曼昆宏观经济学第28章

Chapter 28Problems and Applications1. The labor force consists of the number of employed (142,076,000) plus the number of unemployed(7,497,000), which equals 149,573,000.To find the labor-force participation rate, we need to know the size of the adult population. Adding the labor force (149,573,000) to the number of people not in the labor force (76,580,000) gives the adult population of 226,153,000. The labor-force participation rate is the labor force (149,573,000) divided by the adult population (226,153,000) times 100%, which equals 66%.The unemployment rate is the number of unemployed (7,497,000) divided by the labor force(149,573,000) times 100%, which equals 5.0%.2. Many answers are possible.3. Men age 55 and over experienced the greatest decline in labor-force participation. This wasbecause of increased Social Security benefits and retirement income, encouraging retirement at an earlier age.4. Younger women experienced a bigger increase in labor-force participation than older womenbecause more of them have entered the labor force (in part because of social changes), so there are more two-career families. In addition, women have delayed having children until later in life and have reduced the number of children they have, so they are in the labor force for a greater proportion of their lives than was the case previously.5. The fact that employment increased 1.5 million while unemployment declined 0.6 million isconsistent with growth in the labor force of 0.9 million workers. The labor force constantlyincreases as the population grows and as labor-force participation increases, so the increase in the number of people employed may always exceed the reduction in the number unemployed.6. a. A construction worker who is laid off because of bad weather is likely to experienceshort-term unemployment, because the worker will be back to work as soon as theweather clears up.b. A manufacturing worker who loses her job at a plant in an isolated area is likely toexperience long-term unemployment, because there are probably few other employmentopportunities in the area. She may need to move somewhere else to find a suitable job,which means she will be out of work for some time.c. A worker in the stagecoach industry who was laid off because of the growth of railroads islikely to be unemployed for a long time. The worker will have a lot of trouble findinganother job because his entire industry is shrinking. He will probably need to gainadditional training or skills to get a job in a different industry.d. A short-order cook who loses his job when a new restaurant opens is likely to find anotherjob fairly quickly, perhaps even at the new restaurant, and thus will probably have only ashort spell of unemployment.e. An expert welder with little education who loses her job when the company installsautomatic welding machinery is likely to be without a job for a long time, because she lacksthe technological skills to keep up with the latest equipment. To remain in the weldingindustry, she may need to go back to school and learn the newest techniques.12 Chapter 28/Unemployment7. Figure 2 shows a diagram of the labor market with a binding minimum wage. At the initial minimumwage (m1), the quantity of labor supplied L1S is greater than the quantity of labor demanded L1D, and unemployment is equal to L1S−L1D. An increase in the minimum wage to m2 leads to anincrease in the quantity of labor supplied to L2S and a decrease in the quantity of labor demanded to L2D. As a result, unemployment increases as the minimum wage rises.Figure 28. a. Figure 3 illustrates the effect of a union being established in the manufacturing labormarket. In the figure on the left, the wage rises from w1U to w2U and the quantity of labordemanded declines from U1 to U2D. Because the wage is higher, the quantity supplied oflabor increases to U2S, so there are U2S−U2D unemployed workers in the unionizedmanufacturing sector.b. When those workers who become unemployed in the manufacturing sector seekemployment in the service labor market, shown in the figure on the right, the supply oflabor shifts to the right from S1 to S2. The result is a decline in the wage in thenonunionized service sector from w1N to w2N and an increase in employment in thenonunionized service sector from N1 to N2.Chapter 28/Unemployment 3Figure 39. a. When the Japanese developed a strong auto industry, U.S. auto demand became moreelastic as a result of increased competition. With more elastic demand for autos, theelasticity of demand for American autoworkers increased.b. Because the rise in auto imports made the demand for autoworkers more elastic, tomaintain a higher-than-competitive wage rate requires a greater reduction in the quantityof labor demanded. So the union had to choose between allowing the union wage todecline or facing the loss of many jobs.c. Given the trade-off faced by the union, the growth of the Japanese auto industry forcedthe union wage to move closer to the competitive wage.10. a. If a firm was not providing such benefits prior to the legislation, the curve showing thedemand for labor would shift down by exactly $4 at each quantity of labor, because thefirm would not be willing to pay as high a wage given the increased cost of the benefits.b. If employees value the benefit by exactly $4 per hour, they would be willing to work thesame amount for a wage that's $4 less per hour, so the supply curve of labor shifts downby exactly $4.Figure 4c. Figure 4 shows the equilibrium in the labor market. Because the demand and supply curvesof labor both shift down by $4, the equilibrium quantity of labor is unchanged and thewage rate declines by $4. Both employees and employers are just as well off as before.d. If the minimum wage prevents the wage from falling, the result will be increasedunemployment, as Figure 5 shows. Initially, the equilibrium quantity of labor is L1 and theequilibrium wage is w1, which is $3 lower than the minimum wage w m. After the law ispassed, demand falls to D2 and supply rises to S2. Because of the minimum wage, thequantity of labor demanded (L2D) will be smaller than the quantity supplied (L2S). Thus,there will be unemployment equal to L2S–L2D.4 Chapter 28/UnemploymentFigure 5Figure 6e. If the workers do not value the mandated benefit at all, the supply curve of labor does notshift down. As a result, the wage rate will decline by less than $4 and the equilibriumquantity of labor will decline, as shown in Figure 6. Employers are worse off, because they now pay a greater total wage plus benefits for fewer workers. Employees are worse off,because they get a lower wage and fewer are employed.。

第八篇宏观经济学的数据第二十三章一国收入的衡量复习题 1 ．解释为什么一个经济的收入必定等于其支出? 答：对一个整体经济而言，收入必定等于支出。

因为每一次交易都有两方：买者和卖者.一个买者的1 美元支出是另一个卖者的1 美元收入。

因此，交易对经济的收入和支出作出了相同的贡献。

由于GDP 既衡量总收入135 又衡量总支出,因而无论作为总收入来衡量还是作为总支出来衡量，GDP 都相等。

2 ．生产一辆经济型轿车或生产一辆豪华型轿车,哪一个对GDP 的贡献更大?为什么？答：生产一辆豪华型轿车对GDP 的贡献大。

因为GDP 是在某一既定时期一个国家内生产的所有最终物品与劳务的市场价值。

由于市场价格衡量人们愿意为各种不同物品支付的量，所以市场价格反映了这些物品的市场价值。

由于一辆豪华型轿车的市场价格高于一辆经济型轿车的市场价格，所以一辆豪华型轿车的市场价值高于一辆经济型轿车的市场价值，因而生产一辆豪华型轿车对GDP 的贡献更大.3 ．农民以2 美元的价格把小麦卖给面包师.面包师用小麦制成面包，以3 美元的价格出售.这些交易对GDP 的贡献是多少呢? 答:对GDP 的贡献是3 美元。

