Linguistics语言学归纳(可编辑修改word版)

一、定义1.语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.3.语言languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。

4.识别特征Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。

Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性Duality双重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递⑴arbitrarinessThere is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication andit makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions⑵ProductivityAnimals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send.⑶DualityLanguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels.⑷DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.⑸Cultural transmissionHuman capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species.5.语言能力CompetenceCompetence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.6.语言运用performancePerformance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的体现。

Chapter one Introduction一、定义 1.语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. 2.普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics. 3.语言language Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。

4.识别特征Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any anima l system of communication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。

Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性（创造性） Duality双重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递5.语言能力Competence （抽象）Competence is the ideal user‘s knowledge of the rules of his language.6.语言运用performance （具体）Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. 语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的具体体现。

7.历时语言学Diachronic linguisticsThe study of language change through time. a diachronic study of language is a historic al study, which studies the historical development of language over a period of time. 8.共时语言学Synchronical linguisticsThe study of a given language at a given time.9.语言langue （抽象）The abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community.10.言语parole （具体）The realization of langue in actual use.11.规定性PrescriptiveIt aims to lay down rules for ‖correct‖ behavior, to tell people what they should say and what should not say.12.描述性DescriptiveA linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use.二、知识点nguage is not an isolated phenomenon, it‘s a social activity carried out in a certain s ocial environment by human beings.语言不是一种孤立的现象，而是人类在一定的社会环境下进行的一种社会活动。

自考-现代语言学-每章要点总结(希望对大家有帮助-我也是学生-这是由老师总的-我将P P T转为W O R D)(总15页)--本页仅作为文档封面，使用时请直接删除即可----内页可以根据需求调整合适字体及大小--第一章绪论1/ What is linguistics 什么是语言学？Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. It studies not any particular language, but languages in general. 2/ The scope oflinguistics语言学的研究范畴The study of language as a whole is oftencalled general linguistics. (普通语言学)The study of sounds, which are used inlinguistic communication, is called phonetics. （语音学）The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology. （音系学）The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words are called morphology. （形态学）The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax. （句法学）The study of meaning in language iscalled semantics. （语义学）The study of meaning in context of use iscalled pragmatics. （语用学）The study of language with reference to society is called socio-linguistics. （社会语言学）The study of language with reference to the working of mind is called psycho-linguistics. （心理recovery of speech ability)is generally knownas applied linguistics.（应用语言学）But in a narrow sense,applied linguistics refersto the application oflinguistic principles andtheories to languageteaching and learning,especially the teaching offoreign and secondlanguage.Other related branchesinclude anthropologicallinguistics, （人类语言学）neurologicallinguistics, （神经语言学）mathematicallinguistics, （数字语言学）and computationallinguistics. （计算机语言学）3/ Some importantdistinctions inlinguistics语言学研究中的几对基本概念Prescriptive anddescriptive描写与规定If a linguistic studydescribes and analyzes thelanguage people actuallyuse, it is said tobe descriptive, if itaims to lay down rules totell people what theyshould say and what theyshould not say, it is saidto be prescriptive.Modern linguisticsdiffers from traditionalgrammar.Traditional grammar isprescriptive while modernlinguistics is descriptive.The task of linguists issupposed to describe thelanguage people actuallyuse, whether it is“correct” or not.Synchronic and diachronic共时和历时The description of alanguage at some point ina diachronic study. Inmodern linguistics,synchronic study is moreimportant.Speech and writing口头语与书面语Speech and writing arethe two major media ofcommunication.Modern linguisticsregards the spoken form oflanguage as primary, butnot the written form.Reasons:1. Speech precedeswriting;2. There are still manylanguages that have onlythe spoken form;3. In terms of function,the spoken language isused for a wider range ofpurposes than the written,and carries a larger loadof communication than thewritten.Langue and parole[pə'rəul]语言和言语The Swiss linguist F.de Saussure made thedistinction between langueand parole early20th century.Langue refers to theabstract linguistic systemshared by all the membersof a speech community,and parole refers to therealization of langue inactual use.Saussure made thedistinction in order tosingle out one aspect oflanguage for serious study.He believes what linguistsshould do is to abstractlangue from parole, todiscover the regularitiesgoverning the actual useof language and make themthe subjects of study oflinguistics.语言能力和语言运用Competence andperformanceProposed by Americanlinguist N. Chomsky in thethe ideal user’sknowledge of the rules ofhis language,and performance theactual realization of thisknowledge in linguisticcommunication. He believesthe task of the linguistsis to discover and specifythe language rules.4/ What is language语言的定义Language is a system ofarbitrary vocal symbolsused for humancommunication.Sapir,Edward uses“ideas” “emotions” and“desires” in hisdefinition.Hall, like Sapir, treatslanguage as a purely humaninstitution.Chomsky’s definition isquite different, it focuson the purely structuralproperties of languagesand to suggest that theseproperties can beinvestigated from amathematically precisepoint of view.5/ Design features语言的甄别性特征Design features refer tothe defining properties ofhuman language thatdistinguish it from anyanimal system ofcommunication.American linguistCharles Hockett specifiedtwelve design features.1) Arbitrariness任意性（和约定俗成性）It means that there isno logical connectionbetween meanings andsounds.For instance, there is nonecessary relationshipbetween the word dog andthe animal it refers to.The fact that differentsounds are used to referto the same object indifferent languages andthat the same sound may beused to refer to differentnot entirely arbitrary. Some words, such as the words created in the imitation of sounds by sounds are motivated in a certain degree. The arbitrary nature of language makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions.2) Productivity能产性Language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of an infinitely large number of sentences, including those that they have never said or heard before.3) Duality结构二重性It means that language is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds at the lower level and the other of meanings at the higher level. At the lower or the basic level, there is the structure of individual and meaningless sounds, which can be grouped into meaningful units at the higher level. This duality of structure or double articulation of language enables its users to talk about anything withintheir knowledge.4) Displacement语言的移位性（突破时空性）It means that language can be used to talk about what happened in the past, what is happening now, or what will happen in the future. Language can also be used to talk about our real word experiences or the experiences in our imaginary world. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. 5) Cultural transmission文化传播性While we are born withthe ability to acquirelanguage, the details ofany language are notgenetically transmitted,but instead have to betaught and learned anew.**********************************Chapter 2Phonology 音系学phonic medium of language语言的声音媒介Speech and writing arethe two media used bynatural languages asvehicles for communication.Of the two media oflanguage, speech is morebasic than writing. Speechis prior to writing. Thewriting system of anylanguage is always“invented” by its usersto record speech when theneed arises.For linguists, the studyof sounds is of greaterimportance than that ofwriting.The limited ranges ofsounds which aremeaningful in humancommunication and are ofinterest to linguisticstudies are the phonicmedium of language (语言的声音媒介) .The individual soundswithin this range are thespeech sounds （语音）.2．What is phonetics什么是语音学？Phonetics is defined asthe study of the phonicmedium of language；It isconcerned with all thesounds that occur in theworld’s languages.语音学研究的对象是语言的声音媒介，即人类语言中使用的全部语音。

