的区别。

(2)语言学中几组重要概念，每组两个概念的含义、区分及其意义。

(3)普通语言学的主要分支学科及各自的研究范畴。

(4)宏观语言学及应用语言学的主要分支及各自的研究范畴。

2.有关语言的常考考点(1)语言的定义；语言的基本特征(任意性、二重性、多产性、移位性、互换性、专门性和文化传递性)；(2)语言的功能(寒暄、指示、信息、疑问、表达、劝说和施为)；(3)语言的起源(叮咚说、唱歌说、哒哒说、汪汪、噗噗、哟嘿吼理论等。

)本章内容索引：I.Definition of linguisticsII.Linguistics vs.traditional grammarIII.Scope of linguistics1.Microlinguistics2.MacrolinguisticsIV.Definition of languageV.Origins of language1.Ding-Dong Theory2.Sing-Song Theory3.Pooh-Pooh Theory4.Yo-He-Ho Theory5.Ta-Ta Theory6.Bow-Wow TheoryVI.Design features of language1.Arbitrariness2.Duality3.Productivity4.Interchangeability5.Displacement6.Specialization7.Cultural transmissionVII.Functions of language1.Phatic function/communion2.Directive functionrmative function4.Interrogative function5.Expressive function6.Evocative function7.Performative functionVIII.Some major concepts in linguistics1.Descriptive and prescriptive grammar2.Synchronic and diachronic linguisticsngue and parolepetence and performance5.Syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations6.Functionalism and formalismI.Definition of linguistics(语言学的定义)【考点：名词解释】The scientific or systemic study of language,which is always guided by the-three canons ofscience:exhaustiveness,consistency and economy.语言学是对语言的科学或系统的研究。

《英语语言学》导学手册程可拉主编英语语言学教学大纲一、教学目的和要求英语语言学是英语本科专业的自考课程。

本课程的目的是帮助学生系统地学习语言学基本理论知识和研究方法，为从事英语语言教学与研究打下良好的基础。

本课程教学的具体要求是：１．系统掌握语言学的基本理论和基本知识。

２．能应用语言学知识分析各种语言现象。

３．能应用语言学的基本理论来指导中学英语教学。

二、教学内容I. Introduction1. Linguistics1.1 What is linguistics?1.2 Linguistics vs. traditional grammar1.3 The scope of linguistics2. Language2.1 What is language?2.2 The defining properties of human languageII. Phonology1. The phonic medium of language2. Phonetics2.1 What is phonetics?2.2 The speech organs2.3 Narrow and broad transcriptions2.4 Some major articulatory variables2.5 Classification of English speech sounds3. Phonology3.1 Phonetics and phonology3.2 Phone, phoneme and allophone3.3 Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, and minimal pair3.4 Some rules of phonology3.5 Suprasegmental features---Stress, tone, intonationIII. Morphology1. Morphology1.1 Open classes and closed classes1.2 Internal structure of words and rules for word formation2. Morphemes---the minimal units of meaning3. Derivational and inflectional morphemes4. Morphological rules of word formation5. CompoundsIV. Syntax1. Syntax1.1 What is syntax?1.2 Sentence2. Structuralist approach2.1 Form classes2.2 Constituent structure2.3 Immediate constituent analysis2.4 Endocentric and exocentric constructions2.5 Advantage of IC analysis2.6 Labelled tree diagram2.7 Discontinuous constituents3. Transformational-generative grammar3.1 Competence and performance3.2 Criteria for judging grammars3.3 Generative aspect3.4 Transformational aspect3.5 Deep and surface structures4. The Standard Theory4.1 Components of a TG4.2 The base4.3 Transformations4.4 The form of T-rules4.5 The phonological component4.6 The semantic componentV. Semantics1. Semantics1.1 What is semantics?2. Some views on semantics2.1 Naming things2.2 Concepts2.3 Context and behaviourism2.4 Mentalism3. Lexical meaning3.1 Sense and reference3.2 Synonymy3.3 Polysemy and homonymy3.4 Hyponymy3.5 Antonymy3.6 Relational opposites4. Componential analysis4.1 Componets of meaning4.2 Meaning relations in terms of componential analysis5. Sentence meaning5.1 How to define the meaning of a sentence?5.2 Selectional restrictions5.3 Basic statements about meaning6. The semantic structure of sentences6.1 Extended use of componential analysis6.2 Prediction analysis6.3 Subordinate and downgraded predictions6.4 Advantages of predication analysisVI. Pragmatics1. What does pragmatics study?2. Speech act theory3. Principles of conversation3.1 The co-operative principle3.2 The politeness principleVII. Language change1. Introduction2. Sound change3. Morphological and syntactic change3.1 Change in “agreement” rule3.2 Change in negation rule3.3 Process of simplification3.4 Loss of inflections4. V ocabulary change4.1 Addition of new words4.2 Loss of words4.3 Changes in the meaning of words5. Some recent trends5.1 Moving towards greater informality5.2 The influence of American English5.3 The influence of science and technology6. Causes of language changeVIII. Language and society1. The scope of sociolinguistics1.1 Indications of relatedness between language and society1.2 Sociolinguistics vs. traditional linguistic study1.3 Two approaches in sociolinguistics2. Varieties of language2.1 Varieties of language related to the user2.2 Standard dialect2.3 Varieties of language related to the use3. Communicative competence4. Pidgin and creole5. Bilingualism and diglossiaIX. Language and culture1. Introduction2. What is culture?3. Language and meaning4. Interdependence of language and culture5. The significance of cultural teaching and learning6. Linguistics evidence of cultural differences6.1 Greetings6.2 Thanks and compliments6.3 Terms of address6.4 Colour words6.5 Privacy and taboos6.6 Rounding off numbers7. Cultural overlap and diffusion8. ConclusionX. Language acquisition1. Introduction1.1 Language acquisition1.2 The beginning of language1.3 Stages in first language acquisition1.4 Age and native language acquisition1.5 Common order in the development of language1.6 Different rate of language development2. Phonological development2.1 Regular sound development2.2 Mother and father words2.3 Grammatical development2.4 Vocabulary development2.5 Sociolinguistic development3. Theories of child language acquisition3.1 A behaviorist view of language acquisition3.2 A nativist view of language acquisitionXI. Errors analysis and second language acquisition1. Differences and similarities between first and second language acquisition2. The inadequacy of imitation theory3. Interference3.1 Phonological evidence3.2 Lexical evidence3.3 Grammatical evidence4. Cross-association5. Overgeneralization6. Strategies of communication7. Performance errors三、教学原则和方法１．启发式教学原则：教师积极引导学生理解分析问题，发挥学生的主观能动性，培养他们综合分析问题解决问题的能力。

