最新曼昆宏观经济学第28章

1.在其他条件不变的情况下，一国实行持续性的通胀政策的目的是保持低失业率，但是往往通胀率之高使得该国还不如忍受一定失业的存在。

并且在固定汇率制下，通胀高的国家将逐渐失去其国际外汇储备。

为了避免耗净其外汇储备，通胀率较高的国家将最终不得不贬值其货币（或者进行外汇流动管制）。

反之，为了避免外汇储备增加所带来的通胀压力，低通胀国家将升值其货币。

2.如果价格变化没有使得汇率按照购买力平价进行相应的变化，那么以本币表示的外国投资利润将变得不确定，投资有可能带来亏损。

在这种情况下，浮动汇率会减少外国长期直接投资。

另一方面，如果汇率变化导致出口的不稳定，那么国内企业将愿意对外国进行投资而不是进行出口。

在这种情况下浮动汇率实际上会导致更多的外国投资。

此外，浮动汇率常常意味着本国对金融资本流动控制较少。

因此，与固定汇率相比，浮动汇率制度下国家FDI的引入有可能更多。

3.对于一个相对更易受到外部冲击而非内部冲击的国家更应该选择浮动汇率制。

这是因为从理论上来说，在浮动汇率制下，外部冲击对一国国内收入没有影响，但固定汇率制度下相反。

但是，外部的货币冲击对两种制度下的国家收入都有影响，并且哪种制度引起收入更大幅度的增长是不确定的。

（其效果依赖于BP和LM曲线的斜率，如果BP曲线比LM曲线平坦，甚至两种制度下国家收入增长的方向都是不同的）4. 如果汇率反映了真实的要素稀缺价格，反映了货币的真实相对购买力。

那么根据真实的机会成本，消费者和生产者都会真实地进行着社会中的消费和生产。

（这里假设不存在市场失灵，如外部性和垄断）然而由于汇率的扭曲意味着其没有真实地反映机会成本和购买力，这将无法实现福利的最大化。

5. 不一定。

如果通胀率和金融环境是稳定的，那么投资者没有理由相信货币会朝着一个方向一直变动，因此任何投机都是稳定的。

在稳定的金融环境下，也很少出现套利资本流动的突然变化。

此外，如果外汇供求的基本面是稳定的，那么汇率的变动幅度较小。

Chapter 28Problems and Applications1. The labor force consists of the number of employed (142,076,000) plus the number of unemployed(7,497,000), which equals 149,573,000.To find the labor-force participation rate, we need to know the size of the adult population. Adding the labor force (149,573,000) to the number of people not in the labor force (76,580,000) gives the adult population of 226,153,000. The labor-force participation rate is the labor force (149,573,000) divided by the adult population (226,153,000) times 100%, which equals 66%.The unemployment rate is the number of unemployed (7,497,000) divided by the labor force(149,573,000) times 100%, which equals 5.0%.2. Many answers are possible.3. Men age 55 and over experienced the greatest decline in labor-force participation. This wasbecause of increased Social Security benefits and retirement income, encouraging retirement at an earlier age.4. Younger women experienced a bigger increase in labor-force participation than older womenbecause more of them have entered the labor force (in part because of social changes), so there are more two-career families. In addition, women have delayed having children until later in life and have reduced the number of children they have, so they are in the labor force for a greater proportion of their lives than was the case previously.5. The fact that employment increased 1.5 million while unemployment declined 0.6 million isconsistent with growth in the labor force of 0.9 million workers. The labor force constantlyincreases as the population grows and as labor-force participation increases, so the increase in the number of people employed may always exceed the reduction in the number unemployed.6. a. A construction worker who is laid off because of bad weather is likely to experienceshort-term unemployment, because the worker will be back to work as soon as theweather clears up.b. A manufacturing worker who loses her job at a plant in an isolated area is likely toexperience long-term unemployment, because there are probably few other employmentopportunities in the area. She may need to move somewhere else to find a suitable job,which means she will be out of work for some time.c. A worker in the stagecoach industry who was laid off because of the growth of railroads islikely to be unemployed for a long time. The worker will have a lot of trouble findinganother job because his entire industry is shrinking. He will probably need to gainadditional training or skills to get a job in a different industry.d. A short-order cook who loses his job when a new restaurant opens is likely to find anotherjob fairly quickly, perhaps even at the new restaurant, and thus will probably have only ashort spell of unemployment.e. An expert welder with little education who loses her job when the company installsautomatic welding machinery is likely to be without a job for a long time, because she lacksthe technological skills to keep up with the latest equipment. To remain in the weldingindustry, she may need to go back to school and learn the newest techniques.12 Chapter 28/Unemployment7. Figure 2 shows a diagram of the labor market with a binding minimum wage. At the initial minimumwage (m1), the quantity of labor supplied L1S is greater than the quantity of labor demanded L1D, and unemployment is equal to L1S−L1D. An increase in the minimum wage to m2 leads to anincrease in the quantity of labor supplied to L2S and a decrease in the quantity of labor demanded to L2D. As a result, unemployment increases as the minimum wage rises.Figure 28. a. Figure 3 illustrates the effect of a union being established in the manufacturing labormarket. In the figure on the left, the wage rises from w1U to w2U and the quantity of labordemanded declines from U1 to U2D. Because the wage is higher, the quantity supplied oflabor increases to U2S, so there are U2S−U2D unemployed workers in the unionizedmanufacturing sector.b. When those workers who become unemployed in the manufacturing sector seekemployment in the service labor market, shown in the figure on the right, the supply oflabor shifts to the right from S1 to S2. The result is a decline in the wage in thenonunionized service sector from w1N to w2N and an increase in employment in thenonunionized service sector from N1 to N2.Chapter 28/Unemployment 3Figure 39. a. When the Japanese developed a strong auto industry, U.S. auto demand became moreelastic as a result of increased competition. With more elastic demand for autos, theelasticity of demand for American autoworkers increased.b. Because the rise in auto imports made the demand for autoworkers more elastic, tomaintain a higher-than-competitive wage rate requires a greater reduction in the quantityof labor demanded. So the union had to choose between allowing the union wage todecline or facing the loss of many jobs.c. Given the trade-off faced by the union, the growth of the Japanese auto industry forcedthe union wage to move closer to the competitive wage.10. a. If a firm was not providing such benefits prior to the legislation, the curve showing thedemand for labor would shift down by exactly $4 at each quantity of labor, because thefirm would not be willing to pay as high a wage given the increased cost of the benefits.b. If employees value the benefit by exactly $4 per hour, they would be willing to work thesame amount for a wage that's $4 less per hour, so the supply curve of labor shifts downby exactly $4.Figure 4c. Figure 4 shows the equilibrium in the labor market. Because the demand and supply curvesof labor both shift down by $4, the equilibrium quantity of labor is unchanged and thewage rate declines by $4. Both employees and employers are just as well off as before.d. If the minimum wage prevents the wage from falling, the result will be increasedunemployment, as Figure 5 shows. Initially, the equilibrium quantity of labor is L1 and theequilibrium wage is w1, which is $3 lower than the minimum wage w m. After the law ispassed, demand falls to D2 and supply rises to S2. Because of the minimum wage, thequantity of labor demanded (L2D) will be smaller than the quantity supplied (L2S). Thus,there will be unemployment equal to L2S–L2D.4 Chapter 28/UnemploymentFigure 5Figure 6e. If the workers do not value the mandated benefit at all, the supply curve of labor does notshift down. As a result, the wage rate will decline by less than $4 and the equilibriumquantity of labor will decline, as shown in Figure 6. Employers are worse off, because they now pay a greater total wage plus benefits for fewer workers. Employees are worse off,because they get a lower wage and fewer are employed.。