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英语语言学知识点：定义1.语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.3.语言languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。

4.识别特征Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。

Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性Duality双重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递⑴arbitrarinessThere is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.P.S the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited sourceof expressions⑵ProductivityAnimals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send.⑶DualityLanguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels.⑷DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.⑸Cultural transmissionHuman capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species.5.语言能力CompetenceCo mpetence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.6.语言运用performancePerformance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的体现。

Chapter 1 Introduction语言学的定义：Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.问题：How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study of language?→It is a scientific study because it is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.What the linguist has to do “first, then, but”:①to observe and collect language facts and generalizations are made about them.②to formulate some hypotheses about the language structure.③to check the hypotheses thus formed repeatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity.The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. (普通语言学)问题: What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study?→phonetics（语音学）→the study of sounds→phonology（音位学）→study how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning→morphology（形态学）→study the way in which symbols or morphemes are arranged and combined to form words.→syntax（句法学）→the study of rules of forming sentences →semantics（语义学）→the study of meaning→pragmatics（语用学）→ the context of language use Sociolinguistics（社会语言学）：The studies of all these social aspects of language and its relation with society form the core of the branch.Psycholinguistics（语言心理学）：Relate the study of language to psychologyApplied linguistics（应用语言学）：In a narrow sense it refers to the application of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.Some important distinctions in linguistics:①prescriptive（规定性）/descriptive（描写性）②synchronic（共时）/diachronic（历时）③speech（口语）/writing（书面语）④langue（语言）/parole（言语）（the Swiss linguist F. de Saussure ——Course in General Linguistics）⑤competence（语言能力）/performance（语言应用）（the American linguist N. Chomsky）⑥traditional grammar （传统语法）/modern linguistics（现代语言学）问题：in what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar?①linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.②modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written.③modern linguistics does not force languages into a Latin-based framework.问题：Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? Why?In modern linguistics, a synchronic (不考虑历史演进的, 限于一时的) approach seems to enjoy priority over a diachronic (探求现象变化的, 历时的) one.Because it is believed that unless the various states of a language in different historical periods are successfully studied, it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.Synchronic descriptions are often thought of as being descriptions of language in its current existence, and most linguistic studies are of this type.问题：For what reasons does modern linguistics give priority to speech rather than to writing?From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented”by its users to record speech when the need arises. Even in today’s world there are still many languages that can only be spoken but not written. Then in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.Spoken language reveals more true features of human speech while written language is only the “revised”record of speech. And linguists’data for investigation and analysis are mostly drawn from everyday speech, which they regarded as authentic.语言的定义：Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Design features of language（7个识别特征）①arbitrariness 任意性（at the syntactic level）②productivity 能产性，创造性Secondary units（底层结构 sounds）③duality 双层性Primary units （上层结构 units of meaning）④displacement 不受时空限制性（handle generalization and abstraction）⑤cultural transmission 文化传递性⑥interchangeability 互换性⑦convention 约定性Functions of language：三大主要功能：The descriptive functionThe expressive functionThe social functionRoman Jacobson（6种首要因素，结构主义语言学家）①speaker addresser→emotive 感情功能②addressee→conative 意动功能③context→referential所指功能④message→poetic 诗学功能⑤contact→phatic communion交感功能⑥code→metalinguistic 元语言功能Other functions:①phatic function 问候功能②informative f. 信息功能③interrogative f. 询问功能④expressive f. 表达功能⑤evocative f. 感染功能⑥directive f. 指令功能⑦performative f. 行使（权力）功能M.A.K. Halliday①ideational②interpersonal（indicate/establish/maintain/social relationships）③textual问题：How is Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance?The distinction between langue and parole was made by Saussure, langue is abstract; it is not the language people actually use. Parole is concrete; it refers to the naturally occurring language events. Langue is relatively stable; it does not change frequently, while parole varies from people to people, and from situation to situation.The distinction between competence and performance proposed by the American linguists Chomsky, competence is a deal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and the performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguisticcommunication. Imperfect performance is caused by social and psychological factors.Saussure makes this distinction in order to single out one aspect of language for serious study. In his opinion, parole is simple a mass of linguistic facts, too varied confusing for systematic investigation, and that linguistics should do is to abstract langue from parole, i.e., to discover the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subjects of study of linguistics.Similar to Saussure, Chomsky thinks what linguists should study is the ideal speaker’s competence, not his performance, which is too haphazard to be studied.问题：What are the main features of human language that have been specified by C. Hockett to show that it is essentially different from animal communication system?①arbitrariness 任意性（at the syntactic level）②productivity 能产性，创造性Secondary units（底层结构 sounds）③duality 双层性Primary units （上层结构 units of meaning）④displacement 不受时空限制性（handle generalization andabstraction）⑤cultural transmission 文化传递性⑥interchangeability 互换性⑦convention 约定性Chapter 2 PhonologyPhonetics: （语音学）①the study of the phonic medium of language②look at speech sounds from 3 distinct but related points of view.Ⅰstudy the sounds from the speaker’s point of view→articulatory phonetics（发音语音学）Ⅱlook at the sounds from the hearer’s point of view→auditory phonetics（听觉语音学）Ⅲstudy the way sounds travel by looking at the sound waves →acoustic phonetics（声学语音学）③study how sounds are produced, transmitted and perceived. Organs of speech:⒈three important areas①The pharyngeal cavity→the throat② the oral cavity→the mouth③ the nasal cavity→the nose⒉The pharyngeal cavity→windpipe/glottis/larynx/vocalcords⒊the oral cavity→tongue/uvula/soft palate(velum)/hard palate/teeth ridge(alveolus)/teeth/lipsInternational Phonetic Alphabet （IPA）①diacritics 附加符号②broad transcription（宽式标音）→the transcription with letter-symbols only③narrow transcription（严式标音）→the transcription withletter-symbols together withthe diacriticsClassification of English speech sounds①two broad categories of speech sounds in English: Vowels/consonants②two ways to classify the English consonants: In terms ofmanner ofarticulationIn terms of place of articulation③In terms of manner of articulation:Stops/fricatives/affricates/liquids/nasals/glides④In terms of place of articulation:Bilabial/labiodental/dental/alveolar/palatal/velar/glottal⑤Classification of English vowels⒈criteria :（monophthongs）单元音The position of the tongue in the mouth: front/central/back The openness of the mouth: close vowels/semi-closevowels/semi-openvowels/open vowels The shape of the lips: unrounded/roundedThe length of the vowels: tense/lax⒉diphthongs 双元音/ ei // ai // au // əu // ɔi // iə //εə// uə /Phonology 音韵学，语音体系Difference of phonology and phonetics:①Phonetics is interested in all the speech sounds used in allhuman languages.②Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a languageform patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.Phone（音素）: A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. Phoneme（音位）: It is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit. It is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context.Allophone（音位变体）: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.Phonemic contrast（音位对立）Complementary distribution（音位变体的互补分布）Minimal pairs（最小对立体）：含音位的单词的全部音标Minimal set（最小对立集）：is used to find the important sounds in language.Phonological Analysis（音位分析）Principle: certain sounds cause changes in the meaning of a word or phase, whereas other sounds do not.Phonetically similar sounds:描述音位关系Free variants: 音位的自由变体The difference of pronouncing a sound caused by dialect, habit, individual difference or regional differences instead of by any distribution rule.Some rules in phonology①sequential rules: 序列规则If a word begins with a / l / or a / r /, then the next sound must be a vowel.If three consonants should cluster together at the beginning of a word, the combination should obey the following three rules:The first phoneme must be / s /The second phoneme must be / p / / t / / k /The third phoneme must be / l // r // w /②assimilation rule:同化规则③deletion rule：省略规则Suprasegmental features 超音段特征≠超音段（比音位更大的语言单位）①stress（单词，句子层面）：the location of stress in English distinguishes meaning.Syllable音节：A syllable nucleus (often a vowel) with optional initial and final margins (often consonants)单音节词多音节词英语单词都有重读音位学中，单词由音节构成，音节由音位构成。

