I. Linguistics
1. What is language?
Language is a means of communication.
Language is a system of symbols.
Language is a social phenomenon.
Language is a system of arbitrarily chosen, conventionalized, vocal, graphic or gestural symbols, serving the needs of verbal communication among members of a given community or society. (27 words)
2. What is linguistics?
Linguistics is the systematic or scientific study of language.
3.Scope of linguistic studies
II. Sociolinguistics
1. Definition
Sociolinguistics is that part of linguistics which is concerned with language as a social and cultural phenomenon. (17 words) – Peter Trudgill 1983
Sociolinguistics is the field that studies the relation between language and society, between the uses of language and the social structure in which the users of language live. (28 words) – Bernard Spolsky 1998
Sociolinguistics is about who speaks (or writes) what language (or what language variety) to whom and when and to what end. – Joshua Fishman 1969, in Giglioli 1972: 46
Sociolinguistics: who says what to whom when where how and why. (7 “wh’s”)–Based on Fishman’s Dictum
Sociolinguistics is the study of language in relation to social factors, that is social class, educational level and type of education, age, sex, ethnic origin, etc. –Richards, Jack, et al. Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics. 3rd Edn. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2005.
2. Scope of sociolinguistic studies
Macro-sociolinguistics: a bird’s-eye view of the language used in society, i.e., how language functions in society and how it reflects the social differentiations, etc.
Micro-sociolinguistics: a worm’s-eye view of language in use, how language is used by individual members of society
3. Significance of sociolinguistics for EFL learners
Quiz of Linguistics I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False. 1. Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. ( T) 2. Linguistics studies particular language, not language in general. ( F) 3. A scientific study of language is based on what the linguist thinks. ( F ) 4. In the study of linguistics, hypotheses formed should be based on language facts and checked against the observed facts. ( T ) 5. General linguistics is generally the study of language as a whole. ( T) 6. General linguistics, which relates itself to the research of other areas, studies the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistics study. ( F) 7. Modern linguistics is mostly prescriptive, but sometimes descriptive. ( F ) 8. Modern linguistics is different from traditional grammar. ( T) 9. A diachronic study of language is the description of language at some point in time. ( F ) 10. The distinction between competence and performance was proposed by Saussure. ( F) II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given. 1. Chomsky defines “competence”as the ideal user’s k nowledge of the rules of his language. 2. Langue refers to the a bstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community while the parole is the concrete use of the conventions and application of the rules. 3. D uality is one of the desing features of human language which refers to the phenomenon that language consists of two levels: a lower level of meaningless individual sounds and a higher level of meaningful units. 4. Language is a system of a rbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 5. P arole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. 6. Findings in linguistic studies can often be applied to the settlement of some practical problems. The study of such application is generally known as a pplied linguistics. 7. Language is p roductive in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. In other words, they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences which they have never heard before. 8. Linguistics is generally defined as the s cientific study of language. 9. If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be d escriptive. 10. Modern linguistics regards the written language as s econdary . III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement.