第23章一国收入的衡量—GDP微观经济学(microeconomics)研究个别家庭和企业如何做出决策，以及它们如何在市场上相互交易。

宏观经济学(macroeconomics)研究整个经济，包括通货膨胀、失业率和经济增长。

一GDP1 定义：国内生产总值(gross domestic product，GDP) 是在某一既定时期一个国家内生产的所有最终物品与劳务的市场价值。

2 组成：GDP（用Y代表）被分为四个组成部分：消费（C）、投资（I）、政府购买（G）、净出口（NX）：Y = C ＋I ＋G ＋NX3 实际GDP与名义GDP：实际GDP=名义GDP-通货膨胀率，衡量的是生产的变动，而不是物价的变动。

4 GDP平减指数：，是经济学家用来检测经济平均物价水平，从而监测通货膨胀率的一个重要指标。

（GDP deflator）5 GDP与经济福利：∙由于GDP用市场价格来评价物品与劳务，它就没有把几乎所有在市场之外进行的活动的价值包括进来，特别是，GDP漏掉了在家庭中生产的物品与劳务的价值。

∙GDP没有包括的另一种东西是环境质量。

∙GDP也没有涉及收入分配。

二衡量收入的其他指标：∙国民生产总值(GNP)：是一国永久居民(称为国民)所赚到的总收入。

它与GDP的不同之处在于：它包括本国公民在国外赚到的收入，而不包括外国人在本国赚到的收入。

∙国民生产净值(NNP)：是一国居民的总收入(GNP)减折旧的消耗。

∙国民收入、个人收入、个人可支配收入第24章生活费用的衡量—CPI一CPI1 定义：消费物价指数(consumer price index，CPI) 是普通消费者所购买的物品与劳务的总费用的衡量标准2 计算：定义篮子→找出价格→计算费用→选择基年并计算指数→计算通货膨胀率消费者物价指数=*1003 衡量生活费用过程中存在的问题替代倾向新产品的引进无法衡量的质量变动。

4 GDP平减指数与消费者物价指数差别1：GDP平减指数反映了国内生产的所有物品与劳务的价格，而消费物价指数反交映了消费者购买的所有物品与劳务的价格。

第八篇宏观经济学的数据第二十三章一国收入的衡量复习题 1 ．解释为什么一个经济的收入必定等于其支出? 答：对一个整体经济而言，收入必定等于支出。

因为每一次交易都有两方：买者和卖者.一个买者的1 美元支出是另一个卖者的1 美元收入。

因此，交易对经济的收入和支出作出了相同的贡献。

由于GDP 既衡量总收入135 又衡量总支出,因而无论作为总收入来衡量还是作为总支出来衡量，GDP 都相等。

2 ．生产一辆经济型轿车或生产一辆豪华型轿车,哪一个对GDP 的贡献更大?为什么？答：生产一辆豪华型轿车对GDP 的贡献大。

因为GDP 是在某一既定时期一个国家内生产的所有最终物品与劳务的市场价值。

由于市场价格衡量人们愿意为各种不同物品支付的量，所以市场价格反映了这些物品的市场价值。

由于一辆豪华型轿车的市场价格高于一辆经济型轿车的市场价格，所以一辆豪华型轿车的市场价值高于一辆经济型轿车的市场价值，因而生产一辆豪华型轿车对GDP 的贡献更大.3 ．农民以2 美元的价格把小麦卖给面包师.面包师用小麦制成面包，以3 美元的价格出售.这些交易对GDP 的贡献是多少呢? 答:对GDP 的贡献是3 美元。

GDP 只包括最终物品的价值，因为中间物品的价值已经包括在最终物品的价格中了。

4 ．许多年以前，Peggy 为了收集唱片而花了500 美元。

今天她在旧货销售中把她收集的物品卖了100 美元。

这种销售如何影响现期GDP？答：现期GDP 只包括现期生产的物品与劳务,不包括涉及过去生产的东西的交易。

因而这种销售不影响现期GDP.5 ．列出GDP 的四个组成部分。

各举一个例子.答：GDP 等于消费（C)+投资(I)+政府购买（G)+净出口(NX）消费是家庭用于物品与劳务的支出,如汤姆一家人在麦当劳吃午餐。

投资是资本设备、存货、新住房和建筑物的购买，如通用汽车公司建立一个汽车厂.政府购买包括地方政府、州政府和联邦政府用于物品与劳务的支出，如海军购买了一艘潜艇.净出口等于外国人购买国内生产的物品（出口）减国内购买的外国物品（进口）。