一、定义1.语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.3.语言languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。

4.识别特征Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。

Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性Duality双重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递⑴arbitrarinessThere is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.P.S the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions⑵ProductivityAnimals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send.⑶DualityLanguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels.⑷DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.⑸Cultural transmissionHuman capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species.5.语言能力CompetenceCompetence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.6.语言运用performancePerformance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的体现。

（完整word版）新编简明英语语言学教程复习资料Chapter one Introduction一、定义1.语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.3.语言languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。

4.识别特征Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。

Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性Duality双重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递The design features mentioned in the course book include arbitrariness, productivity or creativity, duality, displacement and cultural transmission.By arbitrariness it is meant that the symbols used in human language are arbitrary, i.e. there is no logical connection between the symbols and what they stand for.The feature of productivity means that language is productive or creative, i.e. it is possible for its users to construct and understand an unlimited number of sentences, includingsentences they have never heard before.Duality is a feature of the structure of the human language system, which consists of two levels. At the lower level there exist a limited number of sounds which are meaningless, while at the higher level these meaningless sounds can be arranged and rearranged in various ways to form meaningful language units, unlimited in number.The feature of displacement means that language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or unreal, in the past, present, or future.Cultural transmission, in contrast to genetic transmission, refers to the fact that human babies, though born with the ability to acquire a language, must be taught to use it.5.语言能力CompetenceCompetence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.6.语言运用performancePerformance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的体现。

完整版)《语言学纲要》知识点整理n:1.The object of study in linguistics is language.2.The three main origins of linguistics are China。

India。

and Greece-Rome.XXX:1.The study of Sanskrit and its grammar.2.The study of language in XXX.Ancient Greece:1.The study of language by XXX.China:1.The study of language in XXX.2.The use of XXX.3."Xiaoxue" refers to the study of character shapes in phonology。

the study of n in ics。

and the study of XXX。

XXX Confucianism.4.Linguistics XXX century。

XXX.Chapter 1: The ns of Language1.The ns of language can be XXX ns.2.The social ns of language include n XXX.Chapter 2: Language as a Symbolic System1.A XXX.1) The form and meaning of a symbol are inseparable。

and the XXX.2) The form and meaning of a symbol are general.3) There is no essential or natural n een the form and meaning of a symbol.2.XXX system because it contains both form and content。

第一章语言学导论Chapter1 Invitations to LinguisticsLinguistics is nowadays coming into wide use with combination of theories and practice as wellas linguistics and other disciplines.Linguistics is of great use with very wide application. —人工智能，人机对话，机器翻译The research of linguistics has already gone beyond language itself.Definition of LinguisticsHow do you define linguistics? What is linguistics?—— Linguistics can be defined as the scientific or systematic study of language. It is a sciencein the sense that it scientifically studies the rules, systems and principles of human language.What are we going to learn about linguistics?1.It is generally agreed that linguistics should include at least five parameters, namely, phonological, morphological, syntactic, semantic and pragmatic. These can be called microlinguistics.语音学 (phonetics); 音系学 (phonology); 形态学 (morphology); 句法学 (syntax) — Schools of Modern Linguistics 现代语言学流派; 语义学 (semantics) ; 语用学 (pragmatics) (chapter2-6) 2. Macrolinguistics —— interdisciplinary learningSaussure, father of modern linguistics( 现代语言学之父) were intended to establish the autonomy of linguistics, giving it a well-defined subject of study and freeing it from reliance onother disciplines. However, the interactive links between linguistics and other sciences are developing fast.尽管索绪尔的目的是给予语言学自主性，给它定义明确的研究对象，将它从对其他学科的依赖中解放出来。