Chapter 1 Introduction1. What is linguistics? Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study oflanguage.2.The scope of linguistics:(1 ). phonetics 语音学；phonology 音位学；morphology 形态学；syntax 句法学；pragmatics 语用学(2). sociolinguistics 社会语言学；psycholinguistics 心理语言学；applied linguistics应用语言学3.Some important distinction in linguistics(1)Descriptive vs. prescriptive 描述性与规定性①If a linguistics study aims to describe and analyze the language peopleactually use, it is said to be descriptive;②If the linguistics study aims to lay down rules for” correct and standard”behavior in using language, i.e. to tell people what they should say andwhat they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.(2)Synchronic vs. diachronic 共时性与历时性①A synchronic description takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily,the present) as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind.②Diachronic linguistics is the study of a language through the course of its history.(2)Langue & parole 语言与会话①Language refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all themembers of a speech community.②Parole refers to the realization of language in actual use.(4)Competence and performance 语言能力与语言运用①A language user's unconscious knowledge about the system of rules iscalled his linguistic competence.②Performance refers to the actual use of language in concrete situations.(5)speech and writing 语言与文字Speech and writing are the two major media of communication.(6)traditional grammar and modern linguistic 传统语法与现代语言学4.Definition of language:Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Language is a system, i.e., elements of language are combined according to rules.Language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistics symbol and what the symbol stands.Language is vocal because the primary medium for all languages is sound.The term “human” in the definition is meant to specify that language is human-specific.5.Design features of language6.(1) Arbitrariness 任意性refers to the forms of linguistic signs bear no naturalrelationship to their meaning. (sounds and meanings)(2) Productivity(creativity)能产性Language is productive in that it makes possiblethe construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.(3) duality双重性The property of having two levels of structures, such that units ofthe primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.(4) displacement移位性Human Languages enable their users to symbolize objects,events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at moment of communication.(5)cultural transmission 文化传承性7.Functions of language(1) referential (to convey message and information),(2) poetic (to indulge in language for its own sake),(3) emotive (to express attitudes, feelings and emotions),(4) conative (to persuade and influence others through commands and requests),(5) phatic (to establish communion with others)(6) metalingual (to clear up intentions and meanings).①Informative(信息功能): to give information about facts. (ideational)②Interpersonal(人际功能): to establish and maintain social status in asociety.(age, sex, language, background, accent, status)③Performative(施为功能) : language is used to do things, to perform certainactions. (name, promise, apologize, sorry, declare)④. Emotive/Expressive (情感功能): to express feelings and attitudes of thespeaker.⑤Phatic communion(寒暄交流) : to use small and meaningless expressions toestablish a comfortable relationship or maintain social contact between people without any factual content. (health, weather)⑥Recreational function(娱乐): the use of language for sheer joy. (lyrics, poetry)⑦Metalingual function(元语言功能): to talk about language itself.8.9.Chapter 2 Phonology1.Phonetics（语音学）is the study of the phonic medium of language; it isconcerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages. Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived.2.Orthographic representation of speech sounds：broad transcription（宽式标音）and narrow transcription（严式标音）A broad transcription（宽式标音）is the transcription with letter-symbols only.A narrow transcription（严式标音）is a transcription with letter symbols togetherwith diacritics.3.Phonology（音位学）is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems oflanguages.4.The differences between phonetics and phonology:（语音的正字表征）①Both are concerned with the same aspect of language----the speech sounds. Butthey differ in their approach and focus.②Phonetics is of general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in allhuman languages; it aims to answer questions like: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they have, how they can be classified, etc.③Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.5.Phone（音素）, phoneme（音位）, allophone（音位变体）A phone---- a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produceduring linguistic communication are all phones.A phoneme---- is a phonological unit; it is a unit of distinctive value; an abstract unit,not a particular sound, but it is represented by a certain phone in certain phonetic context6.Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution and minimal pair.（音位对立，互补分布，最小对立体）7.Some rules of phonology（音位学规则）Sequential rules 序列规则Assimilation rule 同化规则Deletion rule省略规则8.Suprasegmental features （超音段特征）：stress重音，tone音调，intonation语调9.10.Chapter 3 Morphology1.Classification of words（1）Variable vs. invariable words:可变词类和不可变词类Variable words: One could find ordered and regular series of grammatically different word forms; on the other hand, part of the word remains constant follow, follows, following, followed; mat, matsInvariable words: those words such as since, when, seldom, through, hello. They do not have inflective endings.（2）Grammatical words vs. lexical words:语法词类和词汇词类Grammatical words: express grammatical meanings, such as conjunctions, prepositions, articles, pronounsLexical words: have lexical meanings, those which refer to substance, action and quality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs.（3）Closed-class words vs. open-class words:封闭词类和开放词类Closed-class: a word whose membership is fixed or limited. New members are not regularly added. Pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, etc.Open-class: A word whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited. Nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbsGrammatical---lexical words closed-class---open-class words2.Morphere(词素)：the minimal meaningful unit of language.3.Linguistics use the term morphology to refer the part of the grammar that isconcerned with word formation and word structure.4.Free morpheme & bound morpheme(自由语素和黏着语素)A morpheme which can be a word by itself is called a free morpheme; a morphemethat must be attached to another one is a bound morpheme.5.The variant forms of a morpheme are called its allomorphs.(词素变体)6.Inflectional affix & derivational affix(屈折词缀和派生词缀)pound: those words that consist of more than one free morphemes, the way tojoin two separate words to produce a single form.In compounds, the lexical morphemes can be of different word classes.pounds can be further divided into two kinds:the endocentric compound (向心复合词) the exocentric compound(离心复合词)9.Endocentric: one element serves as the head, the relationship of “a kind of”; egself-control: a kind of control armchair: a kind of chair10.Exocentric: there is no head, so not a relationship of “a kind of something”, egscarecrow: not a kind of crow breakneck: not a kind of neck11.Chapter 4 Syntax1.What is Syntax （句法）?Syntax is the study of the rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to form sentences. 句法就是研究语言的不同成分组成句子的规则2.Syntactic relations can be analyzed into three kinds:relations of position 位置关系relations of substitutability 替代关系relations of co-occurrence 同现关系3.4.5.Chapter 5 Semantics1.What is Semantics?Semantics is the study of the meaning of words, phrases and sentences.语义学是研究单词、短语和句子的意义的学科2.The conceptualist view①The conceptualist view holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic formand what it refers to (i.e. between language and the real world); rather, in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.②This is illustrated by the classic semantic triangle or triangle of significancesuggested by Ogden and Richard.Thought/reference/conceptSymbol/form referencentword/phrase/sentence③The symbol or form refers to the linguistic elements (words andphrases);The referent refers to the object in the world of experience;Thought or reference refers to concept.The symbol or a word signifies things by virtue of the concept associated withthe form of the word in the minds of the speaker; and the concept looked atfrom this point of view is the meaning of the word.3.The contextualismMeaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context—elements closely linked with language behavior. Two types of contexts are recognized:Situational context: spatiotemporal situationLinguistic context: the probability of a word’s co-occurrence or collocation.4.BehaviorismBehaviorists attempted to define meaning as “the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer”.5.Lexical meaningSense and reference are both concerned with the study of word meaning. They are two related but different aspects of meaning.Sense---- is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized.It is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are interested in.Reference----what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.6.Major sense relations（1）Synonymy 同义词①Dialect synonymy 方言同义词②Stylistic synonymy 文体同义词③Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning④Collocational synonyms⑤Semantically different synonyms（2）Antonym 反义词①Gradable antonyms 等级反义词②Complementary antonyms 互补反义词③Relational opposites 关系反义词（3）Polysemy 一词多义（4）Homonymy 同形异义词（5）Hyponymy 上下义关系①Superordinate 上义词②Hyponyms下义词ponential analysis 成分分析法——a way of analyze lexical meaningIt is a way proposed by the structural semanticists to analyze word meaning.The.word可编辑.approach is based on the belief that the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features.8.. 专业.专注.。

