第五章 消费者市场与消费者购买行为

第五章消费者市场与消费者购买行为1、定义消费者市场，建立消费者购买行为模型消费者市场是指那些为满足个人消费而购买商品或服务的个人与家庭。

最简单的消费者购买模型即刺激-反应模型。

根据这一模型，营销刺激因素（4P）和其他因素（经济、技术、政治、文化等）共同进入消费者的"黑箱"，最后产生特定的反应。

这些输入变量一旦进入黑箱，就会产生可观察的消费者购买反应，包括产品选择、品牌选择、购买时间选择及购买数量选择等。

2、列举影响消费者购买行为的四种主要因素消费者购买行为受四种主要因素的影响：文化因素、社会因素、个人因素和心理因素。

虽然大多数因素并不受营销人员的影响，但可以有助于识别感兴趣的购买者，塑造产品诉求，并更好地满足消费者的需求。

3、了解消费者购买过程对于一次购买，消费者经历了如下阶段：确认需要、信息收集、方案评价、购买决策及购买后行为。

营销人员需要了解各个阶段的购买者行为及其产生的影响。

4、描述新产品采用和接受过程新产品被采用包括知晓、兴趣、评价、试验和采用五个阶段。

消费者首先要知道产品，由知晓导致兴趣，然后消费者会收集有关新产品的信息。

收集了信息之后，消费者可以做出评价并决定是否购买。

然后在试用阶段，消费者小规模地试用该创新产品，并改进对其价值的评价。

如果消费者对试用结果满意，他会进入采用阶段，全面和经常地采用该创新产品。

创新产品的采用率，因不同的消费者特点和产品特征而异。

消费者可能是创新者、早期采用者、早期大众，也可能是晚期大众和落后者。

一般生产厂商的新产品总是首先来吸引潜在的早期采用者，尤其是意见带头人的注意。

关键概念和原则世界各地的消费者在年龄、收入、受教育水平和品位方面差异很大，购买的产品和服务也千差万别。

是什么原因促使消费者与周围环境接触，并在诸多产品中做出选择呢？多数大型公司对此做大量的研究工作以了解如下几个问题：消费者购买什么？到哪儿去买？什么时候去买？为什么买？营销人员关注的核心问题是：对于公司采取的各种营销策略，消费者会有什么样的反应。

营销人员需要了解在这"黑箱"中，刺激因素如何转化成为消费者反应，这包括两个方面：一是购买者的特征将影响他如何接受外界环境的刺激并产生行为反应；另一方面是指购买者的决策过程本身影响购买者行为。

消费者的购买行为受文化、社会、个人和心理特征的强烈影响。

多数情况下，营销人员不能控制这些因素，但却必须考虑这些因素。

文化因素对消费者的行为有着最为广泛而深远的影响。

文化是引发人类愿望和行为的最根本原因。

人类的行为方式多数是通过学习形成的。

每个群体或社会都有其特有的文化，同时这种文化又影响着其购买行为。

不同的国家和地区在文化上有着很大的差异，如果不能意识到这一点，将很可能导致营销活动的低效和失败。

市场营销人员总是不断地捕捉文化变化以发现人们可能需要的新产品。

每种文化都由更小的亚文化组成，亚文化为其成员带来更明确的认同感和集体感。

亚文化包括民族、宗教、种族和地域等。

许多亚文化构成了重要的细分市场，而市场营销人员可以根据他们的需要设计产品并制定计划。

所有社会都存在着社会等级，社会阶层是在一个社会中具有相对的同质性和稳定性的群体，他们按等级排列，每个阶层成员具有类似的价值观、兴趣爱好和行为方式。

社会阶层不仅受收入影响，也受其他因素如职业、教育和财产等的影响。

在一些领域中，社会阶层表现出明显的产品和品牌方面的偏好，比如服装、家具、休闲活动和汽车。

个人的行为受到许多小群体的影响。

参照群体是指对一个人的态度与行为有直接（面对面）或间接影响的所有群体。

参照群体的影响程度因产品和品牌而异。

许多营销人员试图识别他们产品的意见带头人，并针对他们实施相应的营销举措。

家庭成员对购买者的行为影响很大。

营销人员感兴趣的是在不同产品和服务的购买决策中，丈夫、妻子或孩子的作用与影响。

夫妻对于不同的产品和不同购买阶段，购买参与程度差别很大，购买角色也随着消费模式变化而改变。

每个角色都代表着一定的地位，同时也反映了社会的综合评价。

人们通常选择代表自己地位的产品。

购买者的决策也受个人因素的影响，尤其是受年龄与生命周期阶段、职业、经济状况、生活方式、个性及自我观念的影响。

人们在食品、服装、家具和娱乐方面的喜好均与年龄有关。

家庭生命周期的不同阶段也影响着消费。

个人的职业也影响着消费模式。

个人经济状况对产品选择的影响很大。

生活方式是个人生活的形式，可以由其消费心态表现出来，包括消费者的活动和意见，即消费者的AIO模式。

一些公司对生活方式进行了研究和分类，其中被广泛应用的方法是SRI公司（SRIConsulting）的VALS分类方法（Values and Lifestyles）。

