Goodnow's Politics and Administration古德诺政治与行政二分

Civil rights民权词汇这里是一些谈论civil rights（民权）问题的有用搭配。

Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. struggled to attain his goals peacefully. 马丁路德金博士为了和平实现目标努力奋斗。

He championed the cause of poor people everywhere. 他到处维护穷人的利益。

He wanted to eradicate poverty. 他想消除疾病和贫穷。

用定冠词the + 一个形容词来表示一类人，比如，the sick、the poor 和the rich。

poor 的名词形式是poverty，wealth 是wealthy 的名词形式。

There's a big gap between the rich and the poor. 富人和穷人之间的差距很大。

So many people live in poverty, while so few hold the wealth. 生活在贫困中的人是那么多，而富裕的人却又那么少。

美国人有时通过种族来表明身份。

African Americans或black people的祖先来自非洲。

其他族群包括Asian Americans；American Indians或Native Americans；以及Latinos或Hispanics。

政府和其他机构用自己的语言来定义美国居民，有时候这个族群的定义很广（比如，Caucasian 表示拥有不同祖先的white people），有时又比较窄（for example, 'Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander'）。

我们需要知道的是族群的叫法有可能是个敏感话题，这方面的争论超越了地域、时代、甚至社会和政治界限。

Dr. King fought for civil rights for African Americans. 金博士为了非裔美国人的民权而战。

Public sphere公共领域Private sphere 私人领域Good governance 善治Goodness 善Comparative history比较历史研究Overview 概要Key issues核心问题Robert.A.Dahl罗伯特.达尔City-state城市国家Politics政治学Monarchy君主制Oligarchy寡头制Democracy民主制The exercise of power 实现权力The exercise of authority实施权威The making of collective decisions 集体政策The allocation of scarce resource 分配稀缺资源The practise of deception and manipulation 实施阴谋和操纵计划David easton戴维.伊斯顿The authoritative allocation of power 价值的权威性分配Cabinet 内阁Legislative chambers 立法机关Governmental department 政府部门Politicians 政治家Civilservants 公务员Lobbyists 说客Nonpolitical非政治的Nation-state民族国家Governance 治理Anti-politics 反政治Office politics办公室政治Politicking 拉选票Power tends to corrupt，and absolute power corrupts absolutely 权力倾向于腐化，绝对的权力意味着绝对的腐化Social-contract theorists 社会契约论Civil society市民社会Personal个人领域Political政治领域Aristotle亚里士多德Jean-jacques Rousseau 卢梭The generall will 公意Power强力Debate辩论Arbitration 仲裁A wild dispersal of power广泛的权力分布Intimidation 肋、迫Superstructure 上层社会The politics of everyday life 日常中的政治生活Class struggle 阶级斗争The personal is political 个人就是政治Plato柏拉图Policy-making process 政策制定过程Political structure 政治结构The power of church 教会权力The secular power of the monarchs 国王世俗权力Feudalism封建主义The Church of Rome 罗马教会Renaissance文艺复兴Protestant Reformation 宗教改革Social contract社会契约论Constitutional monarchy 君主立宪Popular sovereignty 人民主权Positivism实证主义Socialism社会主义Communism 共产主义Liberal-democracy自由民主理论Utilitarianism 功利主义Neo-liberalism 新自由主义Neo-conservatism 新保守主义Existentialism 存在主义Neo-Marxism新马克思主义Behaviorism行为主义Limited Government 有限政府Civil Society市民社会Individual freedom 个人自由Totalitarianism 极权主义Anarchism 无政府主义Public-choice theory 公共选择理论Rational-choice theory 理想选择理论Individualism 个人主义Meritocracy知识精英Collectivism集体主义Legal right法律权利Moral right道德权利Human right 人权Natural right自然权利God-given right 天赋权利Communities 社团Communitarianism 社群主义Foundational equality 根本平等Formal equality 形式平等Equality of opportunity 机会平等Equality of outcome 结果平等Conservatives 保守主义Fascists法西斯主义Autonomy 自治“Government of the people，by the people，and for the people” 林肯的民主解释Mob rule暴民政治Idealistic approach理想主义途径Empirical approach经验主义途径Classical democratic theory 古典民主理论Elitism democratic theory 精英民主理论Radical democracy 激进民主Participatory democracy 参与民主Direct participate democracy 直接参与民主Representative democracy 代议制民主Pluralism