第一章语言学导论 Chapter1 Invitations to Linguistics Linguistics is nowadays coming into wide use with combination of theories and practice as well as linguistics and other disciplines. Linguistics is of great use with very wide application. —人工智能，人机对话，机器翻译 The research of linguistics has already gone beyond language itself. Definition of Linguistics How do you define linguistics? What is linguistics? ——Linguistics can be defined as the scientific or systematic study of language. It is a science in the sense that it scientifically studies the rules, systems and principles of human language. What are we going to learn about linguistics? 1. It is generally agreed that linguistics should include at least five parameters, namely, phonological, morphological, syntactic, semantic and pragmatic. These can be called microlinguistics. 语音学(phonetics);音系学(phonology);形态学(morphology);句法学(syntax) —Schools of Modern Linguistics 现代语言学流派; 语义学(semantics) ; 语用学(pragmatics) (chapter2-6) 2. Macrolinguistics——interdisciplinary learning Saussure, father of modern linguistics(现代语言学之父) were intended to establish the autonomy of linguistics, giving it a well-defined subject of study and freeing it from reliance on other disciplines. However, the interactive links between linguistics and other sciences are developing fast. 尽管索绪尔的目的是给予语言学自主性，给它定义明确的研究对象，将它从对其他学科的 依赖中解放出来。然而，随着时间的推移，语言学和其他学科的联系越来越密切。Psycholinguistics Psycholinguistics, as implied by the name, is the study of psychological aspects of language. It usually studies the psychological states and mental activity associated with the use of language. 心理语言学，顾名思义，是对语言的心理方面的研究，它通常研究的是与语言使用相关的 心理状态和心理活动。比如语言习得，语言的理解，语言的生成等等。(chapter 9/chapter11) Sociolinguistics Sociolinguistics, as implied by the name, attempts to show the relationship between language and society. Sociolinguistics attempts to look at language structures by paying attention to language use in a social context and on the other hand tries to understand sociological things of society by examining linguistic phenomena of a speaking community. 这就是社会与语言的关系，一方面通过社会语境中语言使用情况的调查了解语言结构的问 题，另一方面又通过语言现象的分析了解社会构成的问题。 Research Focus1 Cross-cultural Communication There exists a close relationship between language and culture. Language is an indispensable carrier of culture. Culture finds a better representation through language use. 语言是文化的载体，具有不可替代的重要性；文化通过语言得以凸现，其表现力得到充分展示。 心理学家罗杰斯(Rogers,1961), 真正的交流建立在理解基础上的倾听。 - 1 -
主要内容： 第一讲著作权概述 著作权和著作权法的概念及立法、著作权的客体和主体 第二讲著作权的内容 广义上的著作人身权、著作财产权和邻接权 第三讲著作权的取得、限制、利用和管理 著作权的合理使用和法定许可、著作权的许可使用、转让及质押、著作权的行政和集体管理 第四讲著作权的保护 侵犯著作权的行为、侵犯著作权的法律责任和著作权侵权纠纷的解决 教学目的： 通过学习《著作权法概论》课程的内容和主要著作权立法规定，了解著作权法的基本体系，力求正确理解相关的基本概念、基本理论、基本知识；同时理论联系实际，将著作权法理论学习与专业实际相结合，分析和研究实践中的问题。 学习要求： 理解著作权的概念及著作权的主体与客体 掌握我国著作权法所保护的作品及构成要件 理解并掌握著作权归属的原则及权利内容 了解著作权的获得和管理 理解并掌握著作权的限制与利用的具体规定 理解并掌握著作权侵权行为的表现与处理 第一讲著作权概述 重点、难点 重点为著作权的客体 难点为著作权的主体 本讲内容包括著作权和著作权法的概念及立法、著作权的客体和主体。 当前讲授 一、著作权的概念 （一）广义的著作权与狭义的著作权 著作权又称版权，有广义与狭义之分。 1、狭义的著作权是指指文学、艺术和科学作品的作者对其创作之作品依法享有的专有权利。 狭义的著作权仅指作者权。 2、广义的著作权包括狭义的著作权与邻接权。邻接权即与著作权有关的权利，是指作品的传播者对其传播作品过程中所创造的劳动成果所享有的权利。即传播者权。
广义的著作权以创作作品的作者权和传播作品的出版者权、表演者权、录制者权和广播、电视组织者权为限。 （二）著作权制度的产生与发展 我国著作权法明确规定本法所称的著作权即版权。 从现实的角度看，著作权和版权没有区分。 从历史的角度看，著作权和版权有不同的含义。这涉及到著作权制度的产生与发展。 1、15世纪中叶，从雕版到活字印刷，保护出版商而非作者的利益，授予出版商特权，直 到1709年英国《安娜法》颁布，这是人类历史上第一部保护作者权利的法律，首次承认 作者权利主体，从保护出版商的利益转向保护作者的财产利益，授予作者以财产权性质的版权，标志着著作权法律制度的诞生； 2、18世纪末到19世纪初，是著作权的完善阶段，以1793年法国《著作权法》为代表， 欧洲大陆法系各国认为作者和作品是密不可分的，著作权不能局限于财产权范畴，更应当保护作者的精神权利； 3、19世纪中叶开始了现代版权保护阶段，著作权保护进入了国际化阶段。 二、著作权法的概念 指调整文学、艺术和科学技术领域内因创作和使用、传播作品而产生的各种社会关系的法律规范的总和。 我国著作权法主要指于2010年2月26日修订通过，自2010年4月1日起施行的《中华 人民共和国著作权法》；著作权法还包括一系列与著作权相关的法律、法规、司法解释。我国主要著作权立法 v 中华人民共和国著作权法（2010年修正） v 中华人民共和国著作权法实施条例(2002年) v 计算机软件保护条例（2001年修正） v 信息网络传播权保护条例(2006年) v 著作权集体管理条例(2004年) v 最高人民法院关于审理著作权民事纠纷案件适用法律若干问题的解释(2002年) 现在我国已形成相对完整的著作权法律体系。 三、著作权的客体 著作权的客体是指由著作权法所保护的作品。 作品是著作权赖以产生和存在的基础，著作权人所享有的著作权都是因作品的产生而取得，所以要了解《著作权法》就必须首先搞清楚什么是“作品”。 “作品”是人们在日常生活中经常使用的词汇。人们常把自己创造出来的各种各样的东西称为“作品”，大至精心策划的企业营销战略，小到一件衣服式样的剪裁、设计和改进等。但这些不一定都是我国《著作权法》所保护的作品。 （一）作品的概念