生活方式的划分不是惟一的，不同国家差别很大。

如果认真使用，生活方式的概念可以帮助营销人员了解消费者价值观的变化，并清楚它们如何影响购买行为。

个性是指个人独特的心理特征，这种心理特征将使个人对环境做出相对一致和持久的反应。

对于特定的产品或品牌选择，个性是一个分析消费者购买行为的很有用的变量。

个人的购买行为还受四种主要心理因素的影响--动机、感知、学习以及信念和态度。

每个人在任何时候都有需要。

弗洛伊德的动机理论，在人们行为的形成过程中，真正的心理因素大多是无意识的。

根据弗洛伊德假设，人们不可能真正了解自己的动机。

马斯洛的动机理论：人类的需要是层次化的，按照最迫切的到最不迫切的依次排列。

人们总是首先满足最重要的需要，当这个需要满足之后，它便不再是当前的激励因素，这时人们会转向下一个更重要的需要。

感知是人们收集、整理并解释信息，形成有意义的客观世界图像的过程。

人们对同样的刺激产生不同的知觉是因为人们经历了三种认知过程，即选择性主义、选择性曲解和选择性记忆。

人们在实践中不断地学习，学习反映在动机、刺激、诱因和强化的交互作用中。

对营销人员来说，学习理论的实际意义在于他们可以把产品与强烈驱动联系起来，利用刺激性诱因并提供正面强化手段，使人们产生产品需求。

通过实践和学习，人们形成了自己的信念与态度，而这些反过来又影响人们的购买行为。

因此公司最好使其产品迎合既有的态度，而不要企图改变人们的态度。

当消费者参与购买程度较高，并且了解品牌间的显著差异时，他们会有复杂的购买行为。

当消费者参与购买程度较高，购买的产品很昂贵、购买不频繁、购买有风险，但品牌差别不明显时，消费者的购买行为表现为寻求平衡的购买行为。

许多产品的购买是在消费者参与程度不高，同时品牌间差异也不大的情况下完成的，我们称之为习惯性购买行为。

寻求变化的购买行为的特点是消费者参与程度低，同时品牌间的差异很大，这时消费者经常改变品牌的选择。

购买过程的五阶段模式：确认需要、信息收集、方案评价、购买决策与购买后行为。

营销人员应该关注整个购买过程，而不是只注意购买决策。

这个模式意味着消费者在购买决策过程中经历了五个阶段，但对于一些常规的购买情况，消费者经常跳过或颠倒某些阶段。

购买过程始于确认需要--购买者对某个问题或需要的确认。

发现他们的问题和需要，是什么原因促使它产生的，以及又是如何来影响消费者购买特定的产品。

如果消费者的需要强烈而且产品就在手边，他很可能会购买；反之，消费者就可能暂保留这个愿望或者开始进行与此相关的信息收集。

消费者的信息可来源于多种渠道，包括个人来源（家庭、朋友、邻居、熟人），商业来源（广告、推销员、经销商、包装、展览、网页），公共来源（大众媒体、消费者评级机构），经验来源（产品的操作、检查与使用）。