UNEMPLOYMENTWHAT’S NEW IN THE S EVENTH EDITION:A new In the News feature on “Why Has Employment Declined” has been added and all statistics and tables have been updated.LEARNING OBJECTIVES:By the end of this chapter, students should understand:the data used to measure the amount of unemployment.how unemployment can result from minimum-wage laws.how unemployment can arise from bargaining between firms and unions.how unemployment results when firms choose to pay efficiency wages.CONTEXT AND PURPOSE:Chapter 15 is the fourth chapter in a four-chapter sequence on the level and growth of output in the long run. In Chapter 12, we learned that capital and labor are among the primary determinants of output and growth. In Chapter 13, we addressed how saving and investment in capital goods affect the production of output. In Chapter 14, we learned about some of the tools people and firms use when choosing capital projects in which to invest. In Chapter 15, we see how full utilization of our labor resources improves the level of production and our standard of living.The purpose of Chapter 15 is to introduce students to the labor market. We will see how economists measure the performance of the labor market using unemployment statistics. We will also address a number of sources of unemployment and some policies that the government might use to lower certain types of unemployment.KEY POINTS:The unemployment rate is the percentage of those who would like to work who do not have jobs.The Bureau of Labor Statistics calculates this statistic monthly based on a survey of thousands of households.247248❖Chapter 15/Unemployment∙ The unemployment rate is an imperfect measure of joblessness. Some people who call themselves unemployed may actually not want to work, and some people who would like to work have left the labor force after an unsuccessful search and therefore are not counted as unemployed.∙ In the U.S. economy, most people who become unemployed find work within a short period of time.Nonetheless, most unemployment observed at any given time is attributable to the few people who are unemployed for long periods of time.∙ One reason for unemployment is the time it takes for workers to search for jobs that best suit their tastes and skills. This frictional unemployment is increased as a result of unemployment insurance, a government policy designed to protect workers’ incomes.∙ A second reason our economy always has some unemployment is minimum-wage laws. By raising the wage of unskilled and inexperienced workers above the equilibrium level, minimum-wage laws raise the quantity of labor supplied and reduce the quantity demanded. The resulting surplus of labor represents unemployment.∙ A third reason for unemployment is the market power of unions. When unions push the wages in unionized industries above the equilibrium level, they create a surplus of labor.∙ A fourth reason for unemployment is suggested by the theory of efficiency wages. According to this theory, firms find it profitable to pay wages above the equilibrium level. High wages can improve worker health, lower worker turnover, raise worker quality, and increase worker effort.CHAPTER OUTLINE:I. Unemployment can be divided into two categories.A. The economy’s natural rate of unemployment refers to the amount of unemployment that theeconomy normally experiences.B. Cyclical unemployment refers to the year-to-year fluctuations in unemployment around its naturalrate.II. Identifying UnemploymentA. How Is Unemployment Measured?1. The Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) surveys about 60,000 households every month.2. The BLS places each adult (age 16 or older) into one of three categories: employed,unemployed, or not in the labor force.Chapter 15/Unemployment ❖ 2493. Definition of labor force: the total number of workers, including both the employedand the unemployed .4. Definition of unemployment rate: the percentage of the labor force that isunemployed .5. Definition of labor-force participation rate: the percentage of the adult populationthat is in the labor force .6. Example: Data from 2012. In that year, there were 142.5 million employed people and 12.5million unemployed people.a. Labor Force = 142.5 + 12.5 = 155.0 million.b. Unemployment Rate = (12.5/155.0) × 100 = 8.1%.c. Because the adult population was 243.3 million, the labor-force participation rate was:Labor-Force Participation Rate = (155.0/243.3) × 100 = 63.7%.7. Table 1 shows unemployment and labor-force participation rates for various sub-groups ofthe U.S. population.ALTERNATIVE CLASSROOM EXAMPLE:The country of Bada has collected the following information:Population 240,000 Employed 180,000 Unemployed30,000Labor Force = 180,000 + 30,000 = 210,000Unemployment rate = (30,000/210,000) × 100 = 14.3%Labor-force participation rate = (210,000/240,000) × 100 = 87.5%250 ❖ Chapter 15/Unemploymenta. Women of prime working age (25 to 54 years old) have lower rates of labor-forceparticipation than men, but once in the labor market, men and women have similar rates of unemployment.b. Prime-age blacks have similar labor-force participation rates as prime-age whites, butthey have much higher rates of unemployment.c. Teenagers have much lower rates of labor-force participation and much higher rates ofunemployment than older workers.8. Figure 2 shows the unemployment rate in the United States since 1960.B. Definition of the natural rate of unemployment: the normal rate of unemploymentaround which the unemployment rate fluctuates . C. Definition of cyclical unemployment: the deviation of unemployment from its naturalrate .D. Case Study: Labor-Force Participation of Men and Women in the U.S. Economy1. There has been a dramatic rise in the labor-force participation rates of women over the past60 years.2. Figure 3 shows this rise in the labor-force participation rate of women. The figure also showsthat the labor-force participation rates for men have actually fallen by a small amount over the same time period.E. Does the Unemployment Rate Measure What We Want It To? 1. Measuring the unemployment rate is not as straightforward as it may seem.2. There is a tremendous amount of movement into and out of the labor force.a. Many of the unemployed are new entrants or re-entrants looking for work.b. Many unemployment spells end with a person leaving the labor force as opposed toactually finding a job.3. There may be individuals who are calling themselves unemployed to qualify for governmentassistance, yet they are not trying hard to find work. These individuals are more likely not a part of the true labor force, but they will be counted as unemployed.Chapter 15/Unemployment❖251 4. Definition of discouraged workers: individuals who would like to work but havegiven up looking for a job.a. These individuals will not be counted as part of the labor force.b. Thus, while they are likely a part of the unemployed, they will not show up in theunemployment statistics.5. Table 2 presents other measures of labor underutilization calculated by the Bureau of LaborStatistics.252❖Chapter 15/UnemploymentF. How Long Are the Unemployed without Work?1. Another important variable that policymakers may be concerned with is the duration ofunemployment.2. Most spells of unemployment are short, and most unemployment observed at any given timeis long term.G. Why Are There Always Some People Unemployed?1. In an ideal labor market, wages would adjust so that the quantity of labor supplied and thequantity of labor demanded would be equal.2. However, there is always unemployment even when the economy is doing well. Theunemployment rate is never zero; it fluctuates around the natural rate.a. Definition of frictional unemployment: unemployment that results because ittakes time for workers to search for the jobs that best suit their tastes andskills.b. Definition of structural unemployment: unemployment that results because thenumber of jobs available in some labor markets is insufficient to provide a jobfor everyone who wants one.c. Three possible reasons for structural unemployment are minimum-wage laws, unions,and efficiency wages.H. FYI: The Jobs Number1. When the Bureau of Labor Statistics announces the unemployment rate each month, it alsoannounces the number of jobs the economy gained or lost.2. This information comes from a survey of 160,000 business establishments.III. Job SearchA. Definition of job search: the process by which workers find appropriate jobs given theirtastes and skills.B. Because workers differ from one another in terms of their skills and tastes and jobs differ in theirattributes, it is often difficult for workers to match with the appropriate job.C. Why Some Frictional Unemployment Is Inevitable1. Frictional unemployment often occurs because of a change in the demand for labor amongdifferent firms.Chapter 15/Unemployment❖253a. When consumers decide to stop buying a good produced by Firm A and instead startbuying a good produced by Firm B, some workers at Firm A will likely lose their jobs.b. New jobs will be created at Firm B, but it will take some time to move the displacedworkers from Firm A to Firm B.c. The result of this transition is a period of unemployment.d. The same situation