GDP 只包括最终物品的价值，因为中间物品的价值已经包括在最终物品的价格中了。

4 ．许多年以前，Peggy 为了收集唱片而花了500 美元。

今天她在旧货销售中把她收集的物品卖了100 美元。

这种销售如何影响现期GDP？答：现期GDP 只包括现期生产的物品与劳务,不包括涉及过去生产的东西的交易。

因而这种销售不影响现期GDP.5 ．列出GDP 的四个组成部分。

各举一个例子.答：GDP 等于消费（C)+投资(I)+政府购买（G)+净出口(NX）消费是家庭用于物品与劳务的支出,如汤姆一家人在麦当劳吃午餐。

投资是资本设备、存货、新住房和建筑物的购买，如通用汽车公司建立一个汽车厂.政府购买包括地方政府、州政府和联邦政府用于物品与劳务的支出，如海军购买了一艘潜艇.净出口等于外国人购买国内生产的物品（出口）减国内购买的外国物品（进口）。

UNEMPLOYMENTWHAT’S NEW IN THE S EVENTH EDITION:A new In the News feature on “Why Has Employment Declined” has been added and all statistics and tables have been updated.LEARNING OBJECTIVES:By the end of this chapter, students should understand:the data used to measure the amount of unemployment.how unemployment can result from minimum-wage laws.how unemployment can arise from bargaining between firms and unions.how unemployment results when firms choose to pay efficiency wages.CONTEXT AND PURPOSE:Chapter 15 is the fourth chapter in a four-chapter sequence on the level and growth of output in the long run. In Chapter 12, we learned that capital and labor are among the primary determinants of output and growth. In Chapter 13, we addressed how saving and investment in capital goods affect the production of output. In Chapter 14, we learned about some of the tools people and firms use when choosing capital projects in which to invest. In Chapter 15, we see how full utilization of our labor resources improves the level of production and our standard of living.The purpose of Chapter 15 is to introduce students to the labor market. We will see how economists measure the performance of the labor market using unemployment statistics. We will also address a number of sources of unemployment and some policies that the government might use to lower certain types of unemployment.KEY POINTS:The unemployment rate is the percentage of those who would like to work who do not have jobs.The Bureau of Labor Statistics calculates this statistic monthly based on a survey of thousands of households.247248❖Chapter 15/Unemployment∙ The unemployment rate is an imperfect measure of joblessness. Some people who call themselves unemployed may actually not want to work, and some people who would like to work have left the labor force after an unsuccessful search and therefore are not counted as unemployed.∙ In the U.S. economy, most people who become unemployed find work within a short period of time.Nonetheless, most unemployment observed at any given time is attributable to the few people who are unemployed for long periods of time.∙ One reason for unemployment is the time it takes for workers to search for jobs that best suit their tastes and skills. This frictional unemployment is increased as a result of unemployment insurance, a government policy designed to protect workers’ incomes.∙ A second reason our economy always has some unemployment is minimum-wage laws. By raising the wage of unskilled and inexperienced workers above the equilibrium level, minimum-wage laws raise the quantity of labor supplied and reduce the quantity demanded. The resulting surplus of labor represents unemployment.∙ A third reason for unemployment is the market power of unions. When unions push the wages in unionized industries above the equilibrium level, they create a surplus of labor.∙ A fourth reason for unemployment is suggested by the theory of efficiency wages. According to this theory, firms find it profitable to pay wages above the equilibrium level. High wages can improve worker health, lower worker turnover, raise worker quality, and increase worker effort.CHAPTER OUTLINE:I. Unemployment can be divided into two categories.A. The economy’s natural rate of unemployment refers to the amount of unemployment that theeconomy normally experiences.B. Cyclical unemployment refers to the year-to-year fluctuations in unemployment around its naturalrate.II. Identifying UnemploymentA. How Is Unemployment Measured?1. The Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) surveys about 60,000 households every month.2. The BLS places each adult (age 16 or older) into one of three categories: employed,unemployed, or not in the labor force.Chapter 15/Unemployment ❖ 2493. Definition of labor force: the total number of workers, including both the employedand the unemployed .4. Definition of unemployment rate: the percentage of the labor force that isunemployed .5. Definition of labor-force participation rate: the percentage of the adult populationthat is in the labor force .6. Example: Data from 2012. In that year, there were 142.5 million employed people and 12.5million unemployed people.a. Labor Force = 142.5 + 12.5 = 155.0 million.b. Unemployment Rate = (12.5/155.0) × 100 = 8.1%.c. Because the adult population was 243.3 million, the labor-force participation rate was:Labor-Force Participation Rate = (155.0/243.3) × 100 = 63.7%.7. Table 1 shows unemployment and labor-force participation rates for various sub-groups ofthe U.S. population.ALTERNATIVE CLASSROOM EXAMPLE:The country of Bada has collected the following information:Population 240,000 Employed 180,000 Unemployed30,000Labor Force = 180,000 + 30,000 = 210,000Unemployment rate = (30,000/210,000) × 100 = 14.3%Labor-force participation rate = (210,000/240,000) × 100 = 87.5%250 ❖ Chapter 15/Unemploymenta. Women of prime working age (25 to 54 years old) have lower rates of labor-forceparticipation than men, but once in the labor market, men and women have similar rates of unemployment.b. Prime-age blacks have similar labor-force participation rates as prime-age whites, butthey have much higher rates of unemployment.c. Teenagers have much lower rates of labor-force participation and much higher rates ofunemployment than older workers.8. Figure 2 shows the unemployment rate in the United States since 1960.B. Definition of the natural rate of unemployment: the normal rate of unemploymentaround which the unemployment rate fluctuates . C. Definition of cyclical unemployment: the deviation of unemployment from its naturalrate .D. Case Study: Labor-Force Participation of Men and Women in the U.S. Economy1. There has been a dramatic rise in the labor-force participation rates of women over the past60 years.2. Figure 3 shows this rise in the labor-force participation rate of women. The figure also showsthat the labor-force participation rates for men have actually fallen by a small amount over the same time period.E. Does the Unemployment Rate Measure What We Want It To? 1. Measuring the unemployment rate is not as straightforward as it may seem.2. There is a tremendous amount of movement into and out of the labor force.a. Many of the unemployed are new entrants or re-entrants looking for work.b. Many unemployment spells end with a person leaving the labor force as opposed toactually finding a job.3. There may be individuals who are calling themselves unemployed to qualify for governmentassistance, yet they are not trying hard to find work. These individuals are more likely not a part of the true labor force, but they will be counted