第一章语言学导论Chapter1 Invitations to LinguisticsLinguistics is nowadays coming into wide use with combination of theories and practice as wellas linguistics and other disciplines.Linguistics is of great use with very wide application. —人工智能，人机对话，机器翻译The research of linguistics has already gone beyond language itself.Definition of LinguisticsHow do you define linguistics? What is linguistics?—— Linguistics can be defined as the scientific or systematic study of language. It is a sciencein the sense that it scientifically studies the rules, systems and principles of human language.What are we going to learn about linguistics?1.It is generally agreed that linguistics should include at least five parameters, namely, phonological, morphological, syntactic, semantic and pragmatic. These can be called microlinguistics.语音学 (phonetics); 音系学 (phonology); 形态学 (morphology); 句法学 (syntax) — Schools of Modern Linguistics 现代语言学流派; 语义学 (semantics) ; 语用学 (pragmatics) (chapter2-6) 2. Macrolinguistics —— interdisciplinary learningSaussure, father of modern linguistics( 现代语言学之父) were intended to establish the autonomy of linguistics, giving it a well-defined subject of study and freeing it from reliance onother disciplines. However, the interactive links between linguistics and other sciences are developing fast.尽管索绪尔的目的是给予语言学自主性，给它定义明确的研究对象，将它从对其他学科的依赖中解放出来。

语言学第一讲Lecture One Brief Introduction to Ling and Lang1. Linguistics1.1 Definition of linguistics Page 1-2“scientific study of language”.ling is a discipline which describes lang in all its respects (e.g. its system, its internal structure, its social functions, its use and its historical development) and formulates theories as to how it works.1.2linguistics versus traditional grammarTraditional grammar, as a pre-20th century language description andpre-linguistic product of research, was based upon earlier grammars of Latin or Greek, and laid emphasis on correctness, literary excellence, the use of Latin models, and the priority of written language----A gram which states rules for what is considered the best or most correct usage. The three sources from which the rules of prescriptive gram come:1)Latin and Greek----unchanging form of these langs----high prestige in European education----brilliance of classical literature.e.g “It is I” and not “It is me”2) the written langespecially the works of great writers. People are told to speak as they would write.e.g Whom did you speak to?3) LogicGram should be judged insofar as it follows the principles of logic.e.g You shouldn’t say“I haven’t done nothing”I don’t know nothing about the matter. (一无所知)Nobody hardly took notice of him. (几乎没有一个人注意他)Features of Modern linguistics----priority is given to spoken language;----focus is on synchronic study of contemporary language than in the study of the evolution of languages;----modern linguistics is descriptive rather than prescriptive in nature;----it is theoretically rather than pedagogically oriented.1.3. Use of studying linguistics Page 3-41.4 The scope of linguistics Page 4-8Linguistics can be classified from different angles1) general linguistics, particular linguistics,2) synchronic linguistics and diachronic linguistics3) comparative-historical linguistics and contrastive linguistics4) theoretical linguistics, applied linguistics (the structure/system)5) prescriptive ling, descriptive ling6) microlinguistics and macrolinguisticsMicrolinguistics:Phonetics ----Phonology---Morphology--Syntax---Semantics---PragmaticsMacrolinguistics:Sociolinguistics—Psycholinguistics—Neurolinguistics—Anthropological linguistics---Applied linguistics---Corpus linguistics----Discourse Analysis----Cognitive linguistics----Computational linguistics----. ExerciseComment on the differences between human language and animal communication, and provide examples if you can.第二讲differences between human language and animal communication：1) language has the ability to refer to things far removed in time and space. Human frequently say things such as “My uncle went to Shanghai last week.”. In contrast, it may be impossible for an animal to convey similar information.2) humans have the ability to produce and understand an indefinite number of novel utterances, but no animal can communicate creatively with another animal.3) learning/acquiring is much more important as a factor in human language than in animal communication.4) Human language structure and language use are vastly more complex than any known animal communication system.5) animal communication systems are closed, whereas human languages are open-ended.6) humans can perform acts with language.2. Language2.1 Definition of language (Page 8)Tool for human communicationMeans by which we express our feeling…..Comprehensive definitionIt is really just as difficult to define language as it is to define man.人：是一切社会关系的总和；是唯一能把动物养成宠物和煮成食物的动物；是一种会笑的动物；"Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication"Wardhaugh in his "Introduction to Linguistics" (1972).（语言是用于人类交际的、任意的、有声的符号系统）Short as it is, this definition has captured the main features of language.First of all, language is a system.Second, language is arbitrary.Third, language is vocal.Fourth, language is symbolic.Fifth, language is used for human communication and language ishuman-specific.2.2 Origine of language (page3-4)In general, there are two contrasting viewpoints: the divinist and evolutionist The divinists---- ----language was God’s gift to mankindAccording to Christian beliefs, God gave Adam the power to name all things. Whatever Adam called everything God created. Language is the creation of God. Evolutionists----language is the product of human evolution. It was originated in the process of labor.According to the evolution theory proposed by Darwin, language is a product of evolutionary development of the human species. It is a human invention.The earliest human being is believed to live in Africa around 200,000 years ago, and modern language emerged perhaps around 100,000 years ago (Aitchison, 1996). In the beginning there was one language developed by Afican men. As these ancient ancestors walked out of Afica and spread around the world about 35, 000 to 12, 000 years ago, more and more languages were developed.2.3 Design Features of Language1) Arbitrariness---There is no logical (intrinsic or direct) connection between the sound/sign and meaning, between the word and its object, between the grammar and the meaning it carries;or the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.A building we live in with our family is called house in English, maison in French, dom in Russion, casa in Spanish, fangzi in ChineseHowever, language is not entirely arbitrary; there are cases where there seems to be some association between sounds and meaning, e.g.Onomatopoetic words: P10Motivated wordsSome compound words: tractor driver shoe-makerThe other side of the coin of arbitrariness is conventionality. The link between linguistic sign and its meaning is a matter of convention.A pair of trousers----一条裤子 A pair of shirts---两件衬衣Go shopping *go buying go hunting冬瓜(white gourd) （夏天吃的）北戴河is not a river 中南海is not a sea.食堂餐厅*餐堂*食厅英国的语言----英语英文中国的语言----中文（*中语）汉语昨天昨晚*昨早*昨月*昨年去年*去天*去晚*去月明天明年*明月*明周今天今年*今月两百二十元----*二百两十元二百五----傻里傻气的人生前好友（死前好友）已婚夫妇未婚妻（未婚怎么能称妻）三长两短、七上八下三下五除二2) DualityTwo levels:Lower level---- a limited set of sounds, meaninglessHigher level----units of meaning coming from the combination of the units of lower level Phoneme—morpheme—words—phrase—clause—sentence3) Productivity/creativity--The users of a language can utilize limited linguistic rules to produce or understand infinite meaningful linguistic forms, including those they have never heard before.This is the cat that killed the rat that ate the malt that lay in the house that Jack built.The man that the girl that my wife taught married published many poems.(和我妻子教的那个女孩结婚的那个男人发表了许多诗)他一边脱衣服，一边穿裤子。

Chapter one Introduction一、概念1.语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.一般语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.3.语言languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。

4.识别特点Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.语言识别特点是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特点。

Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性Duality双重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递⑴arbitrarinessThere is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions⑵ProductivityAnimals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send.⑶DualityLanguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels.⑷DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.⑸Cultural transmissionHuman capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals areborn with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species.5.语言能力CompetenceCompetence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.6.语言运用performancePerformance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.语言运用是所把握的规那么在语言交际中的表现。

Chapter one Linguistics1. Definition of linguistics: the scientific study of language.讲：Linguistics deals with the complicated system of language and the rules operating in it. The purpose of studying linguistics is to examine the body of facts that and to make general statements about its various elements that relate to regular rules.Linguistics tries to tell people "what language is ", "how language originates, changes and develops ", "what common characteristics that all language share ", "how language works in human communication" and many other facts about language.The founder of general linguistics: F.de Saussure, established modern linguistics as an independent science.2. Scope of linguistics （陈）2.1 In the study of intralinguistic relationships among different linguistic elements:phnetics语音学，phonology音位学，morphology形态学, syntax句法学, semantics. (These branches fall into the scope of general linguistics: the study of language in relation to other sciences.)2.1 In the study of extralinguistic relationships with the outside world:sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, applied linguistics, neurolinguistics, mathematical linguistics, pragmatics胡：Main branches of linguistics1. Phonetics: is the study of speech sounds, it includes three main areas: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, and auditory phonetics.2. Phonology: studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables.3. Morphology: studies the minimal units of meaning – morphemes and word-formation processes.4. Syntax: refers to the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language, or simply, the study of the formation of sentences.5. Semantics: examines how meaning is encoded in a language.6. Pragmatics: is the study of meaning in context.3. Approaches to languageDifferent approaches can be made in the study of language.3.1.1diachronic (or historical ) linguistics: 历时（在历史的过程中研究语言：纵向）If we make a study of language from its development in the course of time, it is termed~.3.1.2 synchronic linguistics. 共时（以固定的时间为观察角度：横向eg. 现代语言学）It is devoted to the description and analysis of a given linguistic status or stage of a particular language. 3.2. comparative linguistics.:It makes a comparative study of the similarities and differences among languages.3.3.1 descriptive linguistics (描写式): describes how a language is actually used.3.3.2 prescriptive linguistics (规定式): attempts to prescribe rules or principles for how people ought to use a lg. 辨析1) If the linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive; If the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for "correct and standard" behavior in using language, i.e. To tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.2) For example, “Don’t say X.” is a prescriptive command; “People don’t say X.” is a descriptive statement.3) The distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things are. In the 18th century, all the main European languages were studied prescriptively. However, modern linguistics is mostly descriptive because the nature of linguistics as a science determines its preoccupation with description instead of prescription.4. GrammarDefinition: in a broad sense, is a science of the structure of a language and both the syntactic and semantic rules of its generally accepted use.4.1 descriptive grammar: describes basic linguistic knowledge, explains how a lg is actually spoken or written.（邓）4.2 prescriptive grammar: prescribes the rules or principles of the grammar.4.3 pedagogical grammar: is a grammatical description of a language specially designed as an aid to teaching that lg to native or foreign learners. It emphasizes the functional aspects of grammar. 教学语法4.4 universal grammar: usually credited to Noam Chomsky, is the study of the universal features of lg.The theory suggests that linguistic ability manifests itself without being taught, and that there are properties that all natural human languages share.通用语法(baidu)\5. Schools of linguistics5.1. The traditional grammar school: attempted to lay down universally valid rules to show how a language ought to be used. It is prescriptive rather than descriptive. (Traditional grammarians overstressed the importance of written lg and paid little attention to spoken lg.)5.2. Structuralist linguistics: refers to any linguistic study of a language which is taken as an independent system of sound, grammar and vocabulary in its own right. (It is a new approach to the analysis of language. It is descriptive) 5.3 The transformational-generative grammar school: developed by Noam Chomshy and his colleagues in the middle of 1950s, appears as a synthesis of most interesting contributions to the traditional and structural schools. It is regarded as a revolution in the study of language.Universal grammar: based on a hypothesis that there are universal properties shared by all human languages, has been proposed by Noam Chomshy and his colleagues. They believe the grammar of a language represents speakers, linguistic knowledge or competence, including the sounds and words and the rules for the pronunciation, formation and interpretation of sentences. Linguistic knowledge represented in the universal grammar is not taught in schools, but innate.The development of the T.G. Grammar: 5 periods /stages1. The first period(1957-1965): is characterized by the study of the syntactic structures of language2. 2nd (1965-1970): the Standard Theory3. 3rd ( 1970-1985): is marked by The Extended Standard Theory, in which Chomsky has revised some of his original basic notions and theories.4. 4th , Chomsky developed the Extended Standard Theory into the Revised Extended Standard Theory.5. GB period: the governing and binding theory (GBT), centers around problems in government and binding.。