can occur across industries and regions as well.2. This implies that, because the economy is always changing, frictional unemployment isinevitable. Workers in declining industries will find themselves looking for new jobs, and firmsin growing industries will be seeking new workers.D. Public Policy and Job Search1. The faster information spreads about job openings and worker availability, the more rapidlythe economy can match workers and firms.2. Government programs try to facilitate job search in various ways.a. Government-run employment agencies give out information on job vacancies.b. Public training programs can ease the transition of workers from declining to growingindustries and help disadvantaged groups escape poverty.3. Critics of these programs argue that the private labor market will do a better job of matchingworkers with employers and therefore the government should not be involved in the processof job search.E. Unemployment Insurance1. Definition of unemployment insurance: a government program that partiallyprotects workers’ incomes when they become unemployed.2. Because unemployment insurance reduces the hardship of unemployment, it also increasesthe amount of unemployment that exists.3. Many studies have shown that more generous unemployment insurance benefits lead toreduced job search effort and, as a result, more unemployment.4. In the News: Why Has Employment Declined?a. The number of Americans receiving government benefits has grown substantially recentlywhile the employment-population ratio has declined.b. This article from The Wall Street Journal discusses the incentives created by thesegovernment benefits and the effects on the annual rate of real output growth.IV. Minimum-Wage LawsA. Unemployment can also occur because of minimum-wage laws.254 ❖ Chapter 15/Unemployment1. If the minimum wage is set above the equilibrium wage in the labor market, a surplus oflabor will occur.2. While minimum-wage laws are one reason unemployment exists in the U.S. economy, theydo not affect everyone.a. The vast majority of workers in the economy have wages well above the legal minimum,so the law does not prevent most wages from adjusting to balance supply and demand.b. Minimum-wage laws therefore have the largest affect on the least skilled and leastexperienced members of the labor force, such as teenagers.B. Anytime a wage is kept above the equilibrium level for any reason, the result is unemployment.1. Other causes of this situation include unions and efficiency wages.2. This situation is different from frictional unemployment where the search for the right job isthe reason for unemployment.C FYI: Who Earns the Minimum Wage?1. In 2012, the Department of Labor released a study of which workers reported earnings at orbelow the minimum wage in 2011.a. Of those workers paid an hourly rate, about 4% of men and 6% of women reportedwages at or below the federal minimum.b. Minimum-wage workers tend to be young, with about half under the age of 25.c. Minimum-wage workers tend to be less educated. Of those workers ages 16 and overwith a high school education, only 5% earned the minimum wage.d.Minimum-wage workers are more likely to be working part time.Chapter 15/Unemployment❖255d. The industry with the highest proportion of workers with reported hourly wages at orbelow the minimum wage was leisure and hospitality.e. The proportion of workers earning the prevailing minimum wage has changedsubstantially over time, trending downward from 1979 to 2006 then increasing in 2011.The increase is partially attributable to an increase in the minimum wage.V. Unions and Collective BargainingA. Definition of union: a worker association that bargains with employers over wages andworking conditions.B. Unions play a smaller role in the U.S. economy today than they did in the past. However, unionscontinue to be prevalent in many European countries.C. The Economics of Unions1. Definition of collective bargaining: the process by which unions and firms agree onthe terms of employment.2. Unions try to negotiate for higher wages, better benefits, and better working conditions thanthe firm would offer if there were no union.3. Definition of strike: the organized withdrawal of labor from a firm by a union.4. Economists have found that union workers typically earn 10% to 20% more than similarworkers who do not belong to unions.5. This implies that unions raise the wage above the equilibrium wage, resulting inunemployment.a. Unions are often believed to cause conflict between insiders (who benefit from highunion wages) and outsiders (who do not get the union jobs).b. Outsiders will either remain unemployed or find jobs in firms that are not unionized.c. The supply of workers in nonunion firms will increase, pushing wages at those firmsdown.D. Are Unions Good or Bad for the Economy?1. Critics of unions argue that unions are a cartel, which causes inefficiency because fewerworkers end up being hired at the higher union wage.2. Advocates of unions argue that unions are an answer to the problems that occur when a firmhas too much power in the labor market (for example, if it is the only major employer intown). In addition, by representing workers’ views, unions help firms provide the right mix ofjob attributes.VI. The Theory of Efficiency Wages256❖Chapter 15/UnemploymentA. Definition of efficiency wages: above-equilibrium wages paid by firms in order toincrease worker productivity.B. Efficiency wages raise the wage above the market equilibrium wage, resulting in unemployment.C. There are several reasons why a firm may pay efficiency wages.1. Worker Healtha. Better-paid workers can afford to eat better and can afford good medical care.b. This is more applicable in developing countries where inadequate nutrition can be asignificant problem.2. Worker Turnovera. A firm can reduce turnover by paying a wage greater than its workers could receiveelsewhere.b. This is especially helpful for firms that face high hiring and training costs.3. Worker Qualitya. Offering higher wages attracts a better pool of applicants.b. This is especially helpful for firms that are not able to perfectly gauge the quality of jobapplicants.4. Worker Efforta. Again, if a firm pays a worker more than he or she can receive elsewhere, the worker willbe more likely to try to protect his or her job by working harder.b. This is especially helpful for firms that have difficulty monitoring their workers.5. Case Study: Henry Ford and the Very Generous $5-a-Day Wagea. Henry Ford used a high wage (about twice the going rate) to attract better employees.b. After instituting this higher wage policy, the company’s production costs actually fell dueto reduced turnover, absenteeism, and shirking.SOLUTIONS TO TEXT PROBLEMS:Quick Quizzes1. The unemployment rate is measured starting with a survey of about 60,000 households. TheBLS categorizes individuals surveyed as employed, unemployed, and not in the labor force.Next, the BLS computes the labor force as the sum of the number of employed and thenumber of unemployed. Finally, the unemployment rate is calculated as the number ofunemployed divided by the labor force multiplied by 100. The unemployment rate overstates the amount of joblessness because some of those who report being unemployed may not, in fact, be trying hard to find a job. But the unemployment rate may understate the amount of joblessness because discouraged workers are considered not in the labor force even though they are workers without jobs.2. An increase in the world price of oil increases the amount of frictional unemployment as oil-producing firms increase output and employment, but other firms, such as those in the auto industry, reduce output and employment. The sectoral shift from the auto industry to oil firms causes higher frictional unemployment for a time until workers have shifted from the auto industry to the oil industry. Although no increase in unemployment is really desirable, this type of frictional unemployment is a natural outcome of the reallocation of resources between different sectors. Public policies that might affect the unemployment caused by this change in the price of oil include government-run employment agencies, which can helpautoworkers move into the oil industry, job-training programs to help workers adapt to a new industry, and unemployment insurance, which keeps workers from suffering economichardship while changing from one industry to another.3. Figure 1 shows the supply curve (S) and the demand curve (D) for labor. The wage (W) isabove the equilibrium wage (W E). The result is unemployment, equal to the amount bywhich the quantity of labor supplied (L S) exceeds the quantity of labor demanded (L D).Figure 14. A union in the auto industry raises the wages of workers employed by General Motors andFord by threatening to strike. To prevent the costs of a strike, the firms generally pay higher wages than they would if there were no union. However, the higher wages reduceemployment at General Motors and Ford. The unemployed autoworkers seek jobs elsewhere, reducing wages and increasing employment in the nonunion sector.5. There are four reasons that firms might find it profitable to pay wages above the