as unemployed.Chapter 15/Unemployment❖251 4. Definition of discouraged workers: individuals who would like to work but havegiven up looking for a job.a. These individuals will not be counted as part of the labor force.b. Thus, while they are likely a part of the unemployed, they will not show up in theunemployment statistics.5. Table 2 presents other measures of labor underutilization calculated by the Bureau of LaborStatistics.252❖Chapter 15/UnemploymentF. How Long Are the Unemployed without Work?1. Another important variable that policymakers may be concerned with is the duration ofunemployment.2. Most spells of unemployment are short, and most unemployment observed at any given timeis long term.G. Why Are There Always Some People Unemployed?1. In an ideal labor market, wages would adjust so that the quantity of labor supplied and thequantity of labor demanded would be equal.2. However, there is always unemployment even when the economy is doing well. Theunemployment rate is never zero; it fluctuates around the natural rate.a. Definition of frictional unemployment: unemployment that results because ittakes time for workers to search for the jobs that best suit their tastes andskills.b. Definition of structural unemployment: unemployment that results because thenumber of jobs available in some labor markets is insufficient to provide a jobfor everyone who wants one.c. Three possible reasons for structural unemployment are minimum-wage laws, unions,and efficiency wages.H. FYI: The Jobs Number1. When the Bureau of Labor Statistics announces the unemployment rate each month, it alsoannounces the number of jobs the economy gained or lost.2. This information comes from a survey of 160,000 business establishments.III. Job SearchA. Definition of job search: the process by which workers find appropriate jobs given theirtastes and skills.B. Because workers differ from one another in terms of their skills and tastes and jobs differ in theirattributes, it is often difficult for workers to match with the appropriate job.C. Why Some Frictional Unemployment Is Inevitable1. Frictional unemployment often occurs because of a change in the demand for labor amongdifferent firms.Chapter 15/Unemployment❖253a. When consumers decide to stop buying a good produced by Firm A and instead startbuying a good produced by Firm B, some workers at Firm A will likely lose their jobs.b. New jobs will be created at Firm B, but it will take some time to move the displacedworkers from Firm A to Firm B.c. The result of this transition is a period of unemployment.d. The same situation can occur across industries and regions as well.2. This implies that, because the economy is always changing, frictional unemployment isinevitable. Workers in declining industries will find themselves looking for new jobs, and firmsin growing industries will be seeking new workers.D. Public Policy and Job Search1. The faster information spreads about job openings and worker availability, the more rapidlythe economy can match workers and firms.2. Government programs try to facilitate job search in various ways.a. Government-run employment agencies give out information on job vacancies.b. Public training programs can ease the transition of workers from declining to growingindustries and help disadvantaged groups escape poverty.3. Critics of these programs argue that the private labor market will do a better job of matchingworkers with employers and therefore the government should not be involved in the processof job search.E. Unemployment Insurance1. Definition of unemployment insurance: a government program that partiallyprotects workers’ incomes when they become unemployed.2. Because unemployment insurance reduces the hardship of unemployment, it also increasesthe amount of unemployment that exists.3. Many studies have shown that more generous unemployment insurance benefits lead toreduced job search effort and, as a result, more unemployment.4. In the News: Why Has Employment Declined?a. The number of Americans receiving government benefits has grown substantially recentlywhile the employment-population ratio has declined.b. This article from The Wall Street Journal discusses the incentives created by thesegovernment benefits and the effects on the annual rate of real output growth.IV. Minimum-Wage LawsA. Unemployment can also occur because of minimum-wage laws.254 ❖ Chapter 15/Unemployment1. If the minimum wage is set above the equilibrium wage in the labor market, a surplus oflabor will occur.2. While minimum-wage laws are one reason unemployment exists in the U.S. economy, theydo not affect everyone.a. The vast majority of workers in the economy have wages well above the legal minimum,so the law does not prevent most wages from adjusting to balance supply and demand.b. Minimum-wage laws therefore have the largest affect on the least skilled and leastexperienced members of the labor force, such as teenagers.B. Anytime a wage is kept above the equilibrium level for any reason, the result is unemployment.1. Other causes of this situation include unions and efficiency wages.2. This situation is different from frictional unemployment where the search for the right job isthe reason for unemployment.C FYI: Who Earns the Minimum Wage?1. In 2012, the Department of Labor released a study of which workers reported earnings at orbelow the minimum wage in 2011.a. Of those workers paid an hourly rate, about 4% of men and 6% of women reportedwages at or below the federal minimum.b. Minimum-wage workers tend to be young, with about half under the age of 25.c. Minimum-wage workers tend to be less educated. Of those workers ages 16 and overwith a high school education, only 5% earned the minimum wage.d.Minimum-wage workers are more likely to be working part time.Chapter 15/Unemployment❖255d. The industry with the highest proportion of workers with reported hourly wages at orbelow the minimum wage was leisure and hospitality.e. The proportion of workers earning the prevailing minimum wage has changedsubstantially over time, trending downward from 1979 to 2006 then increasing in 2011.The increase is partially attributable to an increase in the minimum wage.V. Unions and Collective BargainingA. Definition of union: a worker association that bargains with employers over wages andworking conditions.B. Unions play a smaller role in the U.S. economy today than they did in the past. However, unionscontinue to be prevalent in many European countries.C. The Economics of Unions1. Definition of collective bargaining: the process by which unions and firms agree onthe terms of employment.2. Unions try to negotiate for higher wages, better benefits, and better working conditions thanthe firm would offer if there were no union.3. Definition of strike: the organized withdrawal of labor from a firm by a union.4. Economists have found that union workers typically earn 10% to 20% more than similarworkers who do not belong to unions.5. This implies that unions raise the wage above the