第一章Language figures centrally in our livesWe discover our identity as individuals and social beings when we acquire a language during childhoodLanguage serves as a means of cognition and communicationLanguage provides for present needs and future plans,and at the same time carries with it the impression of things past _WiddowsonFuctions of language recognized by ancient peopleTo achieve sth by giving order；To praise the almighty；To challenge the heavenLanguage is the system of human communication which consists of the structured arrangement of sounds into larger units.e.g.morphemes,words,sentences,utterancesLanguages are particular systems of human communication,e.g.the French language,the Hindi languageLinguistics---the scientific study of language or of particular languagesV arieties of language：Dialect,accent,sociolect,temporal dialect,register,idiolect,standard dialect2Attitudes:Prescriptive=there’s a universally correct and acceptable logic of language for man to follow in expressing his ideas. PlatoDescriptive=knowledge of language was arrived at by convention and agreement of the speakers of a given language. AristotleLanguage as an entityNativism,Mentalism=there is a biological,physiological entity inside our brain which decides that we speak Behaviorism,Empiricism=our brain was blank when we were. Language is a social,empirical entity.3 adequacies: Observational,DescriptiveExplanatoryThe principal organs of articulation第三章Micro-Applied linguistics=the study of second and foreign language learning and teachingPhonetics is the science of speech sounds, which aims to provide the set of features or properties that can be used to describe and distinguish all the sounds used in human语音学Phonetics is divided into 3 sub-fields:发音语音学Articulatory phonetics studies speech production by the speech organs;声学语音学Acoustic phonetics studies physical properties of speech sounds;听觉语音学Auditory phonetics studies the perception of speech sounds in the human auditory and cognitive system. Phoneme: the smallest unit of sound in a language which can distinguish meaning (or two words).两类•Free morphemes: those which can occur on their own as separate words, e.g.luck•Bound morphemes: those which cannot occur on their own as separate w ords, e.g.-y ◊ lucky; -s ◊ books; re- ◊retellAllophones：allophones in complementary distribution;allophones in free variation.音位变体，互补，自由。

新编简洁英语语言学知识点汇总1Introduction Whatis linguistics?①t ry to answer the basic questions and probe into various problems related to language;②l inguistics studies not any particular language but languagein general;③s cientific study because based on systematic investigation oflinguistic data.The scope of linguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called general linguistic. phonetics Study the sounds used in linguistic studyphonology How sounds put together and convey meaning morphology The way symbols representing sounds are arrangedand combined to form wordssyntax Rules governing the combination of wordssemantics The study of meaningpragmatics Study the meaning in contextAbove are major or core branches of linguistics;Following are linguistics link with other disciplines.sociolinguistics language and society psycholinguisticsHowinfant acquire mother tongue,processinformationlanguage and brainApplied linguistics Applied to the recovery oflanguage,language acquisitionSome important distinctions in linguisticsprescriptiveAims to lay down rules for“ correct & standard ”whatever occurs in thelanguage people use should bedescribed and analyzed)synchronicdiachronicThe description of a languageThe description of a languageat some point of timeas it changes through time① Difficult to describe the changes that have taken placein its historical development;② Synchronic description are often thought of as beingdescriptions of a language in its current existence.speech writingdescriptiveDescribe and analyze thelanguage actuallyuse(modern linguists believe thatSpeech is prior to writing:①writing system is always “invented ”by the users to record the speech when the need arises;②speech plays a greater role in terms of amount of conveying information;③ speech is always the way native speaker acquire their mother tongue while writing is learn and taught in school;④spoken language reveals more feature of human speech,whichis authentic while written language is only the revised record of speech.Langue 语言Parole语言The realization of language in Abstract linguistic system;actual use;Concrete;Relatively stable Vary from person to person &situation to situationProposed by Swiss linguist Saussure in the early 20th century:parole is a mass of linguistic facts,to abstract langue from parole.competence performanceThe actual realization of this The ideal user ’s knowledge ofknowledge in linguisticthe rules of his languagecommunication. proposed by American linguist, Similar to Saussure,whatlinguists should study is the ideal speaker ’s competence,notthe performance.Difference:Saussure took sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social convention;whileChomsky looks at psychological point and to him competence isa property of the mind of each individual.Traditional grammar Modern linguisticsPrescriptive;Descriptive;written language is primary;Spoken language is primary;Force language into a Trying to set up a universalLatin-based framework;frameworkModern linguistics begin from the publication of Sassure’sbook course in general linguisticsWhat is languageDefinitions of languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Characteristics:①language is system,elements of language are combined according to the rules;②language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsicconnection between a linguistic symbol and what it stands for, A rose by any other name would smell as well;③language is vocal because the primary mediumfor all language is sound;④language is human -specific,different from animal communication.Design features of languageProposed by American linguist Charles Hockett:comparing the animal &human communication are five major design features of human language:①arbitrarinessNo logical connection between meaning and sounds(exceptonomatopoetic and compound words)②p roductivityIt makes to possible to construction and interpretation of new signalby its users.③dualityLanguage is a system which consists of two structures.At the lower level there is a structure of sounds,which are meaningless by the sounds can grouped or regrouped together into a larger numbers of units of meaning such as morpheme or words,which are found at the higher level ofsystem(carp& park).Then the higher level can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite numbers of sentences;④DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speakers;⑤c ultural transmissionWhile humancapacity for language has a genetic basis,the details of any language systems are not genetically transmitted, but instead have tobe taught and learned.(language is cultural transmitted[language notmutually intelligible] while animal call system is geneticallytransmitted)Functions of languageThree main functions of language which distinct from each otherbut actually overlapping to some degree:①d escriptive functionThe primary function of language;The Sichuan earthquake is the most serious one China has ever suffered.②expressive functionand Supply information about the user ’s feeling,preference,prejudicesvalue, will never come to this coffee shop again.③social functionServes to establish and maintain social relations between people. Howcan I help you, Sir?Others:Russian-born structuralRoman Jakobson：six elemenslinguist (function)of a speech:意动 ) context -referential Addresser -emotive ( 动机 ) addressee -conative( message-poetic contact -phaticcommunion code- metalinguisticBritish linguistic Halliday:①ideational function( 语篇功能 )[included descriptive & expressivefunctin] is to organize the speaker’s experience of the real or imaginary world.②interpersonal function is to indicate ,establish,or maintain social relationship between people.[social function]③textual function is to organize written or spoken texts to coherewithin themselves and fit to the particular situation in which they are used.The phonic medium of languageSpeech sounds produced by human speech organTwo major media of communication:speech and writing;what is phonetics?The study of phonic mediumof language;it is concerned with all the sounds that occurs in the world’s language.Articulatory phonetics(发音语言学)Longest Three branches Auditory phonetics(听觉语言学)Acoustic phonetics(声学语言学)organs of speechPharyngeal cavity(咽喉 )Nasal cavity（鼻腔）简洁英语语言学知识点汇总Oral cavity（口腔）Voicing:vibration of the vocal cordsVocal glotorthgraphic representation of speech sounds :broad & narrowcords tisInternational phonetic alphabet:letter ai→soundsBroad(used in textbook):letter symbols [p]lun h Narrow: letter symbols + diacritics(变音符 )[p it] [spit]gh→aspiration[phonetician more interested in]classification of English speech soundsLabio-Dental Alveloar VelarBilabialdental Palatal Glottal（齿（齿龈（软Total（双唇音）（唇齿（腭音）（喉音）音）音）腭）obstruction音）StopsVL p f t k (闭塞音)PartialVD b v d g obstructionFricativeVL o s f h （摩擦音）omplete at firstelease slowly with VD d z gartial obstructionAffricatesVL tf tf（塞擦音）VD dg dgNasalsVD m n n （鼻音）LiquidsVD L,r（流音）GlidesVDwj（滑音）Monophthongs ：closeSemi-closeSemi-openfrontI: Ie centrale:ebackU: uC:openae a^D a:phonologyphonology & phoneticsP h o n o l o g y v s p h o n e t i c sphone phoneme allophonePhoneticSpeech soundsphonemic contrastcomplementary distributionminimal pairsome rules in phonology Sequential rules assimilation rule deletion rulePhonological featuresthat occur above the level of segments)suprasegmental features(phonemicunitDark l &Pill bill Stress : N & v[p][clear lProducedForm patters &Tone ： 四声Different phonesGovern the combination of representinga phonemein Intonation： diffrenty convey different meaning even the sentences unchangedsounds, convey meaningfeatures &3.Morphologydifferent phonetic. Word begin with a [l] orenvironmentGrammar that is concerned with word formation and word structure[r],nextsound must be a vowelWord: the smallest free form found in languageMorpheme: the smallest unit of meaningRoot stem baseAssimilate one sound toanother by copying a feature Root: believeof sequential phoneme,makingStem: believable (除去全部的语法成份 , 留下词根和派生成份 )Base ： unbelievable (un two phones similar的词基 )Derivational morpheme:change category grammatical class of wordsPrefix:change meaningTo tell us when a sound is to be deletedalthough it is orthographicallySuffix: change meaning and parts of speechInflectional morpheme:signify tense number caseWord formation:① Clipping （shortening & abbreviation）[no change of part of speech]gym expo memo disco burger quake fridge script②back-formation [changeof part of speech]editor-edit hawker-hawk beggar-beg baby-sister--baby-sitButcher-butch donation-donate orientation-orient(ate)③ conversion(functional shift):N-v v-n a-v a-n ④acronyms [pronouncedas words]CEO B2B IT CPI IAD WTO BBS(FOR BULLETIN BOARD SYSTEM) APEC AIDS UNESCO UCLA IDD⑤initialism[produced as letters]FBI EEC⑥blendingSmoke+fog=smogTaikong+astronaut=taikonaut⑦compoundingBittersweet landlady⑧onomatopoeiaBlast rustle5.SemanticsSome views concerning the study of meaning:1) the naming theory,plato,words→objects Limitations:√N ×ADJ ADV V√Concrete×abstract2)the conceptualist viewSemantic triangle,ogden & richardswords→mind→wordsLimitations:what is the precisely link symbol and concept unclarify 3)Contextualism简洁英语语言学知识点汇总Firth。