level thatbalances the quantity of labor supplied and the quantity of labor demanded: (1) to ensurethat workers are in good health so they will be more productive; (2) to reduce workerturnover because it is costly to hire new workers; (3) to make workers eager to keep theirjobs, thus discouraging them from shirking; and (4) to attract a better pool of workers.Questions for Review1. The BLS categorizes each adult (16 years of age and older) as employed, unemployed, or notin the labor force. The labor force consists of the sum of the employed and the unemployed.The unemployment rate is the percentage of the labor force that is unemployed. The labor-force participation rate is the percentage of the total adult population that is in the laborforce.2. Unemployment is typically short term. Most people who become unemployed are able to findnew jobs fairly quickly. But most unemployment observed at any given time is attributable tothe relatively few workers who are jobless for long periods of time.3. Frictional unemployment is inevitable because the economy is always changing. Some firmsare shrinking while others are expanding. Some regions are experiencing faster growth thanother regions. Transitions of workers between firms and between regions are accompaniedby temporary unemployment.The government could help to reduce the amount of frictional unemployment through publicpolicies that provide information about job vacancies in order to match workers and jobsmore quickly, and through public training programs that help ease the transition of workersfrom declining to expanding industries and help disadvantaged groups escape poverty.4. Minimum-wage laws are a better explanation for unemployment among teenagers thanamong college graduates. Teenagers have fewer job-related skills than college graduates do,so their wages are low enough to be affected by the minimum wage. College graduates'wages generally exceed the minimum wage.5. Unions affect the natural rate of unemployment via the effect on insiders and outsiders.Because unions raise the wage above the equilibrium level, the quantity of labor demandeddeclines while the quantity supplied of labor rises, so there is unemployment. Insiders arethose who keep their jobs. Outsiders, workers who become unemployed, have two choices:either get a job in a firm that is not unionized, or remain unemployed and wait for a job toopen up in the union sector. As a result, the natural rate of unemployment is higher than itwould be without unions.6. Advocates of unions claim that unions are good for the economy because they are anantidote to the market power of the firms that hire workers and they are important forhelping firms respond efficiently to workers' concerns.7. Four reasons why a firm's profits might increase when it raises wages are: (1) better paidworkers are healthier and more productive; (2) worker turnover is reduced; (3) the firm canattract higher quality workers; and (4) worker effort is increased.Quick Check Multiple Choice1. a2. c3. b4. b5. c6. aProblems and Applications1. a. The adult population consists of the number of employed (143,322,000) plus the numberof unemployed (12,332,000) plus those not in the labor force (89,008,000), which equals244,662,000.b. The labor force consists of the number of employed (143,322,000) plus the number ofunemployed (12,332,000), which equals 155,654,000.c. The labor-force participation rate is the labor force (155,654,000) divided by the adultpopulation (244,662,000) times 100, which equals 63.6%.d. The unemployment rate is the number of unemployed (12,332,000) divided by the laborforce (155,654,000) times 100, which equals 7.9%.2. Many answers are possible.3. The fact that employment increased4.9 million while unemployment declined 2.7 million isconsistent with growth in the labor force of 2.2 million workers. The labor force constantlyincreases as the population grows and as labor-force participation increases, so the increasein the number of people employed may exceed the reduction in the number unemployed.4. a. If an auto company goes bankrupt and its workers immediate begin looking for work, theunemployment rate will rise and the employment-population ratio will fall.b. If some of the unemployed auto workers give up looking for a job, the unemploymentrate will fall and the employment-population ratio will remain the same.c. If numerous students graduate from college and cannot find work, the unemploymentrate will rise and the employment-population ratio will remain unchanged.d. If numerous students graduate from college and immediately begin new jobs, theunemployment rate will fall and the employment-population ratio will rise.e. If a stock market boom induces earlier retirement, the unemployment rate will rise andthe employment-population ratio will fall.f. Advances in health care that prolong the life of retirees will not affect the unemploymentrate and will lower the employment-population ratio.5. a. A construction worker who is laid off because of bad weather is likely to experienceshort-term unemployment, because the worker will be back to work as soon as theweather clears up.b. A manufacturing worker who loses his job at a plant in an isolated area is likely toexperience long-term unemployment, because there are probably few other employment opportunities in the area. He may need to move somewhere else to find a suitable job, which means he will be out of work for some time.c. A worker in the stagecoach industry who was laid off because of the growth of railroadsis likely to be unemployed for a long time. The worker will have a lot of trouble finding another job because his entire industry is shrinking. He will probably need to gain additional training or skills to get a job in a different industry.d. A short-order cook who loses his job when a new restaurant opens is likely to findanother job fairly quickly, perhaps even at the new restaurant, and thus will probably have only a short spell of unemployment.e. An expert welder with little education who loses his job when the company installsautomatic welding machinery is likely to be without a job for a long time, because he lacks the technological skills to keep up with the latest equipment. To remain in the welding industry, he may need to go back to school and learn the newest techniques.Figure 26. Figure 2 shows a diagram of the labor market with a binding minimum wage. At the initialminimum wage (w M,1), the quantity of labor supplied L S,1 is greater than the quantity of labor demanded L D,1, and unemployment is equal to L S,1 – L D,1. An increase in the minimum wage to w M,2 leads to an increase in the quantity of labor supplied to L S,2 and a decrease in the quantity of labor demanded to L D,2. As a result, unemployment increases as the minimum wage rises.7. a. Figure 3 illustrates the effects of a union being established in the manufacturing labormarket. In the manufacturing labor market (figure on the left), the wage rises from the non-union wage, w NU , to the union wage, w U , and the quantity of labor demanded declines from the non-union quantity of labor, L NU , to the union quantity of labordemanded, L UD . Because the wage is higher, the quantity supplied of labor increases toSupplyDemandWage Quantity of Laborw M,1w M,2 L D,2 L D,1L S,2L S,1the union quantity of labor supplied L US , so there are L US – L UD unemployed workers inthe unionized manufacturing sector.b. When those workers who become unemployed in the manufacturing sector seekemployment in the service labor market, shown in the figure on the right, the supply of labor shifts to the right from S 1 to S 2. The result is a decline in the wage in the nonunionized service sector from w 1 to w 2 and an increase in employment in the nonunionized service sector from L 1 to L 2.Figure 38. a. Wages between the two industries would be equal. If not, new workers would choosethe industry with the higher wage, pushing the wage in that industry down.b. If the country begins importing autos, the demand for domestic auto workers would fall.If the country begins to export aircraft, there would be an increase in the demand for workers in the aircraft industry.c. In the short run, wages in the auto industry would fall, while wages in the aircraftindustry would rise. Over time, new workers would move into the aircraft industry bringing its wage down until wages were equal across the two industries. d. If the wage did not adjust to its equilibrium level, there would be a shortage of workersin the aircraft industry and a surplus of labor (unemployment) in the auto industry.9. a. If a firm was not providing such benefits prior to the legislation, the curve showing thedemand for labor would shift to the left by exactly $4 at each quantity of labor, because the firm would not be willing to pay as high a wage given the increased cost of the benefits.b. If employees value the benefit by exactly $4 per hour, they would be willing to work thesame amount for a wage that is $4 less per hour, so the supply curve of labor shifts to the right by exactly $4.WageWageQuantity of LaborQuantityof LaborL UD US L NU SS 1S 2D DManufacturing Labor Market Service Labor Marketw NUw U w 1 w 21L 2。