Language and Cognition Cognitive Linguistics What Is Cognitive Linguistics? Cognitive linguistics is a newly established approach to the study of language that emerged in the 1970s. It is based on human experiences of the world and the way they perceive and conceptualize the world. Main Points in Cognitive Linguistics Construal and Construal Operations Categorization Image Schemas Metaphor Metonymy Blending Theory Construal and Construal Operations Construal is the ability to conceive and portray the same situation in alternate ways through specificity, different mental scanning, directionality, vantage point, figure-ground segregation, etc. Attention/ Salience Judgment/Comparison Perspective/Situatedness Construal and Construal Operations : Attention/ Salience The operation in salience have to do with our direction of attention towards sth. that is salient to us. In cognition, we direct our attention to the activation of conceptual structures. We use certain linguistic expressions to provoke certain patterns of activation. Construal and Construal Operations : Judgment/Comparison The construal operations of judgment/ comparison have to do with judging sth. by comparing it to sth. else. The figure-ground alignment apply to space, with the ground as the prepositional object and the preposition expressing the spatial relational configuration. Static and dynamic figure/ ground Trajector for a moving figure Landmark for the ground of a moving figure Categorization Categorization is the process of classifying our experiences into different categories based on commonalities and differences. There are three levels in categories. Basic level Super-ordinate level Subordinate level Metaphor Metaphor involves the comparison of two concepts in that one is constructed in terms of another. It is often described in terms of a target domain and a source domain. Lakoff and John classify conceptual metaphors into three categories Three Categories of Metaphor Ontological metaphors Structural metaphors Orientational metaphors Three Categories of Metaphor Ontological metaphors Ontological metaphors means that human experiences with physical objects provide the basis for ways of viewing events, activities, emotions, ideas, etc. as entities and substances. Three Categories of Metaphor Structural metaphors Structural metaphors allow us to go beyond orientation and referring and give us the possibility to structure one concept according to another. Three Categories of Metaphor Orientational metaphors Orientational metaphors give a concept a spatial orientation Metonymy Metonymy is defined as a cognitive process in which the vehicle provides mental access to the target within the same domain Two Conceptual Configurations Whole ICM and its part(s) Parts of an ICM Metonymy — Whole ICM and its part(s) Thing-and-Part ICM Scale ICM Constitution ICM Event ICM Category-and-Member ICM
---------------------------------------------------------------最新资料推荐------------------------------------------------------ 语言学Linguistics笔记 Chapter one Introduction 一、定义 1.语言学 Linguistics Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. 2.普通语言学General Linguistics The study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics. 3.语言 language Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。 4.识别特征Design Features It refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。 Arbitrariness 任意性 Productivity 多产性 Duality 双重性Displacement 移位性Cultural transmission 文化传递⑴arbitrariness There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. P.S the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions ⑵Productivity Animals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send. ⑶Duality Language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels. ⑷Displacemen t Language can be used 1/ 38