Linguistics is a scientific study of language .语言学是对语言进行的科学研究。

General linguistics is the study of language as a whole. 普通语言学是对语言从整体上进行的研究the major branches of linguistics:语言学内部主要分支Phonetics：the study of the sounds used in linguistic communication.. (语音学)对语言交流中语音的研究Phonology the study of how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication. (音位学)如何组合在一起并在交流中形传达意义.Morphology:the study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words (词法学、形态学)如何排列以及组合起来构成词语Syntax:the study of those rules that govern the combination of words to form permissible sentences (句法学) 如何在组成语法上可接受的句子Semantics(语义学) the study of meaning in abstraction 语言是用来传达意义的。

Pragmatics(语用学) the study of meaning in context of use 用来研究上下文的意义跨学科分支Sociolinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and society. 社会语言学是语言和社会之间关系的研究Psycholinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and the mind.心理语言学是语言与心灵的关系的研究Applied linguistics is the study of the teaching of foreign and second languages. 应用语言学是外国和第二语言教学的研究Some important distinctions in linguistic s 语言学中一些基本区分1.Descriptive or PrescriptiveA linguistic study is descriptive if it describes and analyses facts observed; it is prescriptive if it tries to lay down rules for "correct" behavior. 描述性是在描述和分析人们对语言的实际运用，规定性是在为语言“正确和规范的”使用确立规则。

语言学复习指要Linguistics第一节语言的本质一、语言的普遍特征（Design Features）1.任意性Arbitratriness：shu 和Tree都能表示“树”这一概念；同样的声音，各国不同的表达方式2.双层结构Duality：语言由声音结构和意义结构组成（the structure of soundsand meaning）3.多产性productive:语言可以理解并创造无限数量的新句子，是由双层结构造成的结果（Understand and create unlimited number with sentences）4.移位性Displacemennt：可以表达许多不在场的东西，如过去的经历、将来可能发生的事情，或者表达根本不存在的东西等5.文化传播性Cultural Transmission：语言需要后天在特定文化环境中掌握二、语言的功能（Functions of Language）1.传达信息功能Informative：最主要功能The main function2.人际功能Interpersonal：人类在社会中建立并维持各自地位的功能establishand maintain their identity3.行事功能performative：现实应用——判刑、咒语、为船命名等Judge，naming，and curses4.表情功能Emotive：表达强烈情感的语言，如感叹词/句exclamatoryexpressions5.寒暄功能Phatic：应酬话phatic language，比如“吃了没？”“天儿真好啊！”　等等6.元语言功能Metalingual：用语言来谈论、改变语言本身，如book可以指现实中的书也可以用“book这个词来表达作为语言单位的“书”三、语言学的分支1. 核心语言学Core linguistic语音学Phonetics：关注语音的产生、传播和接受过程，着重考察人类语言中的单音。

《语言学教程》重难点学习提示第一章语言的性质语言的定义：语言的基本特征（任意性、二重性、多产性、移位、文化传递和互换性）；语言的功能（寒暄、指令、提供信息、询问、表达主观感情、唤起对方的感情和言语行为）；语言的起源（神授说，人造说，进化说）等。