LINGUISTICSChapter 1 Introduction1.1 What is linguistics?Linguistics may be defined as the scientific study of language(p.1).1.1.1 The aim of linguisticsThis study aims at exploring the common properties that characterize all human languages and therefore linguists are interested in all human languages (living and dead, spoken and written).1.1.2 Linguistics as a science(1) The processa. Make observations of linguistic facts and collect sufficient data and describe them;b. Make generalizations 一般化about the facts observed;c. Formulate明确地表达hypotheses 假定to account for the facts observed;d. Test the hypotheses against further observations;e. Develop a theory about how language is constructed.(2) The principles (p.1)a. Exhaustiveness（广泛性）：One should gather all the materials relevant to investigation.b.Consistency（统一性）: There should not be contradiction and inconsistency between different parts of the total statement.c. Economy（经济性）: The linguistic structure under investigation should be maximally generalized.d. Objectivity（客观性）:This requires us to be as objective as possible in the description and analysis of data, allowing no prejudice to influence our generalization.1.2 Linguistics vs. Traditional grammar (p.2)(1) Traditional grammar: This school begins with the Greeks and the grammar of Thrax about 400B.C. It is continued by classical Latin grammarians from the 1st century to 6th century. It is characterized by the analysis based on the hypothesis that Latin Grammar is universally applicable for all languages.(2) F. de Saussure (the founder of modern linguistics) and his contributions:•Language as a system of symbols;•The arbitrariness恣意as the nature of linguistic symbols;•The distinction between langue语言and parole语言(p.16);•The distinction between synchronic完全同步的and diachronic历经时间长河的study of language (p.15);•The distinction between syntagmatic组合关系的and paradigmatic词形变化的properties of linguistic structure (p.17).•Signified受指& Signifier信号物(3) Chomsky and his contributions:•Language is defined as a set of rules;•Competence能力and performance (p.16);•Innateness天赋hypothesis;•Deep structure and surface structure.1.3 The differences between linguistics and traditional grammar (p.2)(1)Descriptive描写的and prescriptive规范的(p.15);(2)Spoken form vs. written form;(3)Attitude towards the function of Latin Grammar;(4)Attitude towards language change;(5)Scope范围of interest.1.4 The scope of linguistics (p.4)•Phonetics （语音学）•Phonology （音系学）•Morphology （形态学）•Syntax （句法学）•Semantics （语义学）•Pragmatics （语用学）1.5 Macrolinguistics宏观语言学(p.5)•Psycholinguistics （心理语言学）•Sociolinguistics （社会语言学）•Cognitive linguistics （认知语言学）•Computational linguistics （计算语言学）•Stylistics （文体语言学）•Discourse analysis （语篇分析）•Neurolinguistics （神经语言学）•Applied linguistics （应用语言学）The scope or major branches of linguistics•Theoretical linguistics1.Phonetics2.Phonology3.Morphology4.Syntax5.Semantics•Use of linguistics1.Applied linguistics2.Sociolinguistics3.Psycholinguistics……1.6 The nature of language (p.8)1.6.1 What does “language”mean?•Specific utterances表达or expressions one uses in speech or in writing in particular circumstances.•One’s idiolect.个人习语• A variety of speech or writing. /A particular system or particular purpose in particular situation.• A particular abstract抽象system underlying潜在的the totality of speech behavior of a community.•The universal properties characterizing all human natural languages.1.6.2 The definition of languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary任意的vocal元音symbols used for human communication (p.8).a. The symbolic nature of language.b. The linguistic symbol is arbitrary.c. Language is vocal.d. Language is systematic.e. The basic function of language is for communication.f. Language is human specific.1.6.3 Defining features of human language (p.10)•Arbitrariness (任意性)•Duality （二重性）•Creativity /productivity（创造性）•Interchangeability (互换性)•Displacement （移位性)•Specialization (特殊性)•Cultural transmission （文化传递性）a. Arbitrariness任意Arbitrariness --- There is not a logical and necessary connection between sounds and meanings in human language.(1) Animal’s vocal communication system has a fixed one-to-one固定的一对一connectionbetween sound patterns and specific objects or events. Besides, the sound patterns of animals are quite limited in number and the objects being referred to are also limited.(2) An onomatopoeia拟声is a word made up by imitating模仿the natural sound. Some may argue that language is non-arbitrary非任意的.e.g: the clang叮当声of a bell the ticks of a clockBut onomatopoeias are small in number in any language.(3) Compound words合成词are non-arbitrary in the sense that there is a necessary connection between the two elements in each of them.e.g: postmanEach element of a compound is entirely arbitray. Why did English people call him a “man”, but not a “dog”?b. Duality二重性Duality --- Language is a system which consists of two sets of structures, or two levels and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.Primary level --- morphemes词素, words, phrases and sentences which are meaningful. Secondary level --- a sequence of meaningless sounds or segments片段which combine to form the units of meaning.Meaningful:sentences: The girls are going shopping.phrases: NP VPwords: the + girls + are + going + shoppingmorphemes: {the} + {girl} + {s} +{be} +{s}+ {go} + {ing} + {shop}+ {ing}Meaningless:syllables音节: [ðə] + [gə:lz] + [a:] + [gəu] + [iŋ] + [∫כp] + [iŋ]sounds: [ð] + [ə] + [g] + [ə:] + [l] +[z] + [a:] + [g] +[əu] + [i] + [ŋ] + [∫]+[כ]+[p] + [i] + [ŋ]c. ProductivityProductivity --- A speaker of any language has the ability to produce a sentence he has never heard before and to understand any sentence he hears for the first time.e.g. He bought a book which was written by a teacher who taught in a school which was known for its graduates who…Q: Do you think the sounds the parrots produce have the feature of creativity?K: No. parrots can only draw their calls from the fixed repertoire which is rapidly exhausted, making any novelty impossible.d. Interchangeability可交换性Interchangeability --- Man can both produce and receive messages, and his roles as a speaker and a hearer can be exchanged at ease.e. Displacement移位Displacement is a property性质of language enabling people to talk about things remote遥远的either in space or in time.Language can refer to things removed from the immediate直接的situations of the speaker; it can be used to refer to things or events which are not present (real or imagined, in the past, present or in future).Q: Do you think the bee dance has the feature of displacement as human language?A: The bees must communicate about the food immediately on returning to the hive. Bees do not “talk”about themselves, the hives, let alone about people, animals, hopes or desires. What’s more, they do not dance about the food they discovered last month nor do they speculate推测about future discoveries.f. Specialization特殊化Specialization --- Man does not have a total physical involvement in the act of communication. Speech is a specialized activity. We use it in a detached分离manner.e.g: A mother can tell a story to her child while slicing up a cake.g. Cultural transmissionLanguage is culturally transmitted from one generation to the next by a process of learning but not genetically.从遗传学角度•Q: Why can‘t Tarzan, a human being, understand human language?•A: Language is culturally transmitted传输. The ability to speak a language is transmitted from one generation to the next by a process of teaching and learning, but not genetically.1.6.4 Origin of language (p.9)•Ding-dong theory: primitive原始的简单的man giving vocal expression to the objects he encountered遇到•Sing-song歌咏theory: primitive ritual仪式songs of praise•Pooh-pooh发呸声theory: interjections感叹词which express the speaker’s emotions •Ye-he-ho theory: the cries叫喊uttered发出while working•Ta-ta再见theory: combination of certain gestures and tongue movements•Bow-wow狗汪汪叫声theory: imitation of animal cries and other sounds in nature1.7 Functions of language (p.13)•Informative教育性的function: declarative陈述的sentences•Phatic交流感情的communion: farewells, comments on weather•Directive function: imperatives祈使句•Interrogative疑问词function: questions•Expressive function: My God!•Evocative唤起的function: jokes, advertising, propaganda宣传•Performative述行成分function: I declare宣布the meeting open.1.8 Important distinctions区别in linguistics (p.15)(1) Descriptive vs. prescriptive（描述与规定）(two types of linguistic study):If the linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language, it is descriptive；if the study aims to prescribe规定how things ought to be (to lay down rules for ‘correct and standard’behavior in using language), it is prescriptive.a. Do/Don’t say X.b. People do/don’t say X.