公司应仔细识别消费者的各种信息来源，分析评价其相对重要程度。

营销人员应该研究消费者，找出他们实际上如何来评价方案。

消费者在评价阶段已经对品牌进行排序并形成了购买意向。

但是在购买意向与购买决策之间还有两种因素会起作用。

第一个因素是他人的态度，和未预料的情况。

决定消费者购买东西后满意或者不满意呢取决于消费者的期望值与产品所表现的性能之间的关系。

公司最好定期询问其用户满意度。

消费者采用新产品时要经历五个阶段：知晓、兴趣、评价、试用、采用。

人们在准备试用新产品的态度上有着很明显的差别。

创新者是爱冒险的，早期采用者注重的是他人对自己尊重与否，他们是社会上的意见带头人，采用新构思较早，但态度谨慎。

早期大众的态度慎重，但比一般人先采用构思。

晚期大众所持的是怀疑观点，他们要等到大多数的人都试用后才采用这一创新。

最后，落后者受到传统束缚，他们怀疑任何变革，只有在创新转变为传统事物后才采用它。

新产品特征对它自身的采用率影响很大。

这些特征包括：优势程度、匹配程度、复杂程度、可分程度、交流程度。

在国际间进行市场营销，了解和满足消费者各方面的需要，就会更为艰难了。

市场营销人员必须确定在各国市场上，他们的产品和营销计划适合消费者独特的文化和需要的程度。

CHAPTER 5CONSUMER MARKETS AND CONSUMER BUYER BEHAVIORSummaryThis chapter explores the dynamics of consumer buying behavior and the consumer market. Markets have to be understood before marketing strategies can be developed. The consumer market buys goods and services for personal consumption. At present,the world consumer market consists of 6 billion people.The behavior of the consumer is influenced by the buyer's decision process. Buyer characteristics include four major factors: cultural, social, personal, and psychological. Each of these factors is explored in detail and relationships are drawn between them and their subparts and the consumption purchases made by consumers. Since many of these factors are deep and long-lasting in their effect, the marketing manager should pay special attention to acquiring information about them with respect to the organization's target markets. Several examples are presented to illustrate how this might be done.After the chapter examines the influences that affect buyers, a discussion is presented that examines of how consumers make actual buying decisions. Decisions vary based on the degree of buyer involvement and the degree of differences among brands. A summary discussion is presented that outlines complex buying behavior, dissonance-reducing buying behavior, habitual buying behavior, and variety-seeking buying behavior. Special focus is directed towards a simple model of buying behavior which explains most of the terms pertinent to the study of buying behavior. The simple model ties together material about the buying decision process.For new products, special situations affect the consumer choice decision. It has been found that consumers respond at different rates, gain knowledge about the products in different ways, and become aware of "newness" with varying rates of consideration. Factors that speed the rate of adoption of new products are covered and explained.Understanding consumer behavior is difficult enough for companies marketing within the borders of a single country. The problem is compounded when a firm attempts to market in the global environment. marketers must decide whether to adapt their products to match the demands of the global marketplace or not. The question of adaptation or standardization will be a topic for debate for several years to come.Keywords and principleMany different factors affect consumer buying behavior. Buying behavior is never simple. However, understanding it is the essential task of marketing management.Consumer buying behavior refers to the buying behavior of finalconsumers--individuals and households who buy goods and services for personalconsumption. The consumer market is all the individuals and households who buy or acquire goods and services for personal consumption.A model of consumer behavior helps managers answer questions about what consumers buy, where they buy, how and how much they buy, when they buy, and why they buy. The stimulus-response model of buyer behavior shows that marketing (made up of the four P's--product, price, place, and promotion) and other stimuli (such as the economic, technological, political, and cultural environments) center on the consumer's "black box" and produce certain responses. Marketer's must figure out what is the consumer's "black box." The "black box" has two parts. The buyer's characteristics influence how he or she perceive and react to stimuli. The buyer's decision process itself affects the buyer's behavior.Consumer purchases are strongly influenced by cultural, social, personal, and psychological characteristics. For the most part, the marketer cannot control them, but they must be taken into account.Cultural factors exert the broadest and deepest influence on consumer behavior. The marketer needs to understand the role played by the buyer's culture, subculture, and social class.Culture is the set of basic values, perceptions, wants, and behaviors learned by a member of society from family and other important institutions.Culture is the most basic cause of a person's wants and behavior.Marketers are always trying to spot cultural shifts in order to imagine new products that might be wanted Each culture contains smaller subcultures. Subcultures might be nationality groups, religious groups, racial groups, or geographic area groups. Many of these subcultures make up important market segments and many times products are designed for them.Almost every society has some form of social class structure. Social class is the relatively permanent and ordered divisions in a society whose members share similar values, interests, and behaviors.Social class is measured as a combination of occupation, income, education, wealth, and other variables.Marketers are interested in social class because people within a given social class tend to exhibit similar behavior, including buying behavior. This is most evidentin the selection of clothing, home furnishings, leisure activity, and automobiles.A consumer's behavior is influenced by social factors. These include small groups, family, and social roles and status. A person's behavior is influenced by many small groups. There are several specialized group formations within the larger configuration: Membership groups, Reference groups, aspirational group. Reference groups expose a person to new behaviors and lifestyles. Influence the person's attitudes and self-concept. They also create pressures to conform that may affect the person's product and brand choices.Marketers try to identify opinion leaders and direct products and communications toward them.A consumer's purchases are also influenced by family members. The influence can be very strong since the family is the most important consumer-buying organization in society. It has been extensively researched.Marketers are interested in the roles and influence of the husband, wife, and children in the purchase of different products and services. Buying roles change with evolving lifestyles . Marketers try to identify the influencer role in a family unit.A person belongs to many groups and the person's position within each group can be defined in terms of both role and status. People often choose products that show their status in society.A buyer's decisions are also influenced by personal characteristics such the buyer's age and life-cycle stage, occupation, economic