第二章语言学语言学定义；研究语言的四大原则（穷尽、一致、简洁、客观）；语言学的基本概念（口语与书面语、共时与历时、语言与言学、语言能力与言行运用、语言潜势与语言行为）；普通语言学的分支（语音、音位、语法、句法、语义）；；语言学的应用（语言学与语言教学、语言与社会、语言与文字、语言与心理学、人类语言学、神经语言学、数理语言学、计算语言学）等。

第三章语音学发音器官的英文名称；英语辅音的发音部位和发音方法；语音学的定义；发音语音学；听觉语音学；声学语音学；元音及辅音的分类；严式与宽式标音等。

第四章音位学音位理论；最小对立体；自由变异；互补分布；语音的相似性；区别性特征；超语段音位学；音节；重音（词重音、句子重音、音高和语调）等。

第五章词法学词法的定义；曲折词与派生词；构词法（合成与派生）；词素的定义；词素变体；自由词素；粘着词素（词根，词缀和词干）等。

第六章词汇学词的定义；语法词与词汇词；变词与不变词；封闭词与开放词；词的辨认；习语与搭配。

第七章句法句法的定义；句法关系；结构；成分；直接成分分析法；并列结构与从属结构；句子成分；范畴（性，数，格）；一致；短语，从句，句子扩展等。

第八章语义学语义的定义；语义的有关理论；意义种类（传统、功能、语用）；里奇的语义分类；词汇意义关系（同义、反义、下义）；句子语义关系。

第九章语言变化语言的发展变化（词汇变化、语音书写文字、语法变化、语义变化）；第十章语言、思维与文化语言与文化的定义；萨丕尔-沃夫假说；语言与思维的关系；语言与文化的关系；中西文化的异同。

第十一章语用学语用学的定义；语义学与语用学的区别；语境与意义；言语行为理论（言内行为、言外行为和言后行为）；合作原则。

Chapter 1: Introduction1.Linguistics：语言学It is generally defined as the scientific study of language.( Linguistics studies not any particular language ，but it studies language in general）2。

General linguistics：普通语言学The study of language as a whole is called general linguistics。

（language is a complicated entity with multiple layers and facets ）nguage：Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication。

4.descriptive (描述性)：A linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use。

5。

prescriptive(规定性): It aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard” behaviors。

i.e。

what they should say and what they should not to say.6。

synchronic（共时语言学)：the description of language at some point of time in hiatory7。

diachronic (历时语言学):the description of language as it changes through time 3）speech（口语）Writing（书面语)These the two media of communication。