equilibrium wage, resulting inunemployment.a. Unions are often believed to cause conflict between insiders (who benefit from highunion wages) and outsiders (who do not get the union jobs).b. Outsiders will either remain unemployed or find jobs in firms that are not unionized.c. The supply of workers in nonunion firms will increase, pushing wages at those firmsdown.D. Are Unions Good or Bad for the Economy?1. Critics of unions argue that unions are a cartel, which causes inefficiency because fewerworkers end up being hired at the higher union wage.2. Advocates of unions argue that unions are an answer to the problems that occur when a firmhas too much power in the labor market (for example, if it is the only major employer intown). In addition, by representing workers’ views, unions help firms provide the right mix ofjob attributes.VI. The Theory of Efficiency Wages256❖Chapter 15/UnemploymentA. Definition of efficiency wages: above-equilibrium wages paid by firms in order toincrease worker productivity.B. Efficiency wages raise the wage above the market equilibrium wage, resulting in unemployment.C. There are several reasons why a firm may pay efficiency wages.1. Worker Healtha. Better-paid workers can afford to eat better and can afford good medical care.b. This is more applicable in developing countries where inadequate nutrition can be asignificant problem.2. Worker Turnovera. A firm can reduce turnover by paying a wage greater than its workers could receiveelsewhere.b. This is especially helpful for firms that face high hiring and training costs.3. Worker Qualitya. Offering higher wages attracts a better pool of applicants.b. This is especially helpful for firms that are not able to perfectly gauge the quality of jobapplicants.4. Worker Efforta. Again, if a firm pays a worker more than he or she can receive elsewhere, the worker willbe more likely to try to protect his or her job by working harder.b. This is especially helpful for firms that have difficulty monitoring their workers.5. Case Study: Henry Ford and the Very Generous $5-a-Day Wagea. Henry Ford used a high wage (about twice the going rate) to attract better employees.b. After instituting this higher wage policy, the company’s production costs actually fell dueto reduced turnover, absenteeism, and shirking.SOLUTIONS TO TEXT PROBLEMS:Quick Quizzes1. The unemployment rate is measured starting with a survey of about 60,000 households. TheBLS categorizes individuals surveyed as employed, unemployed, and not in the labor force.Next, the BLS computes the labor force as the sum of the number of employed and thenumber of unemployed. Finally, the unemployment rate is calculated as the number ofunemployed divided by the labor force multiplied by 100. The unemployment rate overstates the amount of joblessness because some of those who report being unemployed may not, in fact, be trying hard to find a job. But the unemployment rate may understate the amount of joblessness because discouraged workers are considered not in the labor force even though they are workers without jobs.2. An increase in the world price of oil increases the amount of frictional unemployment as oil-producing firms increase output and employment, but other firms, such as those in the auto industry, reduce output and employment. The sectoral shift from the auto industry to oil firms causes higher frictional unemployment for a time until workers have shifted from the auto industry to the oil industry. Although no increase in unemployment is really desirable, this type of frictional unemployment is a natural outcome of the reallocation of resources between different sectors. Public policies that might affect the unemployment caused by this change in the price of oil include government-run employment agencies, which can helpautoworkers move into the oil industry, job-training programs to help workers adapt to a new industry, and unemployment insurance, which keeps workers from suffering economichardship while changing from one industry to another.3. Figure 1 shows the supply curve (S) and the demand curve (D) for labor. The wage (W) isabove the equilibrium wage (W E). The result is unemployment, equal to the amount bywhich the quantity of labor supplied (L S) exceeds the quantity of labor demanded (L D).Figure 14. A union in the auto industry raises the wages of workers employed by General Motors andFord by threatening to strike. To prevent the costs of a strike, the firms generally pay higher wages than they would if there were no union. However, the higher wages reduceemployment at General Motors and Ford. The unemployed autoworkers seek jobs elsewhere, reducing wages and increasing employment in the nonunion sector.5. There are four reasons that firms might find it profitable to pay wages above the level thatbalances the quantity of labor supplied and the quantity of labor demanded: (1) to ensurethat workers are in good health so they will be more productive; (2) to reduce workerturnover because it is costly to hire new workers; (3) to make workers eager to keep theirjobs, thus discouraging them from shirking; and (4) to attract a better pool of workers.Questions for Review1. The BLS categorizes each adult (16 years of age and older) as employed, unemployed, or notin the labor force. The labor force consists of the sum of the employed and the unemployed.The unemployment rate is the percentage of the labor force that is unemployed. The labor-force participation rate is the percentage of the total adult population that is in the laborforce.2. Unemployment is typically short term. Most people who become unemployed are able to findnew jobs fairly quickly. But most unemployment observed at any given time is attributable tothe relatively few workers who are jobless for long periods of time.3. Frictional unemployment is inevitable because the economy is always changing. Some firmsare shrinking while others are expanding. Some regions are experiencing faster growth thanother regions. Transitions of workers between firms and between regions are accompaniedby temporary unemployment.The government could help to reduce the amount of frictional unemployment through publicpolicies that provide information about job vacancies in order to match workers and jobsmore quickly, and through public training programs that help ease the transition of workersfrom declining to expanding industries and help disadvantaged groups escape poverty.4. Minimum-wage laws are a better explanation for unemployment among teenagers thanamong college graduates. Teenagers have fewer job-related skills than college graduates do,so their wages are low enough to be affected by the minimum wage. College graduates'wages generally exceed the minimum wage.5. Unions affect the natural rate of unemployment via the effect on insiders and outsiders.Because unions raise the wage above the equilibrium level, the quantity of labor demandeddeclines while the quantity supplied of labor rises, so there is unemployment. Insiders