Linguistics 1.The scope of linguistics: (a branch of linguistics that….) phonetics（语音学）: the study of linguistic speech sounds, how they are produced, how they are perceived, and their physical properties.(study of the phonic medium of language) phonology:（音位学）the study of how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistics communication. morphology:（形态学）the study of the word structure and word formation. syntax:（句法学）is the branch of linguistics that studies the rules that govern the formation of sentences. semantics: (语义学) the study of linguistic meaning. pragmatics:（语用学）a branch of linguistics that studies the context of language use to effect successful communication. Some distinctions in linguistics: 1)Prescriptive & descriptive Prescriptive: aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use Descriptive: aims to lay down rules for “correct & standard” behavior in using language.(doctor)
A AcS (actor Subject), ReS (Receptor Subject) and DaS (dative vesubject) P85 Active deposit 活性沉积P393 adaptability制宜原则P39 adjustment 调整P135 AdjMr：Ajective Modifier 定语修饰语P19 Affixing morpheme of fixed position 定位性附加语素P342 Affixation 缀合法P29 All encompassing 无所不包P ix Aphasic 失语症患者P386 ApoP 同位短语式P188 Approximative system 近似体系P58 arbitrariness任意性; selectiveness 选择性P181 Aspect 体（tentative尝试体, inchoative开始体, successive继续体, perfect完成体, progressive 进行体）P114 Autonomy 自主权P53 B backshift后移P370/372 bilingualism 双语学P522 Blending 拼缀法P29 Bottom-up perception自下而上的感知，top-down perception自上而下的感知P493 C Cart Fames1980 对比分析P x circulativeness 周遍性P86 categorization范畴化, grouping 归为类P487 category word 范畴词P418/474/513 cleft sentence 分裂句P230 cognate equivalence同源对应P134/468，词根对应P478 cognitive schema认知图示P386 Cohesion 粘着性P62 Cohesion and coherence接应与连贯P74 Cohesive tie 联结关系接应词，additive 增补连接词，adversative 对比连接词，causal conjunction因果连接词，temporal conjunction 时间连接词P436 Combination (虚词功能)组合P452 Total combination完全结合，formal combination形式结合P464 Common value （语言）共同价值；special value 特征价值P47 Complement 补语P126Composition 合成法P29 Compactness of meaningful morpheme有义语素结合紧密度P299 Compressed predicate 紧缩式谓语P120 Compound （汉语）合成词P443 Conversion 转化法P29 Constant 常数（ie. tertium comparationis中间比较项）；variable变数；tertium 中间项P50
著作权法法复习重点 第一章著作权与著作权法概述 一、著作权的概念 著作权，亦称版权，是指文学、艺术和科学作品的作者对其创作的作品依法享有的专有权利。著作权有不同于物权和其他知识产权的特征。 二、著作权法的概念 著作权法是调整文学、艺术和科学技术领域内因创作和使用、传播作品而产生的各种社会关系的法律规范的总称。 著作权保护制度最早可以追溯道16世纪的欧洲。英国议会于1709年通过了世界上第一部著作权法《安娜法令》，1910年清政府颁布了中国历史上第一部著作权法《大清著作权律》。 三、著作权法的基本原则： 1、保护作者权益的原则 著作权法在调整作者和使用人乃至公众利益的关系中，将维护作者的权益置于首要和核心的地位。维护作者权益在著作权法中主要体现在维护著作权人的人身权和财产权。对侵害著作权人合法权益的各种侵权行为给予制裁。 2、鼓励优秀作品传播的原则 著作权法律制度对各种传播媒体的合法权益给予积极保护，不仅是对作品的创作和传播的有力保证，同时也是著作权制度自身不断发展和完善，以适应新技术飞速发展，具有强大生命力的体现。 3、作者利益和公众利益协调一致的原则 著作权法不仅要鼓励优秀作品的创作与传播，而且要鼓励公众学习知识，以提高全民族的科学文化水平。这就需要法律对公众利用文学、艺术和科学作品提供便利条件。因此，著作权法在保护作者和作品传播者利益的同时，还要对他们的权利进行一些必要的限制，以平衡作者与社会公众之间的利益关系。 第二章著作权的客体 一、作品的概念和构成要件 著作权法所称的作品，指文字、艺术和科学领域内，具有独创性并能以某种有形形式复制的智力成果。 作品的构成条件包括：作品的独创性；作品范围的有限性；作品的可感知性；作品的可复制性。 《著作权法》第3条界定了作品的处延：本法所称的作品，包括以下形式创作的文学、艺术和自然科学、社会科学、工程技术等作品：（1）文字作品；（2）口述作品；（3）音乐、戏剧、曲艺、舞蹈、
Linguistics What is Linguistics Linguistics is the scientific study of language. It endeavours to answer the question--what is language and how is represented in the mind? Linguists focus on describing and explaining language and are not concerned with the prescriptive rules of the language (ie., do not split infinitives). Linguists are not required to know many languages and linguists are not interpreters. The underlying goal of the linguist is to try to discover the universals concerning language. That is, what are the common elements of all languages. The linguist then tries to place these elements in a theoretical framework that will describe all languages and also predict what can not occur in a language. Linguistics is a social science that shares common ground