宏观经济学第28章作业第28章⼀、判断正误题1.⾃然失业率是即使在长期中它本⾝也不能消除的失业量。

2.如果失业率下降，我们就可以肯定，更多的⼯⼈有了⼯作。

3.在⼆战后的美国，⼥性的劳动⼒参⼯率上升，⽽男性的劳动⼒参⼯率下降。

4. 男性、⼥性、⿊⼈、⽩⼈、青少年、成年⼈等不同群体的失业率⼏乎都是相同的。

5.最低⼯资对熟练⼯⼈市场的影响可能⼤于⾮熟练⼯⼈市场。

6.⼯会的存在往往会提⾼局内⼈的⼯资，并降低局外⼈的⼯资。

7.⼯会是⼀个劳动卡特尔。

8，在某些情况下，⼯会可能会提⾼效率，因为⼯会降低了劳动者与管理者之间谈判的费⽤。

9.效率⼯资与最低⼯资相似，因为⽴法要求企业⽀付。

10.⽀付效率⼯资往往会增加⼯⼈的流动率，因为如果⼯⼈“跳槽”，他们可以⼀直得到⾼⼯资。

11.企业会⾃愿地⽀付⾼于使⼯⼈供求平衡的⽔平的⼯资，因为⾼⼯资提⾼了求职者的平均素质。

12 如果⼯资总是处于竞争的均衡⽔平，就绝对没有失业。

13.由于“丧失信⼼的⼯⼈”的存在，官⽅失业率会⾼估真正的失业。

14.失业保险的存在会降低失业率，因为失业补助的领取者不属于劳动。

15.⽆论什么原因，只要⼯资⾼于竞争的均衡⽔平，结果就是失业增加。

⼆、单项选择题1.经济中正常存在的失业量称为a.效率⼯资失业。

b.摩擦性失业。

c.周期性失业。

d.⾃然失业率。

2.根据美国劳⼯统计局的规定，选择留在家中并照料家⼈的丈夫是a.失业者。

b.就业者。

c.⾮劳动⼒。

d.丧失信⼼的⼯⼈。

⽤下表回答第3⼀5题。

单位是百万。

3.劳动⼒是e.以上各项都不是。

4.失业率等于e.没有回答这个问题的充分信息。

5.劳动⼒参⼯率等于％ e.以上各项都不是。

6.⼀位有注册会计师证书的会计师在相当长的时间⾥找不到⼯作，以⾄于她不再找⼯作，她被认为是a.就业者。

b.失业者。

c.⾮劳动⼒。

d.⾮成年⼈⼝。

7 以下哪⼀项表述是正确的a.⼥性的失业率往往与男性相似。

b.男性的劳动⼒参⼯率在上升。

c.⿊⼈的失业率低于⽩⼈。

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第23章1.对于一个整体经济而言,收入必定等于支出2.国内生产总值（GDP）在某一既定时期一个国家内生产的所有最终物品和劳务的市场价值。