arethose who keep their jobs. Outsiders, workers who become unemployed, have two choices:either get a job in a firm that is not unionized, or remain unemployed and wait for a job toopen up in the union sector. As a result, the natural rate of unemployment is higher than itwould be without unions.6. Advocates of unions claim that unions are good for the economy because they are anantidote to the market power of the firms that hire workers and they are important forhelping firms respond efficiently to workers' concerns.7. Four reasons why a firm's profits might increase when it raises wages are: (1) better paidworkers are healthier and more productive; (2) worker turnover is reduced; (3) the firm canattract higher quality workers; and (4) worker effort is increased.Quick Check Multiple Choice1. a2. c3. b4. b5. c6. aProblems and Applications1. a. The adult population consists of the number of employed (143,322,000) plus the numberof unemployed (12,332,000) plus those not in the labor force (89,008,000), which equals244,662,000.b. The labor force consists of the number of employed (143,322,000) plus the number ofunemployed (12,332,000), which equals 155,654,000.c. The labor-force participation rate is the labor force (155,654,000) divided by the adultpopulation (244,662,000) times 100, which equals 63.6%.d. The unemployment rate is the number of unemployed (12,332,000) divided by the laborforce (155,654,000) times 100, which equals 7.9%.2. Many answers are possible.3. The fact that employment increased4.9 million while unemployment declined 2.7 million isconsistent with growth in the labor force of 2.2 million workers. The labor force constantlyincreases as the population grows and as labor-force participation increases, so the increasein the number of people employed may exceed the reduction in the number unemployed.4. a. If an auto company goes bankrupt and its workers immediate begin looking for work, theunemployment rate will rise and the employment-population ratio will fall.b. If some of the unemployed auto workers give up looking for a job, the unemploymentrate will fall and the employment-population ratio will remain the same.c. If numerous students graduate from college and cannot find work, the unemploymentrate will rise and the employment-population ratio will remain unchanged.d. If numerous students graduate from college and immediately begin new jobs, theunemployment rate will fall and the employment-population ratio will rise.e. If a stock market boom induces earlier retirement, the unemployment rate will rise andthe employment-population ratio will fall.f. Advances in health care that prolong the life of retirees will not affect the unemploymentrate and will lower the employment-population ratio.5. a. A construction worker who is laid off because of bad weather is likely to experienceshort-term unemployment, because the worker will be back to work as soon as theweather clears up.b. A manufacturing worker who loses his job at a plant in an isolated area is likely toexperience long-term unemployment, because there are probably few other employment opportunities in the area. He may need to move somewhere else to find a suitable job, which means he will be out of work for some time.c. A worker in the stagecoach industry who was laid off because of the growth of railroadsis likely to be unemployed for a long time. The worker will have a lot of trouble finding another job because his entire industry is shrinking. He will probably need to gain additional training or skills to get a job in a different industry.d. A short-order cook who loses his job when a new restaurant opens is likely to findanother job fairly quickly, perhaps even at the new restaurant, and thus will probably have only a short spell of unemployment.e. An expert welder with little education who loses his job when the company installsautomatic welding machinery is likely to be without a job for a long time, because he lacks the technological skills to keep up with the latest equipment. To remain in the welding industry, he may need to go back to school and learn the newest techniques.Figure 26. Figure 2 shows a diagram of the labor market with a binding minimum wage. At the initialminimum wage (w M,1), the quantity of labor supplied L S,1 is greater than the quantity of labor demanded L D,1, and unemployment is equal to L S,1 – L D,1. An increase in the minimum wage to w M,2 leads to an increase in the quantity of labor supplied to L S,2 and a decrease in the quantity of labor demanded to L D,2. As a result, unemployment increases as the minimum wage rises.7. a. Figure 3 illustrates the effects of a union being established in the manufacturing labormarket. In the manufacturing labor market (figure on the left), the wage rises from the non-union wage, w NU , to the union wage, w U , and the quantity of labor demanded declines from the non-union quantity of labor, L NU , to the union quantity of labordemanded, L UD . Because the wage is higher, the quantity supplied of labor increases toSupplyDemandWage Quantity of Laborw M,1w M,2 L D,2 L D,1L S,2L S,1the union quantity of labor supplied L US , so there are L US – L UD unemployed workers inthe unionized manufacturing sector.b. When those workers who become unemployed in the manufacturing sector seekemployment in the service labor market, shown in the figure on the right, the supply of labor shifts to the right from S 1 to S 2. The result is a decline in the wage in the nonunionized service sector from w 1 to w 2 and an increase in employment in the nonunionized service sector from L 1 to L 2.Figure 38. a. Wages between the two industries would be equal. If not, new workers would choosethe industry with the higher wage, pushing the wage in that industry down.b. If the country begins importing autos, the demand for domestic auto workers would fall.If the country begins to export aircraft, there would be an increase in the demand for workers in the aircraft industry.c. In the short run, wages in the auto industry would fall, while wages in the aircraftindustry would rise. Over time, new workers would move into the aircraft industry bringing its wage down until wages were equal across the two industries. d. If the wage did not adjust to its equilibrium level, there would be a shortage of workersin the aircraft industry and a surplus of labor (unemployment) in the auto industry.9. a. If a firm was not providing such benefits prior to the legislation, the curve showing thedemand for labor would shift to the left by exactly $4 at each quantity of labor, because the firm would not be willing to pay as high a wage given the increased cost of the benefits.b. If employees value the benefit by exactly $4 per hour, they would be willing to work thesame amount for a wage that is $4 less per hour, so the supply curve of labor shifts to the right by exactly $4.WageWageQuantity of LaborQuantityof LaborL UD US L NU SS 1S 2D DManufacturing Labor Market Service Labor Marketw NUw U w 1 w 21L 2。