(2) Synchronic vs. Diachronic（共时与历时）(two types of linguistic descriptive study):A synchronic description takes a fixed instant一个固定的即时as its point of observation. Diachronic linguistics is the study of a language through the course of its history.Exercises:a. a study of the development of the Indo-European tonguesb. a study of Shakespeare’s language(3) Langue & parole (Saussure, early 20th century)（语言与言语）:Langue refers to the abstract linguistic抽象的语言system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization实现of langue in actual use.(4) Competence & Performance (Chomsky, 1950s)（语言能力/语言运用）Competence is an ideal language user’s underlying潜在的knowledge about the system of rules; performance is the actual use of language in concrete实在的situations.Question for discussion:What is the difference between Saussure’s langue, parole and Chomsky’s competence and performance?They differ in that Saussure took a sociological社会学的view of language and his notion概念of langue is a matter of social conventions惯例, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence能力is a property of the mind of each individual.(5) Syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations (组合关系和聚合关系）a. Syntagmatic(horizontal/chain) relation is a relation between one item and others in a sequence, or between elements which are all present.E.g: The boy kicked the ball.*Boy the ball kicked the. (syntactic语法的)*The ball kicked the boy. (semantic语义的)There are syntactic and semantic conditions the words in a syntagmatic组合关系的relation must meet.Syntagm （组合）•Sounds after sounds; words following words•Horizontal水平线relations•Temporal暂时的sequenceE.g.: syntagmatic: She can go I may come You might leaveb. Paradigmatic词形变化的relation (associative联合的/ vertical垂直的/ choice选择relation):A relation holding between elements replaceable with each other at a particular place in a structure, or between one element present and the others absent.E.g. ____ is smiling.The boyThe womanThe teacher…The constraint约束in a paradigmatic词形变化的is syntactic句法的only.Paradigm （聚合）•Range of alternative signs范围内可选择的迹象•Choice relations•Vertical sequence纵向序列• E.g.:→paradigmatic词形变化的IRA terroristsscum(渣滓, 卑贱的人)active unitsparamilitaries (辅助军队成员)freedom fighterslunatics （疯子, 狂人）The horizontal syntagmatic组合关系的axis轴is the realm领域of combination. Conversely相反地, the vertical垂直的paradigmatic词形变化的axis is the realm of selection选择and substitution.代替(6) Functionalism机能主义and formalism形式主义:Functionlism or functional linguistics refers to the study of forms of language in reference to their social function in communication.Formalism or formal linguistics is the study of the abstract forms of language and their internal relations. It fixes in the forms of languages as evidence of the universals without considering how these forms function in communication and the ways of social life in different communities.Chapter 2 Phonetics & Phonology1. Speech soundsSounds which are systematically声音系统used in human languages are called speech sounds. Sounds made by a human being but not used in language are not considered as speech sounds (coughing, snoring打鼾, sneezing打喷嚏).2. Phonetics2.1 What is phonetics? (p.25)The study of the speech sounds that occur in all human languages.It is the science which studies the characteristics of human sound making, particularly the sounds used in speech, and provides methods for their transcription, description and classification分类.Three areas of phonetics: (p.26)⏹Articulatory phonetics (发音语音学):production of speech sounds生产语音⏹Auditory phonetics (听觉语音学):perception of speech sounds感知的语音⏹Acoustic phonetics (声学语音学):physical properties of speech sounds物理特性的语音2.2 Speech organs (p.27) 1- nasal鼻骨cavity腔2- lips嘴唇3- teeth牙齿4- alveolar ridge牙槽嵴5- hard palate硬腭6- velum软腭(soft palate)7- uvula小舌8- apex顶点(tip) of tongue9- blade刀锋(front前) of tongue 10- dorsum背部(back) of tongue 11- oral cavity口腔12- pharynx咽13- epiglottis会厌；喉头盖14- larynx喉头15- vocal cords声带16- trachea气管17- esophagus食道Division of vocal organs:According to the function in the sound production, the vocal organs发声器can be divided into three parts: initiator发起人of the air-stream, the producer of voice and the resonator.共鸣器2.2.1 The initiator of the air-stream:(1) The initiator includes the lungs肺and the trachea气管;(2) The direction of the airstream气流:⏹outgoing/ pulmonic肺的: in all languages⏹Non-pulmonic sounds与肺无关的声音: ejectives (挤喉音), clicks (吸气音), implosives(内爆音in Sindhi信德语, Igbo伊博人)2.2.2 The vocal cords声带(the producer of voice)(1) Pitch音高depends on the rate of vibration振动of the vocal cords.(2) V ocal cords:⏹Complete blockage堵塞(totally closed) for producing glottal喉音stop [נ]:[נ eni] [נ idiət]⏹Vibrating振动(close together) to produce voiced sounds: [m] [b] [g] [z] [e] [i]⏹Not vibrating (apart) to produce voiceless sounds: [p] [h] [t]2.2.3 Three resonators (amplifier扩音器and modifier调节器)(1) Pharyngeal cavity (咽腔)(2) Nasal cavity鼻腔(3) Oral cavity口腔⏹active主动的；有效的articulators发音之人或物: lips, uvular(小舌), the tongue⏹Passive被动的，消极的articulators: teeth, alveolar (齿龈), palate (硬颚)2.3 IPA国际音标and broad and narrow transcription音译2.3.1 IPA⏹International Phonetic Alphabet国际音标⏹International Phonetic Association (1886)国际语音学学会2.3.2 Phonetic transcription标音法:The method of writing down the speech sounds in a systematic and consistent way.2.3.3 Broad and narrow transcription⏹Broad transcription: [ ] the use of a simple set of symbols in our transcription.⏹Narrow transcription: [ ] the use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail. Examples:Narrow transcription: [ ]pure[phwjuə] :aspirated送气音的labialized被唇音化的palatalized使颚音化bed[be·d] slightly longfarm[fã:m] nasalized使鼻音化apple [`æpł] velarized使软腭化bacon [`beiנn] glottal stop喉塞音Broad transcription: [ ]pure[pjuə]2.4 Classification of English speech sounds (p.31)2.4.1 Consonants 辅音(p.32)Consonants are the sounds in the production of which there is an obstruction阻碍of airstream at some point in the vocal tract声道.2.4.1.1 Place of articulation发音部位2.4.1.2 Manner of articulation发音方法2.4.1.3 Voicing发言；牵动声带2.4.1.4 Description of consonants辅音的描述2.4.1.1 Place of articulation(p.32)Bilabials双唇的: [p] [b] [m] [w]Labiodentals:唇齿音[f] [v]Dentals:齿音[θ] [ð]Alveolars:齿槽音[t] [d] [s] [z] [l] [n] [r] Palatals:腭音的舌面中音的[∫] [З] [t∫] [dЗ] [j] Velars:软腭音，舌根音[k] [g] [ŋ]Retroflex:卷舌音[r]Glottal:喉音声门音[h] [נ] (button [`bΛנn]) Pharyngeal:咽部[ẛ ] (latter [`læẛə])2.4.1.2 Manner of articulation (p.33)Stops/ plosives:爆破音oral stops: [p] [b] [t] [d] [k] [g]nasal鼻音stops: [m] [n] [ŋ]⏹Nasals:鼻腔音[m] [n] [ŋ]⏹Fricatives:摩擦音[f] [v] [s] [z] [θ] [ð] [∫] [З] [h]⏹Affricates:破擦音[t∫] [dЗ]⏹Liquids:流音[l] [r]⏹Glides:滑行[j] [w] (semi-vowels)The IPA consonant辅音chart:White represents standard British English consonants.2.1.4.3 Voicing (P.30)⏹V oiceless:[p] [t] [k] [s] [f] [∫] [θ] [t∫] [h]⏹V oiced: [b] [d] [g] [z] [v] [З] [ð] [dЗ] [m] [n] [ŋ] [j] [w] [r] [l]2.4.1.4 Description of consonants[p]: voiceless bilabial双唇音stop[b]:voiced bilabial stop[s]:voiceless alveolar齿槽音fricative摩擦音[kh]:voiceless velar软颚音aspirated送气音的stop[n]:voiced alveolar nasal鼻音2.4.2 Vowels (p.34)V owels元音are speech sounds in the production of which no articulators构音器官come very close together and the airstream气流passes through the vocal tract声道without obstruction障碍.2.4.2.1 Monophthongs单元音2.4.2.2 Description of vowels2.4.2.3 Diphthongs双元音；复合元音& triphthongs三合元音2.4.2.1 Monophthongs单元音Monophthongs: The quality of sound remains constant不变的throughout the articulation.(1) The tongue height(2) The position of the highest part of the tongue body(3) The lip-rounding圆唇(4) The length(5) The tension(6) How open the mouth is openedVowel quadrilateral四边形( Daniel Jones)2.4.2.2 Description of vowels[i:] high front tense (long) unrounded vowel[u]high back lax (short) rounded vowel[כ]low back lax (short) rounded vowel[ə]central lax (short) unrounded vowel2.4.2.3 Diphthongs双元音& triphthongs三元音(P.35)Diphthongs— A single movement of the tongue.raising升起diphthongs: [ei] [ai] [כi] [əu] [au]centralizing形成中心diphthongs: [uə] [iə] [εə]Triphthongs— A double movement of the tongue. They are produced by a glide滑行from one vowel to another and then to a 3rd rapidly and continuously.e.g: [aiə, auə], in wire and hour.Exercise 4 (Page 45):Example:[p] [b] [m]Feature: bilabial双唇音, stop, consonant辅音(1) [g] [p] [t] [d] [k] [b]:Features: stop, consonant(2) [u] [u:] [כ]:Features: back, rounded, vowelExercise 5:(1) [θ]: [ð] Voicing: voiceless --- voiced(2) [p]: [f] Place: bilabial --- labio-dental齿唇音Manner: stop --- fricative摩擦音(3) [i]: [e] Height: high --- half-high(4) [b]: [m] Cavity腔: oral --- nasal(5) [s]: [∫] Place: alveolar齿槽音--- palatal上颚音(6) [s]: [ð] Place: alveolar --- dental齿音V oicing: voiceless --- voiced※如果两个单词，除了出现在同一个位置上的一个音以外，其余的都相同，则这两个词就构成了一个最小对立体。