GDP通常是一年或一个季度(3个月);衡量的生产价值局限于一个国家的地理范围之内，不管是由本国的国民还是住在本国的外国人生产；只包括现期生产的物品,不包括过去生产的物品；生产并合法出售的所有东西；只包括最终物品的价值；包括有形的物品,也包括无形的劳务；使用市场价格。

3。

GDP 的四个组成部分是消费（C ）、投资（I ）、政府购买（G )和净出口（NX ）.（1)消费是家庭除购买新住房之外用于物品与服务的支出（2）投资是用于资本设备、存货和建筑物的支出，包括家庭用于购买新住房的支出（3）政府购买包括地方、州和联邦政府用于物品与服务的支出(4)净出口等于外国对国内生产的物品的购买（出口）减国内对外国物品的购买（进口）国内生产总值等于消费、投资、政府支出和净出口之和4. 真实GDP和名义GDP真实GDP：按不变价格评价的物品与服务的生产（是用不变的基年价格来评价经济中物品与服务生产的价值）不受价格变动的影响,反映产的产量的变动名义GDP：按现期价格评价的物品与服务的生产（是用当年价格来评价经济中物品与服务生产的价值）GDP 平减指数GDP 平减指数是用名义GDP与真实GDP的比率乘以100计算的物价水平衡量指标即GDP平减指数= （名义GDP/真实GDP）＊100通货膨胀率=[（第2年的GDP平减指数—第一年的GDP平减指数）/第一年的GDP平减指数]＊100第24章1．消费物价指数CPI答:指普通消费者购买的物品与服务的总费用的衡量指标。

Unemployment and Its Natural Rate失业与自然失业率28失业的分类•失业问题通常分为两类。

•长期与短期：The natural rate of unemployment 自然失业率The cyclical rate of unemployment 周期性失业率自然失业率•自然失业率是在长期中不会自行消失的失业率。

它是经济中正常情况下存在的失业量。

周期性失业率•周期性失业率是指失业量围绕其自然失业率的逐年波动。

•它与经济活动的短期上升和下降密切相关。

描述失业三个基本问题:°如何衡量经济的失业率?±如何解释观察到的失业数据?²如何治理失业如何衡量失业？•衡量失业是劳工统计局(BLS)的工作。

它每月调查6万个随机挑选的家庭。

这种调查被称为现期人口调查。

根据对调查的回答，劳工统计局把每个受调查家庭中的每个成员（16岁以上）划入三类：Employed 就业者Unemployed 失业者Not in the labor force 非劳动力人口如何衡量失业？•美国劳工统计局把16岁或16岁以上的人看为成年人。

•如果一个人前一周的大部分时间用于有酬工作，这个人就被当作就业者。

•如果一个人暂时被解雇，正在寻找工作或等待新工作开始的日子，这个人就是失业者。

•如果一个人不属于前两类中的任何一类，这个人就是非劳动力人口，例如全日制学生、家务劳动者或退休者。

如何衡量失业？•劳动力–劳动力——既包括就业者又包括失业者的工人总量。

–劳工统计局把劳动力定义为就业者与失业者之和。

图2. 1960年以来的失业率108642019701975196019651980198519902005Percent ofLabor Force19952000Natural rate ofunemployment Unemployment rate劳动力百分比自然失业率失业率图3. 1950年以来男人与妇女的劳动力参工率1008060402001950195519601965197019751980198519902000劳动力百分比（％）Women男人1995中国失业率统计现状•目前，中国官方惟一定期发布的失业率为“城镇登记失业率”。

曼昆宏观习题答案中文版《经济学原理》宏观部分习题答案第23章《国民收入衡量》复习题：1．解释为什么一个经济的收入必定等于其指出？答：每宗交易都由卖方和买方，所以经济中支出必然等于收入。

2．生产一辆经济型轿车或生成一辆豪华型轿车，哪一个对GDP的贡献更大？为什么？答：豪华汽车市场价值高，所以对GDP贡献大。

（一对一比较）3．农民以2美元的价格把小麦卖给面包师。

面包师用小麦制成面包，以3美元的价格出售。

这些交易对GDP的贡献是多少呢？答：3元，即面包的市场价值，也即销售的最终产品。

4. 许多年以前，Peggy为了收集唱片而花了500美元。

今天她在旧货销售中把她收集的物品卖了100美元。

这种销售如何影响现期GDP？答：对现今GDP不产生影响，因为它不是现今生产出来的。

5. 列出GDP的四个组成部分。

各举一个例子。

答：消费-如购买CD。

投资-如公司购买一台电脑。

政府采购-如政府采购战机。

净出口-如美国卖小麦给俄罗斯。

6. 为什么经济学家在判断经济福利时用真实GDP，而不用名义GDP？答：因为实际GDP不受价格波动影响。

7. 在2005年，某个经济生产100个面包，每个以2美元的价格售出。

在2006年，这个经济生产200个面包，每个以3美元的价格售出。

计算每年的名义GDP、真实GDP和GDP平减指数。

（用2005年做基年。

）从一年到下一年这三个统计数字的百分比分别提高了多少？答：名义GDP 实际GDP GDP平减指数2001年200元200元 1002002年600元400元 150增长% 200% 100%50%8. 为何说一国有高的GDP是合意的？举出一个增加GDP但并不合意的例子。

答：GDP大，说明人们可以享有更多的产品和服务。

污染环境的生产，增加GDP，但是不合意。

地震过后，需要清理、重建，增加GDP，但是不合意。

应用题：1. 下列每一种交易会影响GDP的哪一部分（如果有影响的话）？解释之。

a. 家庭购买了一台新冰箱答：消费b. 姑妈买了一所新房子。

曼昆《经济学原理（宏观经济学分册）》（第6版）第28章 失 业复习笔记跨考网独家整理最全经济学考研真题，经济学考研课后习题解析资料库，您可以在这里查阅历年经济学考研真题，经济学考研课后习题，经济学考研参考书等内容，更有跨考考研历年辅导的经济学学哥学姐的经济学考研经验，从前辈中获得的经验对初学者来说是宝贵的财富，这或许能帮你少走弯路，躲开一些陷阱。