Chapter 1: Introduction1. Linguistics: Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.8. langue: Lange refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.9. parole :Parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use.10. competence : The ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.11.performance : The actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.12. language : Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.13.design features : Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.14. arbitrariness: Arbitrariness refers to no logical connection between meaning and sound.15. productivity: Users can understand and produce sentences that they have never heard before.16. duality: Language consists of two sets of structure, with lower lever of sound, which is meaningless, and the higher lever of meaning.17. displacement: Language can be used to refer to the contexts removed from the immediate situation of the speaker no matter how far away from the topic of conversation in time or space.18. cultural transmission: Language is culturally transmitted. It is taught and learned from one generation to the next, rather than by instinct.Chapter 2: Phonology1. phonic medium : The meaningful speech sound in human communication.2. phonetics : The study of phonic medium of language and it is concerned with all sounds in t he world’s languages.3. articulatory phonetics : It studies sounds from the speaker’s point of view, i.e. howa speaker uses his speech organs to articulate the sounds.4. auditory phonetics: The studies sounds from the hearer’s point of view, i.e. how the sounds are perceived by the hearer.5. acoustic phonetics: It studies the way sounds travel by looking at the sound waves, the physical means by which sounds are transmitted through the air from one person to another.6. voicing: the way that sounds are produced with the vibration of the vocal cords.7. voiceless: the way that sounds are produced with no vibration of the vocal cords.8. broad transcription: The use of letter symbols only to show the sounds or sounds sequences in written form.9. narrow transcription: The use of letter symbol, together with the diacritics to show sounds in written form.10. diacritics: The symbols used to show detailed articulatory features of sounds.11. IPA: short for International Phonetic Alphabets, a system of symbols consists of letters and diacritics, used to represent the pronunciation of words in any language. 12. aspiration: A little puff of air that sometimes follows a speech sound.13. manner of articulation : The manner in which obstruction is created.14. place of articulation : The place where obstruction is created.15. consonant: a speech sound in which the air stream is obstructed in one way or another.16. vowel : a speech sound in which the air stream from the lung meets with no obstruction.17. monophthong : the individual vowel.18. diphthong : The vowel which consists of two individual vowels, and functions as a single one.19. phone : The speech sound we use when speaking a language.20. phoneme : The smallest unit of sound in a language which can distinguish two sounds.21. allophone : any different forms of the same phoneme in different phonetic environments.22. phonology : The description of sound systems of particular languages and how sounds function to distinguish meaning.23. phonemic contrast : two similar sounds occur in the same environment and distinguish meaning.24. complementary distribution : allophones of the same phoneme and they don’t distinguish meaning but complement each other in distribution.25. minimal pair: two different forms are identical in every way except one sound and occurs in the same position. The two sounds are said to form a minimal pair.26. sequential rules: The rules to govern the combination of sounds in a particular language.27. assimilation rule: The rule assimilates one sound to another by copying a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar.28. deletion rule: The rule that a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented.29. suprasegmental features: The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments----syllable, word, sentence.30. tone: Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.31. intonation: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation.Chapter 3: Morphology1. morphology: A branch of linguistics that studies the internal structure of words and rules for word formation.2. open class: A group of words, which contains an unlimited number of items, and new words can be added to it.3. closed class: A relatively few words, including conjunctions, prepositions and pronouns, and new words are not usually added to them.4. morpheme: The smallest unit of meaning of a language. It can not be divided without altering or destroying its meaning.5. affix: a letter or a group of letter, which is added to a word, and which changes themeaning or function of the word, including prefix, infix and suffix.6. suffix: The affix, which is added to the end of a word, and which usually changes the part of speech of a word.7. prefix: The affix, which is added to the beginning of a word, and which usually changes the meaning of a word to its opposite.8. bound morpheme: Morpheme that can not be used alone, and it must be combined wit others. E.g. –ment.9. free morpheme: a morpheme that can stand alone as a word.10. derivational morpheme: Bound morpheme, which can be added to a stem to forma new word.11. inflectional morpheme: A kind of morpheme, which are used to make grammatical categories, such as number, tense and case.12. morphological rules: The ways words are formed. These rules determine how morphemes combine to form words.13. compound words: A combination of two or more words, which functions as a single words14. inflection: the morphological process which adjusts words by grammatical modification, e.g. in The rains came, rain is inflected for plurality and came for past tense.Chapter 4: Syntax1. syntax: A branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.2. category: It refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.6. phrase: syntactic units that are built around a certain word category are called phrase, the category of which is determined by the word category around which the phrase is built.8. head: The word round which phrase is formed is termed head.9. specifier: The words on the left side of the heads are said to function as specifiers.10. complement: The words on the right side of the heads are complements.11. phrase structure rule: The special type of grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule. 14. coordination: Some structures are formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and or or. Such phenomenon is known as coordination.15. subcategorization: The information about a word’s complement is included in the head and termed suncategorization.16. complementizer: Words which introduce the sentence complement are termed complementizer.17. complement clause: The sentence introduced by the complementizer is called a complement clause.18. complement phrase: the elements, including a complementizer and a complement clause is called a complement phrase.19. matrix clause: the contrusction in which the complement phrase is embedded iscalled matrix clause.20. modifier: the element, which specifies optionally expressible properties of heads is called modifier.21. transformation : a special type of rule that can move an element from one position to another22. inversion : the process of transformation that moves the auxiliary from the Infl position to a position to the left of the subject, is called inversion.23. Do insertion : In the process of forming yes-no question that does not contain an overt Infl, interrogative do is inserted into an empty Infl positon to make transformation work.24. deep structure : A level of abstract syntactic representation formed by the XP rule.25. surface structure : A level of syntactic representation after applying the necessary syntactic movement, i.e., transformation, to the deep structure. (05)26. universal grammar: the innateness principles and properties that pertain to the grammars of all human languages.Chapter 5: Semantics1. semantics: Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning.3. sense : Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form. It is abstract and de-contexturalized. It is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are interested in.4. reference : Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world. It deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.5. synonymy: Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms.6. dialectal synonyms: synonyms that are used in different regional dialects.7. stylistic synonyms: synonyms that differ in style, or degree of formality.8. collocational synonyms: Synonyms that differ in their colllocation, i.e., in the words they go together with.9. polysemy : The same word has more than one meaning.10. homonymy: Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, i.e., different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.11. homophones: When two words are identical in sound, they are homophones.12. homographs: When two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs.13. complete homonymy: When two words are identical in both sound and spelling, they are complete homonyms.14. hyponymy: Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.15. superordinate: The word which is more general in meaning is called the superordinate.16. co-hyponyms: Hyponyms of the same superordinate are co-hyponyms.17. antonymy: The term antonymy is used for oppositeness of meaning.20. relational opposites: Pairs if words that exhibit the reversal of a relationshipbetween the two items are called relational opposites. For example, husband---wife, father---son, buy---sell, let---rent, above---below.21. entailment: the relationship between two sentences where the truth of one is inferred from the truth of the other. E.g. Cindy killed the dog entails the dog is dead.22. presupposition: What a speaker or writer assumes that the receiver of the massage already knows. e.g. Some tea has already been taken is a presupposition of Take some more tea.Chapter 6: Pragmatics1. pragmatics: The study of how speakers uses sentences to effect successful communication.2. context: The general knowledge shared by the speakers and the hearers.3. sentence meaning: The meaning of a self-contained unit with abstract and de-contextualized features.4. utterance meaning: The meaning that a speaker conveys by using a particular utterance in a particular context.5. utterance: expression produced in a particular context with a particular intention.6. Speech Act Theory: The theory proposed by John Austin and deepened by Searle, which believes that we are performing actions when we are speaking.7. constatives: Constatives are statements that either state or describe, and are thus verifiable.8. performatives: Pe rformatives are sentences that don’t state a fact or describe a state, and are not verifiable.9. locutionary act: The act of conveying literal meaning by virtue of syntax, lexicon and phonology.10. illocutionary act: The act of expressing the speaker’s i ntention and performed in saying something.11. perlocutionary act: The act resulting from saying something and the consequence or the change brought about by the utterance.12. representatives: Stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true.13. directives: Trying to get the hearer to do something.17. cooperative Principle: The principle that the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate in making conversation, otherwise, it would be impossible to carry on the talk.18. conversational implicature: The use of conversational maxims to imply meaning during conversation.Chapter 7: Language Change8. acronyms: Acronyms are words derived from the initials of several words.9. protolanguage: The original form of a language family, which has ceased to exist.10. Language family: A group of historically related languages that have developed from a common ancestral language.Chapter 8: Language And Society1. sociolinguistics: The subfield of linguistics that study language variation and language use in social contexts.2. speech community: A group of people who form a community and share at leastone speech variety as well as similar linguistic norms.3. speech varieties: It refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or a group of speakers.4. regional dialect: A variety of language used by people living in the same geographical region.5. sociolect: A variety of language used by people, who belong to a particular social class.6. registers : The type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation.7. idiolect : A person’s dialect of an individual speaker that combines elements, regarding regional, social, gender and age variations.8. linguistic reportoire : The totality of linguistic varieties possessed by an individual constitutes his linguistic repertoire.9. register theory : A theory proposed by American linguist Halliday, who believed that three social variables determine the register, namely, field of discourse, tenor of discourse and mode of discourse.10. field of discourse : the purpose and subject matter of the communicative behavior..11. tenor of discourse: It refers to the role of relationship in the situation in question: who the participants in the communication groups are and in what relationship they stand to each other.12. mode of discourse: It refers to the means of communication and it is concerned with how communication is carried out.13. standard dialect: A superposed variety of language of a community or nation, usually based on the speech and writing of educated native speakers of the language.14. formality: It refers to the degree of formality in different occasions and reflects the relationship and conversations. According to Martin Joos, there are five stages of formality, namely, intimate, casual, consultative, formal and frozen.15. Pidgin: A blending of several language, developing as a contact language of people, who speak different languages, try to communication with one another on a regular basis.16. Creole : A pidgin language which has become the native language of a group of speakers used in this daily life.17. bilingualism : The use of two different languages side by side with each having a different role to play, and language switching occurs when the situation changes.(07C) 18. diaglossia : A sociolinguistic situation in which two different varieties of language co-exist in a speech community, each having a definite role to play.19. Lingua Franca : A variety of language that serves as a medium of communication among groups of people, who speak different native languages or dialects20. code-switching: the movement back and forth between two languages or dialects within the same sentence or discourse.Chapter 10: Language Acquisition1. language acqui sition: It refers to the child’s acquisition of his mother tongue, i.e. how the child comes to understand and speak the language of his community.2. language acquisition device (LAD): A hypothetical innate mechanism every normalhuman child is believed to be born with, which allow them to acquire language.3. Universal Grammar: A theory which claims to account for the grammatical competence of every adult no matter what language he or she speaks.4. motherese: A special speech to children used by adults, which is characterized with slow rate of speed, high pitch, rich intonation, shorter and simpler sentence structures etc.----又叫child directed speech，caretaker talk.5. Critical Period Hypothesis: The hypothesis that the time span between early childhood and puberty is the critical period for language acquisition, during which children can acquire language without formal instruction successfully and effortlessly.6. under-extension: Use a word with less than its usual range of denotation.7. over-extension: Extension of the meaning of a word beyond its usual domain of application by young children.8. telegraphic speech: Childre n’s early multiword speech that contains content words and lacks function words and inflectional morphemes.9. content word: Words referring to things, quality, state or action, which have lexical meaning used alone.10. function word: Words with little meaning on their own but show grammatical relationships in and between sentences.11. taboo: Words known to speakers but avoided in some contexts of speech for reasons of religion, politeness etc.12. atypical development: Some acquisition of language may be delayed but follow the same rules of language development due to trauma or injury.Chapter 11 : Second Language Acquisition1. second language acquisition: It refers to the systematic study of how one person acquires a second language subsequent to his native language.2. target language: The language to be acquired by the second language learner.3. second language: A second language is a language which is not a native language ina country but which is widely used as a medium of communication and which is usually used alongside another language or languages.4. foreign language: A foreign language is a language which is taught as a school subject but which is not used as a medium of instruction in schools nor as a language of communication within a country.5. interlanguage: A type of language produced by second and foreign language learners, who are in the process of learning a language, and this type of language usually contains wrong expressions.6. fossilization: In second or foreign language learning, there is a process which sometimes occurs in which incorrect linguistic features become a permanent part of the way a person speaks or writes a language.14. overgeneralization: The use of previously available strategies in new situations, in which they are unacceptable.15. cross-association: some words are similar in meaning as well as spelling and pronunciation. This internal interference is called cross-association.16. error: the production of incorrect forms in speech or writing by a non-native speaker of a second language, due to his incomplete knowledge of the rules of thattarget language.17. mistake: mistakes, defined as either intentionally or unintentionally deviant forms and self-corrigible, suggest failure in performance.18. input: language which a learner hears or receives and from which he or she can learn.19. intake: the input which is actually helpful for the learner.20. Input Hypothesis: A hypothesis proposed by Krashen , which states that in second language learning, it’s necessary f or the learner to understand input language which contains linguistic items that are slightly beyond the learner’s present linguistic competence. Eventually the ability to produce language is said to emerge naturally without being taught directly.21. acquisition: Acquisition is a process similar to the way children acquire their first language. It is a subconscious process without minute learning of grammatical rules. Learners are hardly aware of their learning but they are using language to communicate. It is also called implicit learning, informal learning or natural learning.23. comprehensible input: Input language which contains linguistic items that are slightly beyond the learner’s pre sent linguistic competence.24. language aptitude: the natural ability to learn a language, not including intelligence, motivation, interest, etc.25. motivation: motivation is defined as the learner’s attitudes and affective state or learning drive.26. instrumental motivation: the motivation that people learn a foreign language for instrumental goals such as passing exams, or furthering a career etc.27. integrative motivation: the drive that people learn a foreign language because of the wish to identify with the target culture.28. resultative motivation: the drive that learners learn a second language for external purposes.29. intrinsic motivation: the drive that learners learn the second language for enjoyment or pleasure from learning.Chapter 12 : Language And Brain1. neurolinguistics: It is the study of relationship between brain and language. It includes research into how the structure of the brain influences language learning, how and in which parts of the brain language is stored, and how damage to the brain affects the ability to use language.2. psycholinguistics: the study of language processing. It is concerned with the processes of language acqisition, comprehension and production.7. aphasia: It refers to a number of acquired language disorders due to the cerebral lesions caused by a tumor, an accident and so on.13. spoonerism: a slip of tongue in which the position of sounds, syllables, or words is reversed, for example, Let’s have chish and fips instend of Let’s have fish and chips.14. priming: the process that before the participants make a decision whether the string of letters is a word or not, they are presented with an activated word.15. frequency effect: Subjects take less time to make judgement on frequently used words than to judge less commonly used words . This phenomenon is calledfrequency effect.16. lexical decision: an experiment that let participants judge whether a string of letter is a word or not at a certain time.18. priming effect: Since the mental representation is activated through the prime, when the target is presented, response time is shorter that it otherwise would have been. This is called the priming effect.。