语言学重要概念梳理1. Language (语言) is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.2. Linguistics(语言学)is generally defined as the scientific study of language.3. General linguistics(普通/一般语言学) The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics.4. Phonetics(语音学) the study of sounds used in linguistic communication led to the establishment of phonetics.5. Phonology(语音体系) how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication.6. Morphology(形态学) these symbols are arranged and combined to form words has constituted the branch of study called morphology.7. Syntax(句法学) then the combination of words to form grammatically permissible sentences in languages is governed by rules. The study of these rules constitutes a major branch of linguistic studies called syntax.8. Semantics(语意学) the study of meaning is known as semantics.9. Pragmatics(语用学) when the study of meaning is conducted, not in isolation, but in the context of language use, it becomes another branch of linguistic study called pragmatics.10. Phone(音素) is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones.11. Phoneme(音位)is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit. It is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context.12. Allophones(音位变体) the different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones.13. IPA(International Phonetic Alphabet国际音标) It’s a standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription. The basic principle of the IPA is using one letter selected from major European languages to represent one speech sound.14. Diacritics(变音符) it is a set of symbols which are added to the letter-symbols to bring out the finer distinctions.15.broad transcription(宽式标音) one is the transcription with letter-symbols only.16.narrow transcription(严式标音) the other is the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics.17. open class words(开放类词)In English , open class words are nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs. We can regularly add new words to these classes.18. closed class words(封闭类词) In English , closed class word are conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns. New words are not usually added to them.19. Morpheme(词素) the most basic element of meaning is traditionally called morpheme.20. bound morpheme(黏着词素) morphemes which occurs only before other morphemes. They cannot be used alone.21. free morpheme(自由词素)it is the morphemes which can be used alone.22. suprasegmental features(超音段特征) the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features.23. Category(范畴) it refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence ,a noun phrase or a verb.24. Phrases(短语) Syntactic units that are built around a certain word category are called phrases.1. Three distinct of phonetics(语音学的三个分支？)Articulatory phonetics发音语音学; auditory phonetics听觉语音学; acoustic phonetics声光语音学.2. Main features of language(语言的主要特征？)Language is a system. Language is arbitrary. Language is vocal. Language is human-specific.3. Synchronic vs. diachronic(共识语言学与历史语言学的区别？)Language exists in time and changes through time. The description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. A diachronic study of language is a historical study; it studies the historical development of language over a period of time.4. Speech and writing (言语与文字的区别？)Speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication. From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented” by its users to record speech when the need arises. Then in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed, speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, and writing is learned and taught later when he goes to school. Written language is only the “revised” record of speech.5. What are the branches of linguistic study?(语言学研究领域中的主要分支有哪些？)1) sociolinguistics; 2) psycholinguistics; 3)applied linguistics and so on.6. Traditional grammar and modern linguistics(传统语法与现代语言学的区别？)Firstly, linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.Second, modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. Traditional grammarians, tended to emphasize, maybe over-emphasize, the importance of the written word.Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based framework.7. Prescriptive vs. descriptive (语言学中描写性与规定性的特征是什么？)Prescriptive and descriptive represent two different types of linguistic study. If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive; if the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard” behavior in using language, it is said to be prescriptive.8. Design features of language (语言的识别特征？)Arbitrariness随意性，productivity生产性, duality 二重性, displacement 不受时空限制的特征, cultural transmission 文化传递系统.9. Competence and performance (语言能力与语言行为的区别？)Competence is defined as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and performan ce the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.10. Organs of speech (发音器官)Pharyngeal cavity—the throat, oral cavity—the mouth, nasal cavity—the nose.11. Word-level categories(决定词范畴的三个标准)To determine a word’s category, three criteria are usually employed, namely meaning, inflection and distribution.1. Some rules in phonology(音位学规则)sequential rules(序列规则)；assimilation rule (同化规则) ；deletion rule(省略规则)。