第28章失业28.1复习笔记1．失业的衡量指标（1）失业失业指在一定年龄范围内，有工作能力，愿意工作并积极寻找工作而未能按当时通行的实际工资水平找到工作的人。

要注意：①年龄规定以外的无工作者不计入失业者；②丧失工作能力者不计入失业者；③在校学习的不计入失业者；④由于某种原因不愿工作或不积极寻找工作的人不计入失业者；⑤有些未领取失业救济的未登记注册的无工作者，不计入失业者。

衡量经济中失业状况的最基本指标是失业率。

失业率是指失业者占劳动力的百分比，公式表示为：公式中的劳动力是指失业人数和就业人数之和。

（2）充分就业充分就业并非人人都有工作，消灭了周期性失业的就业状态就是充分就业。

由于社会总需求不足而造成的失业叫周期性失业。

由于经济中某些难以克服的原因而造成的失业叫自然失业。

充分就业与自然失业的存在并不矛盾。

实现了充分就业时的失业率就是自然失业率。

劳动力参工率指劳动力在成年人口中所占的百分比，这个统计数字表示人口中选择参与劳动市场的人口的比率。

经济中总存在某种失业，而且各年的失业量都在变动。

失业率围绕正常失业率而波动。

正常失业率称为自然失业率，失业率与自然失业率的背离称为周期性失业。

（3）失业率不能准确地衡量失业的原因①一些人只是为了能得到政府的福利或由于得到“暗中”支付而装作找工作，他们仍被算在劳动力之中，作为失业者。

这种行为使失业统计数字偏高。

②一些人寻找工作不成功，并放弃了寻找工作，因此他们未被算在失业者之内。

这种行为使失业统计数字偏低。

2．失业的分类宏观经济学通常将失业分为三种类型，即摩擦性失业、结构性失业以及周期性失业。

（1）摩擦性失业指劳动力在正常流动过程中所产生的失业。

摩擦性失业量的大小取决于劳动力流动性的大小和寻找工作所需要的时间。

由于在动态经济中，劳动力的流动是正常的，所以摩擦性失业的存在也是正常的。

（2）结构性失业指劳动力的供给和需求不匹配所造成的失业，其特点是既有失业，又有职位空缺，失业者或者没有合适的技能，或者居住地点不当，因此无法填补现有的职位空缺。

宏观经济学之所以成为宏观，是因为它的研究对象是一国经济运行，包括通货膨胀、经济增长等，而不仅仅是一个企业、市场或家庭的经济行为。

宏观经济学滥觞于凯恩斯，至今已经和微观经济学分庭抗礼，而且宏观经济政策在经济活动中作用十分巨大。

曼昆经济学原理宏观部分开篇讨论宏观经济中各种数据，当然，在宏观经济学中数据始终扮演十分重要的角色，在指标监控基础上形成的各种宏观经济政策调控工具是决策者的宠儿。

第二十三章中，曼昆论述了一国收入的衡量。

一般来说，衡量一国国民经济可以从收入和支出两个角度来计算，而在一个经济活动中必然有一个收入对应一个支出，所以两种方法得到的结论是一样的。

在这里，无论微观还是宏观，基本上都逃不掉如下这幅图：接下来，曼昆讨论了国民生产总值的含义。

众所周知，国家会统计每季度的GDP ，并在年末获得年度GDP 。

国民生产总值是在一定时间内一个国家所生产的所有最终商品和劳务的市场价值。

深刻理解国民生产总值含义要抓住每一个词汇，这是宏观里非常重要的概念。

与GDP 相似的还有如下几个收入概念：GNP GDP NNP GNP NI NNP PI NI =+=-=-=-本国国民民国外所得-外国国民本国所得折旧企业间接税+企业贴补企业留存收益+其他所得可支配收入=PI-个人所得税按照四部门经济模型，我们可以有如下GDP 构成： GDP C I G NX =+++这里必须强调投资和我们平时所讲的投资是有区别的，这里投资主要是购买用于生产物品的物品，也就购买生产资料，包括机械、建筑等。

在第二十三章最后一节里，曼昆阐述了三个非常重要的概念：名义GDP 、真实GDP 和GDP 平减指数。

概而言之，名义GDP 是以当年价格乘以生产数量而得到的数字；真实GDP 主要排除了价格的影响，以一个年份的价格作为不变价格，乘以当年生产数量从而得到真实GDP ，主要反映生产数量的变化，可以更好的衡量一国的经济福利；GDP 平减指数是用来衡量价格变动的指标，GDP 100GDPGDP =⨯名义平减指数真实。

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第23章1.对于一个整体经济而言,收入必定等于支出2.国内生产总值（GDP）在某一既定时期一个国家内生产的所有最终物品和劳务的市场价值。

GDP通常是一年或一个季度(3个月);衡量的生产价值局限于一个国家的地理范围之内，不管是由本国的国民还是住在本国的外国人生产；只包括现期生产的物品,不包括过去生产的物品；生产并合法出售的所有东西；只包括最终物品的价值；包括有形的物品,也包括无形的劳务；使用市场价格。

3。

GDP 的四个组成部分是消费（C ）、投资（I ）、政府购买（G )和净出口（NX ）.（1)消费是家庭除购买新住房之外用于物品与服务的支出（2）投资是用于资本设备、存货和建筑物的支出，包括家庭用于购买新住房的支出（3）政府购买包括地方、州和联邦政府用于物品与服务的支出(4)净出口等于外国对国内生产的物品的购买（出口）减国内对外国物品的购买（进口）国内生产总值等于消费、投资、政府支出和净出口之和4. 真实GDP和名义GDP真实GDP：按不变价格评价的物品与服务的生产（是用不变的基年价格来评价经济中物品与服务生产的价值）不受价格变动的影响,反映产的产量的变动名义GDP：按现期价格评价的物品与服务的生产（是用当年价格来评价经济中物品与服务生产的价值）GDP 平减指数GDP 平减指数是用名义GDP与真实GDP的比率乘以100计算的物价水平衡量指标即GDP平减指数= （名义GDP/真实GDP）＊100通货膨胀率=[（第2年的GDP平减指数—第一年的GDP平减指数）/第一年的GDP平减指数]＊100第24章1．消费物价指数CPI答:指普通消费者购买的物品与服务的总费用的衡量指标。

目　录第一部分　笔记和课后习题（含考研真题）详解[视频讲解]第8篇　宏观经济学的数据第23章　一国收入的衡量23.1　复习笔记23.2　课后习题详解23.3　考研真题详解[视频讲解]第24章　生活费用的衡量24.1　复习笔记24.2　课后习题详解24.3　考研真题详解[视频讲解]第9篇　长期中的真实经济第25章　生产与增长25.1　复习笔记25.2　课后习题详解25.3　考研真题详解第26章　储蓄、投资和金融体系26.1　复习笔记26.2　课后习题详解26.3　考研真题详解第27章　基本金融工具27.1　复习笔记27.2　课后习题详解27.3　考研真题详解[视频讲解]第28章　失　业28.1　复习笔记28.2　课后习题详解28.3　考研真题详解[视频讲解]第10篇　长期中的货币与物价第29章　货币制度29.1　复习笔记29.2　课后习题详解29.3　考研真题详解[视频讲解]第30章　货币增长与通货膨胀30.1　复习笔记30.2　课后习题详解30.3　考研真题详解[视频讲解]第11篇　开放经济的宏观经济学第31章　开放经济的宏观经济学：基本概念31.1　复习笔记31.2　课后习题详解[视频讲解]31.3　考研真题详解第32章　开放经济的宏观经济理论32.1　复习笔记32.2　课后习题详解[视频讲解]32.3　考研真题详解[视频讲解]第12篇　短期经济波动第33章　总需求与总供给33.1　复习笔记33.2　课后习题详解33.3　考研真题详解[视频讲解]第34章　货币政策和财政政策对总需求的影响34.1　复习笔记34.2　课后习题详解34.3　考研真题详解[视频讲解]第35章　通货膨胀与失业之间的短期权衡取舍35.1　复习笔记35.2　课后习题详解35.3　考研真题详解[视频讲解]第13篇　最后的思考第36章　宏观经济政策的六个争论问题36.1　复习笔记36.2　课后习题详解36.3　考研真题详解[视频讲解]第二部分　模拟试题及详解曼昆《经济学原理（宏观经济学分册）》（第6版）模拟试题及详解（一）曼昆《经济学原理（宏观经济学分册）》（第6版）模拟试题及详解（二）第一部分　笔记和课后习题（含考研真题）详解[视频讲解]第8篇　宏观经济学的数据第23章　一国收入的衡量23.1　复习笔记1．经济的收入与支出在一国的宏观经济中，收入必定等于支出。