第一章、绪论Introduction1、语言学的主要分支是什么。

每个分支的研究对象是什么？Linguistics mainly involves the following branches:General linguistics, which is the study of language as a whole and which deals with the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicablein any linguistic studyPhonetics, which studies the sounds that are used in linguistic communicationPhonology,which studies how sounds are put together and used in communicationMorphology, which studies the way in which morphemes are arranged to form wordsSyntax, which studies how morphemes and words are combined to form sentencesSemantics, which is the study of meaning in language.Pragmatics, which is the study of meaning not in isolation, but in context of useSociolinguistics, which is the study of language with reference to societyPsycholinguistics, which is the study of language with reference to the workings of mind.Applied linguistics, which is concerned about the application of linguistic findings in linguistic studies; In a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.Other related branches are anthropological linguistics, neurological inguistics, mathematical linguistics, and computational linguistics.2、现代语言学Modern linguistics与传统语法Traditional grammar 有什么区别？Traditional grammar is prescriptive; it is based on "high "(religious, literary) written language. It sets models for language users to follow. But Modern linguistics is descriptive; its investigations are based on authentic, and mainly spoken language data. It is supposed to be scientific and objective and the task of linguists is supposed to describe the language people actually use, whether it is "correct" or not.3、什么叫共时研究？什么叫历时研究？The description of a language at some point in time is a Synchronic study （共时研究）; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study（历时研究）. A synchronic study of language describes a language as it is at some particular point in rime, while a diachronic study of language is a historical study; it studies the historical development of language over a period of time.4、人类语言的甄别性特征是什么？1) Arbitrariness 。