with other social sciences such as psychology, anthropology, sociology and archaeology. It also may influence other disciplines such as english, communication studies and computer science. Linguistics for the most part though can be considered a cognitive science. Along with psychology, philosophy and computer science (AI), linguistics is ultimately concerned with how the human brain functions. Below are several different disciplines within linguistics. The fields of phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics and language acquisition are considered the core fields of study and a firm knowledge of each is necessary in order to tackle more advanced subjects. Phonetics Phonetics is the study of the production and perception of speech sounds. It is concerned with the sounds of languge, how these sounds are articulated and how the hearer percieves them. Phonetics is related to the science of acoustics in that it uses much the same techniques in the analysis of sound that acoustics does. There are three sub-disciplines of phonetics: ?Articulatory Phonetics: the production of speech sounds. ?Acousitc Phonetics: the study of the physical production and transmission of speech sounds. ?Auditory Phonetics: the study of the perception of speech sounds. Phonology Phonology is the study of the sound patterns of language. It is concerned with how sounds are organized in a language. Phonolgy examines what occurs to speech sounds when they are combined to form a word and how these speech sounds interact with each other. It endeavors to explain what these phonological processes are in terms of formal rules. Morphology
Chapter one Introduction 一、定义 1.语言学Linguistics Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. 2.普通语言学General Linguistics The study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics. 3.语言language Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。 4.识别特征Design Features It refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. 语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。 Arbitrariness任意性 Productivity多产性 Duality双重性 Displacement移位性 Cultural transmission文化传递 ⑴arbitrariness There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. P.S the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions ⑵Productivity Animals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send. ⑶Duality Language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels. ⑷Displacement Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. ⑸Cultural transmission Human capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species. 5.语言能力Competence Competence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language. 6.语言运用performance Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. 语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的体现。 7.历时语言学Diachronic linguistics The study of language change through time. a diachronic study of language is a historical study, which studies the historical development of language over a period
Linguistics scope of linguistics: (a branch of linguistics that….) phonetics（语音学）: the study of linguistic speech sounds, how they are produced, how they are perceived, and their physical properties.(study of the phonic medium of language) phonology:（音位学）the study of how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistics communication. morphology:（形态学）the study of the word structure and word formation. syntax:（句法学）is the branch of linguistics that studies the rules that govern the formation of sentences. semantics: (语义学) the study of linguistic meaning. pragmatics:（语用学）a branch of linguistics that studies the context of language use to effect successful communication. Some distinctions in linguistics: 1)Prescriptive & descriptive Prescriptive: aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use Descriptive: aims to lay down rules for “correct & standard”