曼昆宏观习题答案中文版《经济学原理》宏观部分习题答案第23章《国民收入衡量》复习题：1．解释为什么一个经济的收入必定等于其指出？答：每宗交易都由卖方和买方，所以经济中支出必然等于收入。

2．生产一辆经济型轿车或生成一辆豪华型轿车，哪一个对GDP的贡献更大？为什么？答：豪华汽车市场价值高，所以对GDP贡献大。

（一对一比较）3．农民以2美元的价格把小麦卖给面包师。

面包师用小麦制成面包，以3美元的价格出售。

这些交易对GDP的贡献是多少呢？答：3元，即面包的市场价值，也即销售的最终产品。

4. 许多年以前，Peggy为了收集唱片而花了500美元。

今天她在旧货销售中把她收集的物品卖了100美元。

这种销售如何影响现期GDP？答：对现今GDP不产生影响，因为它不是现今生产出来的。

5. 列出GDP的四个组成部分。

各举一个例子。

答：消费-如购买CD。

投资-如公司购买一台电脑。

政府采购-如政府采购战机。

净出口-如美国卖小麦给俄罗斯。

6. 为什么经济学家在判断经济福利时用真实GDP，而不用名义GDP？答：因为实际GDP不受价格波动影响。

7. 在2005年，某个经济生产100个面包，每个以2美元的价格售出。

在2006年，这个经济生产200个面包，每个以3美元的价格售出。

计算每年的名义GDP、真实GDP和GDP平减指数。

（用2005年做基年。

）从一年到下一年这三个统计数字的百分比分别提高了多少？答：名义GDP 实际GDP GDP平减指数2001年200元200元 1002002年600元400元 150增长% 200% 100%50%8. 为何说一国有高的GDP是合意的？举出一个增加GDP但并不合意的例子。

答：GDP大，说明人们可以享有更多的产品和服务。

污染环境的生产，增加GDP，但是不合意。

地震过后，需要清理、重建，增加GDP，但是不合意。

应用题：1. 下列每一种交易会影响GDP的哪一部分（如果有影响的话）？解释之。

a. 家庭购买了一台新冰箱答：消费b. 姑妈买了一所新房子。

曼昆《宏观经济学》每章关键概念（名词解释）曼昆《宏观经济学》每章关键概念（名词解释）大全【网络上第一份，造福劳苦大众！】第一章1.宏观经济学：对整体经济的研究，包括对收入的增长、价格的变动和失业率的研究2.实际GDP：用一组不变的价格衡量产品和服务的价值3.通货膨胀和通货紧缩：物价总水平的上升；物价总水平的下降4.失业：一个人愿意并有能力为获取报酬而工作，但尚未找到工作的情况5.衰退：实际GDP的减少不严重的时期6.萧条：实际GDP的减少很严重的时期7.模型：所研究的系统、过程、事物或概念的一种表达形式，其目的就是说明外生变量如何影响内生变量8.内生变量：模型要解释的变量9.外生变量：模型接受为给定的变量10.市场出清：产品或服务的价格使供给量与需求量平衡11.有伸缩性和粘性的价格：价格能否对供求变动作出即时的调整，长期适用于假设价格有伸缩性，短期适用于假设价格有粘性12.微观经济学：研究企业和个人如何作出决策，以及这些决策者是如何相互作用的第二章1.国内生产总值GDP：给定时期的一个经济体内生产的所有最终产品和服务的市场价值2.消费物价指数CPI：一个典型消费者所购买的一篮子产品与服务的价格相对于某个基年同样一篮子产品与服务的价格3.失业率：想要工作的人中没有工作的人的比例4.国民收入核算：用于衡量GDP和许多相关统计数字的核算体系5.存量：衡量一个给定时点上的数量；流量：衡量每一个单位时间内的数量6.增加值：该企业产出的价值减去企业购买的中间产品的价值7.估算值：对于一些不在市场上销售的产品，没有市场价格，对其使用价值的估算8.名义GDP：按现期价格衡量的产品与服务的价值；实际GDP：用一组不变价格衡量的产品与服务的价值9.GDP平减指数：又称为GDP的隐含价格平减指数，定义为名义GDP与实际GDP的比率10.国民收入核算恒等式：GDP＝消费＋投资＋政府支出＋净出口（Y＝C＋I＋G＋NX）11.消费：家庭购买的产品与服务12.投资：包括为未来使用而购买的产品。

曼昆《经济学原理（宏观经济学分册）》（第6版）第28章 失 业复习笔记跨考网独家整理最全经济学考研真题，经济学考研课后习题解析资料库，您可以在这里查阅历年经济学考研真题，经济学考研课后习题，经济学考研参考书等内容，更有跨考考研历年辅导的经济学学哥学姐的经济学考研经验，从前辈中获得的经验对初学者来说是宝贵的财富，这或许能帮你少走弯路，躲开一些陷阱。

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一、失业的确认1．如何衡量失业（1）失业失业指在一定年龄范围内，有工作能力，愿意工作并积极寻找工作而未能按当时通行的实际工资水平找到工作的人。