1. Linguistics: Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2. general linguistics: The study of language as a whole.3. applied linguistics: the application of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.4. prescriptive:If linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard” behavior in using language, ,it is said to be prescriptive.( i.e. to tell people what they should and should notIt’s a historical study of language,it studies the historical development of language over a period of time. (06C)8. langue: Lange refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.（08F/09C）linguistic competence:universally found in the grammars of all human languages,syntactic rules comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker. competence有什么区别？？11. performance : The actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.12. language : Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.13. design features : Design features refer to the defining properties of human language thatsounds.(08C)15. productivity: Language is creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by it’s users.16. duality（double articulation）: Language consists of two sets of structure, with lower lever ofsituation of the speaker.( regardless of time or space) (04)18. cultural transmission: The capacity for language is genetically based while the details of any language system have to be taught and learned.( Language is culturally transmitted rather than by instinct).19.Sociolinguistics: the study of all social aspects of language and its relation with society from the core of the branch.20.Psycholinguistics: the study of language processing, comprehending and production, as well as language acquisition.municative competence:the ability to use language appropriately in social situations.1. phonic medium : The limited range of sounds which are meaningful in human communication constitute the phonetic medium of language.(and the individual sounds withinIt studies sounds from the speaker’s point of view, i.e. how a speaker uses his speech organs to articulate the sounds. (03)4. auditory phonetics:The studies sounds from the hearer’s point of view, i.e. how the sounds are perceived by the hearer.5. acoustic phonetics: It studies the physical properties of the stream of sounds which the speaker issues.或者It studies the way sounds travel by looking at the sound waves,the physical means by which sounds are transimitted through the air from one person to another)6. voicing: the way that sounds are produced with the vibration of the vocal cords.7. voiceless: the way that sounds are produced with no vibration of the vocal cords.8. broad transcription: The use of letter symbols only to show the sounds or sounds sequences in written form.9. narrow transcription: The use of letter symbol, together with the diacritics to show sounds in written form.10. diacritics: The symbols used to show detailed articulatory features of sounds.11. IPA: short for International Phonetic Alphabets, a system of symbols consists of letters and diacritics, used to represent the pronunciation of words in any language.12. aspiration: A little puff of air that sometimes follows a speech sound.13. manner of articulation : The manner in which obstruction is created.14. place of articulation : The place where obstruction is created.15. consonant: a speech sound in which the air stream is obstructed in one way or another.16. vowel : a speech sound in which the air stream from the lung meets with no obstruction.moving one vowel position to another through intervening positions.(08F)19. phone: A phonetic unit,the speech sounds we hear and produce during linguisticabstract phonological unit that is of distinctive value;it’s represented by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. (06F/ 04)patterns and function to distinguish and convey meaning.(06C)23. phonemic contrast : two phonetically similar sounds occur in the same environment and distinguish meaning,they form phonemic contrast.24. complementary distribution :allophones of the same phoneme and they don’t distinguish meaning but complement each other in distribution.25. minimal pair: two different forms are identical in every way except forone sound segment which occurs in the same position.26. sequential rules: The rules to govern the combination of sounds in a particular language.27. assimilation rule: The rule assimilates one sound to another by copying a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar.28. deletion rule: The rule that a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographicallysegments(syllable, word, sentence),including stress tone intonation.(08F)30. tone: Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.31. intonation: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they’re col lectively known as intonation.32. nucleus: It refers to the major pitch change in an intonation unit.32. minimal set: sound combinations which are identical in form except for the initial consonant together constitute a minimal set.1. morphology: A branch of linguistics that studies the internal structure of words and rules forcan be added to it constantly.(08C)3. closed class: A group of words whose membership is small and does not readily accept new members,including conjunctions ,prepositions ,pronouns.etc.4. morpheme: The smallest unit of meaning of a language. It can not be divided without altering or destroying its meaning.5. affix: a letter or a group of letter, which is added to a word, and which changes the meaning or function of the word, including prefix, infix and suffix.6. suffix: The affix, which is added to the end of a word, and which usually changes the part of speech of a word.7. prefix: The affix, which is added to the beginning of a word, and which usually changes the meaning of a word to its opposite.8. bound morpheme: Morpheme that can not be used alone, and it must be combined wit others.（07F）10. derivational morpheme: Bound morpheme, which can be added to a stem to form a newcategories, such as number, tense and case.(but never change their syntactic category).(08F) 12. morphological rules: The ways words are formed. These rules determine how morphemes combine to form words.indicate such grammatical categories as numuber,tense or pluarity. (04)15.Derivation: Derivation is a process of word formation by which derivative affixes are added to an existing form to create a word.1. syntax: A branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.2. category: It refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.3. syntactic categories: Words can be grouped together into a relatively small number of classes, called syntactic categories.4. major lexical category: one type of word level categories, which often assumed to be the heads around which phrases are built, including N, V, Adj, and Prep.5. minor lexical category: one type of word level categories, which helps or modifies major lexical category.6. phrase: syntactic units that are built around a certain word category are called phrase, the category of which is determined by the word category around which the phrase is built.7. phrase category: the phrase that is formed by combining with words of different categories.(In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories are NP, VP, PP, AP.)8. head: The word round which phrase is formed is termed head.9. specifier: The words on the left side of the heads and attached to the top levelare said to function as specifiers.10. complement: The words on the right side of the heads are complements.11. phrase structure rule:The special type of grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule.12. XP rule: In all phrases, the specifier is attached at the top level to the left of the head while the complement is attached to the right. These similarities can be summarized as an XP rule, in which X stands for the head N,V,A or P.13. X^ theory: A theoretical concept in transformational grammar which restricts the form of context-free phrases structure rules.14. coordination: Some structures are formed by joining two or more elements of the same typeand or or. Such phenomenon is known as coordination.)The information about a word’s complement is included in the head andcomplementizer.(08F/09C)17. complement clause: The sentence introduced by the complementizer is called a complement clause.18. complement phrase: the elements, including a complementizer and a complement clause is called a complement phrase.19. matrix clause: the contrusction in which the complement phrase is embedded is called matrix clause.20. modifier: the element, which specifies optionally expressible properties of heads is called modifier.21. transformation : a special type of rule that can move an element from one position to another.22. inversion : the process of transformation that moves the auxiliary from the Infl position to a position to the left of the subject, is called inversion.23. Do insertion : In the process of forming yes-no question that does not contain an overt Infl,from appropriate transformations. (05)26. Wh question : In English, the kind of questions beginning with a wh- word are called wh question.27. Wh movement :The transformation that will move wh phrase from its position in deep structure to a position at the beginning of the sentence. This transformation is called wh movement.28. moveα: a general rule for all th e movement rules, where ‘alpha‘ is a cover term foe any element that can be moved from one place to another.补充29. universal grammar: the innateness principles and properties that pertain to the grammars of all human languages.第十一章30.structural analysis: to investigate the distinction of forms eg.morphemesin a language.31.IC analysis: how small components in sentences go together to form larger constituents.32.paradigmatic relation: the substitutional relation between a set of linguistic items,thatis,linguistic forms can be substitued for each other in the same positon.33.syntagmatic relation: the relation between any linguisticelements which are simultaneously present in a structure.34.immidiate constituent analysis（直接成分分析法）is the technique of breaking up sentences向心结构或内心结构) One construction whose distribution is functionally equivalent, or approaching equivalence, to one of its constituents. The typical English endocentric constructions are noun phrases and adjective phrases.（03）36.exocentric construction(离心结构或外心结构) the opposite of endocentric construction,refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the whole group. Most constructions are exocentric.1. semantics: Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning.2. Semantic triangle: It is suggested by Odgen and Richards, which says that the meaning of a word is not directly linked between a linguistic form and the object in the real world, but through the mediation of concept of the mind.3. sense : Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form. It is abstract and de-contexturalized. It is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are interested in.4. reference : Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world. It deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.5. synonymy: Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are7. stylistic synonyms: synonyms that differ in style, or degree of formality.8. collocational synonyms: Synonyms that differ in their colllocation, i.e., in the words they gohave the same form. i.e., different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both. (04)11. homophones: When two words are identical in sound, they are homophones.12. homographs: When two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs.13. complete homonymy: When two words are identical in both sound and spelling, they are complete homonyms.14. hyponymy: Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.15. superordinate: The word which is more general in meaning is called the superordinate;and the more specific words are called its hyponyms;hyponyms of the same superordinate areco-hyponyms to each other.16. co-hyponyms: Hyponyms of the same superordinate are co-hyponyms.17. antonymy: The term antonymy is used for oppositeness of meaning.18. gradable antonyms: Some antonyms are gradable because there are often intermediate forms between the two members of a pair.( e.g, antonyms old and young, between them there exist middle-aged, mature, elderly.)19. complementary antonyms: a pair of antonyms that the denial of one member of the pair implies the assertion of the other. It is a matter of either one or the other.20. relational opposites: Pairs if words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship between the two items are called relational opposites. For example, husband---wife, father---son, buy---sell, let---rent, above---below.the truth of the other. E.g. Cindy killed the dog entails the dog is dead.(07F)或者Entailment is a relation of inclusion.If X entails Y,then the meaning of X is included in Y.22. presupposition: What a speaker or writer assumes that the receiver of the massage already knows to make an utterance meaningful or appropriate。