situation, lifestyle, and personality and self-concept.People from the same social strata can have very different lifestyles. A lifestyle is a person's pattern of living as expressed in his or her psychographics Lifestyle profiles a person's whole pattern of acting and interacting in the world. It is more than the person's social class or personality. Examples include: Activities (work, hobbies, shopping, etc.). Interests (food, fashion, recreation, etc.). Opinions (about themselves, social issues, business, etc.).The most widely used lifestyle classification is the SRI Values and Lifestyles (VALS) typology.A buyer's choices are influenced by four major psychological factors (motivation, perception, learning, and beliefs and attitudes):A motive (drive) is a need that is sufficiently pressing to direct the person to seek satisfaction.Several theories of motivation include: Freud's theory of motivation assumed that people are largely unconscious about the real psychological forces shaping their behavior.Maslow's theory of motivation sought to explain why people are driven by particular needs at particular times. He believed that needs were arranged in a hierarchy (beginning with physiological needs and then continuing with safety, social, esteem, and self-actualization needs).Perception is the process by which people select, organize, and interpret information to form a meaningful picture of the world. The differences in perception can be accounted for by three perceptual processes: Selective attention, Selective distortion, Selective retention .Learning is described as changes in an individual's behavior arising from experience. Learning occurs through the interplay of: drive, stimulus object, Cues , response , reinforced. The practical significance of learning theory for marketers is that they can build up demand for a product by associating it with strong drives, using motivation cues, and providing positive reinforcement.A person's beliefs and attitudes are acquired through acting and learning. A company should try to fit its products into existing attitudes rather than try to change them.Buying behavior differs greatly depending on what is being bought. More complex decisions usually involve more buying participants and more buyer deliberation. Complex buying behavior occurs when consumers are highly involved in a purchase and perceive significant differences among brands. Consumers may be highly involved when the product is expensive, risky, purchased infrequently, and highlyself-expression.Dissonance-reducing buying behavior occurs when consumers are highly involved with expensive, infrequent, or risky purchase, but see little difference among brands. After these purchases, it is common to experience postpurchase dissonance. Counter dissonance with after-sale communications to support claims and make consumer feel better about purchases.Habitual buying behavior occurs under conditions of low consumer involvement and little significant brand difference. In these cases, consumer behavior does notpass through the usual belief-attitude- behavior sequence. Ad repetition creates brand familiarity rather than brand conviction.Consumers undertake variety-seeking buying behavior in situations characterized low consumer involvement, but significant perceived brand differences.There are five stages within buyer decision process: need recognition, information search, evaluation of alternatives, purchase decision, and post-purchase behavior. Need recognition is the first stage of the buyer decision process in which the consumer recognizes a problem or need. A need can also be triggered by external stimuli (such as an advertisement). At this stage, the marketer needs to determine the factors and situations that usually trigger consumer need recognition. Information search is the stage of buyer decision process in which the consumer is aroused to search for more information; Information can be obtained from several sources: Personal sources , Commercial sources, Public sources , Experiential sources. Generally, the consumer receives the most information about a product from commercial source . the most effective sources tend to be personal. Marketers should carefully understand consumer's sources of information and the importance of each source.Alternative evaluation is the stage of the buyer decision process in which the consumer uses information to evaluate alternative brands choices. Several basic concepts help to explain the consumer-evaluation process.The purchase decision is the stage of the buyer decision process in which the consumer actually buys the product. Two factor's can come between purchase intention and the purchase decision. They are: The attitude of others. Unexpected situational factors.Post-purchase behavior is the stage of the buyer decision process in which consumers take further action after purchase based on their satisfaction or dissatisfaction. Determinates are: The relationship between the consumer's expectations and the product's perceived performance.It is very important to satisfy customers because a company's sales come from two basic groups: new customers and retained customers.A new product is a good, service, or idea that is perceived by some potential customers as new. The product may have been around for awhile, but marketers are interested in how customers learn about products for the first time and makedecisions on whether to adopt them.The adoption process is the mental process through which an individual passes from first hearing about an innovation to final adoption. Adoption is defined as the decision by an individual to become a regular user of the product.The five stages of the adoption process are: Awareness，Interest，Evaluation，Trial，Adoption. The marketer must plan how to help the consumer move through these stages.People differ in their innovativeness or readiness to try new products. Five different adopter categories can be identified as: Innovators ,Early adopters, early majority , late majority ,Laggards.The new product's characteristics will also influence the rate of adoption. Five characteristics that are especially important to consider are: relative advantage, compatibility, complexity, divisibility , communicability .Other characteristics such as initial and ongoing costs, risk and uncertainty, and social approval also affect the rate of adoption.For companies operating in many countries, it is more difficult, but just as important to understand the consumer behavior of the international market. Failing to understand such differences in customs and behaviors from one country to another can spell disaster for a marketer's international products and programs. The marketer will have to decide on the degree of adaptation or standardization that will be appropriate for the international marketplace. Which is the best course of action is open to debate.C选择性分销D选择性定位2、对消费者的购买行为具有最广泛、最深远影响的因素是（）。