要注意：①年龄规定以外的无工作者不计入失业者。

②丧失工作能力者不计入失业者。

③在校学习的不计入失业者。

④由于某种原因不愿工作或不积极寻找工作的人不计入失业者。

⑤有些未领取失业救济的未登记注册的无工作者，不计入失业者。

衡量经济中失业状况的最基本指标是失业率。

失业率是指失业人数占劳动力总数的百分比，公式表示为：100%=⨯失业人数失业率劳动力人数公式中，劳动力总数是指失业人数和就业人数之和。

（2）充分就业充分就业并非人人都有工作，消灭了周期性失业的就业状态就是充分就业。

由于社会总需求不足而造成的失业称为周期性失业。

由于经济中某些难以克服的原因而造成的失业称为自然失业。

充分就业与自然失业的存在并不矛盾。

实现了充分就业时的失业率就是自然失业率。

劳动力参工率指劳动力在成年人口中所占的百分比，这个统计数字表示人口中选择参与劳动市场的人口的比率。

即：100%劳动力劳动力参工率成年人口=⨯ 经济中总存在某种失业，而且各年的失业量都在变动。

失业率围绕正常失业率而波动。

正常失业率称为自然失业率，失业率与自然失业率的背离称为周期性失业。

（3）失业率不能准确地衡量失业的原因①一些人只是为了能得到政府的福利或由于得到“暗中”支付而装着找工作，他们仍被算在劳动力之中，作为失业者。

宏观经济学讲稿第一篇宏观经济变量第一章总产出一、总产出核算的指标1.国民生产总值和国内生产总值（1）国民生产总值（GNP）：指一个国家或地区一定时期内由本地公民所生产的全部最终产品和劳务的价格总和。

GNP在统计时必须注意以下原则：第一，GNP统计的是最终产品，而不是中间产品。

最终产品供人们直接使用和消费，不再转卖的产品和劳务。

中间产品作为生产投入品，不能直接使用和消费的产品和劳务。

第二，GNP是流量而非存量。

流量是指一定时期内发生或产生的变量。

存量是指某一时点上观测或测量到的变量。

第三，GNP按国民原则，而不按国土原则计算。

（2）国内生产总值（GDP）：指一定时期内在一个国家或地区范围内所生产的全部最终产品和劳务的价格总和。

GDP与GNP的关系是：GNP--本国公民在国外生产的最终产品和劳务的价格GDP=GNP+外国公民在本国生产的最终产品和劳务的价格2.国民生产净值与国内生产净值国民生产净值（NNP）与国内生产净值（NDP）：GNP或GDP扣除折旧以后的余额。

它们是一个国家或地区一定时期内财富存量新增加的部分。

3.国民收入（NI）：NNP或NDP扣除间接税后的余额。

它入体现了一个国家或地区一定时期内生产要素收入，即工资、利息、租金和利润的总和。

间接税指能够转嫁税负即可以通过提高商品和劳务的售价把税负转嫁给购买者的税收。

这类税收一般在生产和流通环节征收，如增值税、营业税、关税等。

直接税指不能转嫁税负即只能由纳税人自己承担税负的税收。

这类税收一般在收入环节征收，如所得税。

4.个人收入（PI）：一个国家或地区一定时期内个人所得的全部收入。

它是国民收入进一些必要的调整后形成的一个指标。

最主要的扣减项有：公司未分配利润、社会保障支付；最主要的增加项有：政府对个人的转移支付，如失业救济、退休金、医疗补助等。

5.个人可支配收入（D P I）：个人收入扣除所得税以后的余额。

国民经济核算体系（SNA）各级指标之间的关系是：GNP或GDP减折旧；等于——NNP或NDP减间接税；等于——NI减公司未分配利润、社会保障支付；加转移支付；等于——PI减个人所得税；等于——DPI二、总产出核算的方法1.收入法：把一个国家或地区一定时期内所有个人和部门的收入进行汇总。

曼昆宏观经济学笔记重点————————————————————————————————作者：————————————————————————————————日期：第２3章 一国收入的衡量—GDP微观经济学(ｍｉc ｒoec ｏnomics)研究个别家庭和企业如何做出决策,以及它们如何在市场上相互交易。

宏观经济学（macr ｏe ｃo ｎｏmics ）研究整个经济，包括通货膨胀、失业率和经济增长。

一 GD Ｐ１ 定义:国内生产总值 （gro ｓｓ ｄomestic produc ｔ, GDP ） 是在某一既定时期一个国家内生产的所有最终物品与劳务的市场价值。

2 组成：GDP(用Y 代表)被分为四个组成部分:消费（Ｃ)、投资(I ）、政府购买（G ）、净出口（N Ｘ):Y = C + Ｉ + G + ＮX３ 实际GDP 与名义ＧDP:实际GDP=名义GDP －通货膨胀率，衡量的是生产的变动,而不是物价的变动。

4 ＧDP 平减指数： 100⨯=GDPGDP GDP 实际名义平减指数,是经济学家用来检测经济平均物价水平，从而监测通货膨胀率的一个重要指标。

(GDP defl ａｔor ）5 GDP 与经济福利:➢由于ＧＤP 用市场价格来评价物品与劳务，它就没有把几乎所有在市场之外进行的活动的价值包括进来,特别是，GDP 漏掉了在家庭中生产的物品与劳务的价值。

➢GD Ｐ没有包括的另一种东西是环境质量。

➢G ＤP 也没有涉及收入分配。

二 衡量收入的其他指标：➢国民生产总值(GNP ）:是一国永久居民(称为国民)所赚到的总收入。

它与GDP 的不同之处在于：它包括本国公民在国外赚到的收入，而不包括外国人在本国赚到的收入。

➢国民生产净值(NNP ）：是一国居民的总收入（ＧNP ）减折旧的消耗。

➢国民收入、个人收入、个人可支配收入 第24章 生活费用的衡量—ＣPI一 CPI1 定义：消费物价指数 （co ｎs ｕm ｅｒ ｐrice i ｎd ｅx,ＣP Ｉ) 是普通消费者所购买的物品与劳务的总费用的衡量标准2 计算:定义篮子 → 找出价格 → 计算费用 → 选择基年并计算指数 → 计算通货膨胀率 消费者物价指数=基年一篮子的价格格一篮子物品与劳务的价*10０1001122⨯-=CPICPI CPI 年底年第年第年的通货膨胀率第３ 衡量生活费用过程中存在的问题替代倾向新产品的引进无法衡量的质量变动。