以下内容为跨考网独家整理，如您还需更多考研资料，可选择经济学一对一在线咨询进行咨询。

一、失业的确认1．如何衡量失业（1）失业失业指在一定年龄范围内，有工作能力，愿意工作并积极寻找工作而未能按当时通行的实际工资水平找到工作的人。

要注意：①年龄规定以外的无工作者不计入失业者。

②丧失工作能力者不计入失业者。

③在校学习的不计入失业者。

④由于某种原因不愿工作或不积极寻找工作的人不计入失业者。

⑤有些未领取失业救济的未登记注册的无工作者，不计入失业者。

衡量经济中失业状况的最基本指标是失业率。

失业率是指失业人数占劳动力总数的百分比，公式表示为：100%=⨯失业人数失业率劳动力人数公式中，劳动力总数是指失业人数和就业人数之和。

（2）充分就业充分就业并非人人都有工作，消灭了周期性失业的就业状态就是充分就业。

由于社会总需求不足而造成的失业称为周期性失业。

由于经济中某些难以克服的原因而造成的失业称为自然失业。

充分就业与自然失业的存在并不矛盾。

实现了充分就业时的失业率就是自然失业率。

劳动力参工率指劳动力在成年人口中所占的百分比，这个统计数字表示人口中选择参与劳动市场的人口的比率。

即：100%劳动力劳动力参工率成年人口=⨯ 经济中总存在某种失业，而且各年的失业量都在变动。

失业率围绕正常失业率而波动。

正常失业率称为自然失业率，失业率与自然失业率的背离称为周期性失业。

（3）失业率不能准确地衡量失业的原因①一些人只是为了能得到政府的福利或由于得到“暗中”支付而装着找工作，他们仍被算在劳动力之中，作为失业者。

宏观经济学讲稿第一篇宏观经济变量第一章总产出一、总产出核算的指标1.国民生产总值和国内生产总值（1）国民生产总值（GNP）：指一个国家或地区一定时期内由本地公民所生产的全部最终产品和劳务的价格总和。

GNP在统计时必须注意以下原则：第一，GNP统计的是最终产品，而不是中间产品。

最终产品供人们直接使用和消费，不再转卖的产品和劳务。

中间产品作为生产投入品，不能直接使用和消费的产品和劳务。

第二，GNP是流量而非存量。

流量是指一定时期内发生或产生的变量。

存量是指某一时点上观测或测量到的变量。

第三，GNP按国民原则，而不按国土原则计算。

（2）国内生产总值（GDP）：指一定时期内在一个国家或地区范围内所生产的全部最终产品和劳务的价格总和。

GDP与GNP的关系是：GNP--本国公民在国外生产的最终产品和劳务的价格GDP=GNP+外国公民在本国生产的最终产品和劳务的价格2.国民生产净值与国内生产净值国民生产净值（NNP）与国内生产净值（NDP）：GNP或GDP扣除折旧以后的余额。

它们是一个国家或地区一定时期内财富存量新增加的部分。

3.国民收入（NI）：NNP或NDP扣除间接税后的余额。

它入体现了一个国家或地区一定时期内生产要素收入，即工资、利息、租金和利润的总和。

间接税指能够转嫁税负即可以通过提高商品和劳务的售价把税负转嫁给购买者的税收。

这类税收一般在生产和流通环节征收，如增值税、营业税、关税等。

直接税指不能转嫁税负即只能由纳税人自己承担税负的税收。

这类税收一般在收入环节征收，如所得税。

4.个人收入（PI）：一个国家或地区一定时期内个人所得的全部收入。

它是国民收入进一些必要的调整后形成的一个指标。

最主要的扣减项有：公司未分配利润、社会保障支付；最主要的增加项有：政府对个人的转移支付，如失业救济、退休金、医疗补助等。

5.个人可支配收入（D P I）：个人收入扣除所得税以后的余额。

国民经济核算体系（SNA）各级指标之间的关系是：GNP或GDP减折旧；等于——NNP或NDP减间接税；等于——NI减公司未分配利润、社会保障支付；加转移支付；等于——PI减个人所得税；等于——DPI二、总产出核算的方法1.收入法：把一个国家或地区一定时期内所有个人和部门的收入进行汇总。

曼昆宏观经济学ppt课件完整版•宏观经济学概述•国民收入核算与经济增长•失业、通货膨胀与货币政策•总需求-总供给模型与财政政策•国际金融与汇率制度•劳动市场、资本市场与长期经济增长•政府角色、社会保障与环境问题目录宏观经济学概述01宏观经济学定义与研究对象定义宏观经济学是研究整个经济体系的总体经济行为、经济表现及其内在规律的一门学科。

研究对象主要包括国民收入、就业、通货膨胀、经济增长等宏观经济现象。

宏观经济学与微观经济学关系联系微观经济学和宏观经济学都是研究经济现象的学科，两者相互补充，共同构成了经济学的完整体系。

区别微观经济学研究个体经济单位（如家庭、企业）的经济行为，而宏观经济学研究整个经济体系的总体经济行为。

03研究方法曼昆宏观经济学采用实证分析和规范分析相结合的方法，既注重理论推导，又强调经验验证。

01理论框架曼昆宏观经济学以新古典综合学派为基础，吸收了货币主义、理性预期学派等理论，形成了一个完整的理论体系。

02主要内容包括国民收入决定理论、就业理论、通货膨胀理论、经济增长理论等。

曼昆宏观经济学理论体系国民收入核算与经济增长02支出法通过核算一定时期内整个社会购买最终产品的总支出计算GDP ，适用于市场经济比较发达的国家。

收入法通过核算整个社会在一定时期内获得的收入总量来计算GDP ，适用于收入分配比较均衡的国家。

生产法通过核算一定时期内各生产单位所生产的全部最终产品的价值总量来计算GDP ，适用于统计基础比较完善的国家。

国内生产总值（GDP ）核算方法经济增长率计算及分析经济增长的源泉主要包括劳动投入的增加、资本投入的增加以及技术进步等。

经济增长的波动经济增长不是平稳的，而是呈现出周期性的波动，包括繁荣、衰退、萧条和复苏四个阶段。

比较优势与国际贸易对经济增长影响比较优势理论不同国家在生产不同产品时具有不同的比较优势，通过国际贸易可以实现互利共赢。

国际贸易对经济增长的影响国际贸易可以促进资源在全球范围内的优化配置，提高生产效率，推动技术创新和产业升级，从而促进经济增长。