democracy多元主义民主Totalitarianism 极权主义Authoritarianism 权威主义Anarchism 无政府主义Socialism社会主义Ecologism生态主义Religious fundamentalism 宗教原教旨主义Feudalism封建主义Absolutism绝对主义Legitimacy 合法性Written constitution 成文宪法一院制Unicameral一党制国家One—party States人权Human rights人权宣言Declarations of the Rights of Man and the Citizen工会Trade unions下议院House of Commons上议院House of Lords马歹U主义Marxism—Leninism马基雅维里主义Machiavelli王权Crown无产阶级Proletariat无产阶专政Dictatorship of the proletariat专制Despotism专制政府/绝对专制主义Absolute government/absolutism 中央与地方的关系Central/Local relations分权Separation of powers公共行政Public administration公民权利Civil rights公民自由Civil liberties正义Justice可审判性Justiciability平等Equality奴隶制Slavery占统治地位的党Dominant party代表Delegate代议员Representative代议制政府Representative government代表制Representation主权Sovereignty市（镇）长Major立宪主义Constitutionalism立宪政体Constitutional government立法否决Legislative veto立法委员会Legislative committees立法起草Legislative drafting半总统制Semi-presidential systems议长Speaker议会制度Parliamentary system司法机构Judiciary司法行政官Magistrate司法审查Judicial review民主集中制Democratic centralism民意测验Opinion polls共产党Communist Parties共和国Republic机构/制度Institution权利法案Bill of rights权威Authority妇女选举权Women’ s suffrage地方长官Prefect地方政府Local government地方政府财政Local government finance团体理论Group theory邦联Confederation邦联条例Articles of Confederation自由Freedom自由裁量权Discretion自治领Dominion行为主义Behaviouralism彳亍政Administration行政机关Executives多头制Polyarchy多数派政府Majority government多数统治Majority rule决策Decision making决策理论Decision theory农奴制Serfdom阶层/阶级Class麦迪逊，詹姆斯MadisonJames苏格拉底Socrates否决权Veto投票Voting投票率Turnout财产权Property利益Interests利益表达与聚合Interest articulation and aggregation利益集团Interest group言论，表达和出版自由Freedom of speech,expression,and the press 社区/共同体Community 社团主义Corporatism社会民主主义Social democracy责任Responsibility责任政府Responsible government杰斐逊，托马斯Jefferson,Thomas欧洲议会European Parliament欧洲共同体European Community歧视Discrimination国际法International Law国家State国家元首Head of state国家消亡Withering away of the state国家财政危机Fiscal crisis of the state非暴力反抗Civil disobedience非暴力行为Non-violent action制定法Statute Law制衡Checks and balance委任Patronage委员会Commission质询Interpellation法官Judge法治Rule of law法律的正当程序Due process of law宗教自由Freedom of religion审判Adjudication审查制度Censorship官僚制/官僚Bureaucracy实证主义Positivism革命和反革命Revolution and counter-revolution政变Coup D’ etat政治文化Political culture政治中的种族问题Race in politics政治心理学Political psychology政治发展Political development政治行为研究Political behaviou政治权力Political power政治局(及常务委员会)Politburo(and Pesidium)政治沟通Political communication政治体系/政治系统Political system政治参与Political participation政治财政Political finance政治科学Political science政治社会化Political socialization政治社会学Political sociology政治学的定量方法Quantitative methods in politics 政治态度Political attitudes政治腐败Political corruption政治继承Political succession政治理论Political theory政治暴力Political violence政治影响Political influence政治整合/政治一体化Political integratio政党认同Party identification政党代表大会Party convention政党功能Parties,political:functions of政党组织Party organization政党核心集团Machine政策分析Policy analysis政策实施Implementation政策输出研究Policy output studies贵族/贵族制Aristocracy看守政府Caretaker government选民登记Registration of electors选举Elections选举团Electoral college选举纲领Election program选举制度Electoral system种族灭绝Genocide种族主义Racism种族隔离Apartheid保守党Conservative parties4修正主义Revisionism独立机构Independent agency独立宣言Declaration of Independence帝国主义Imperialism美国革命American Revolution美国国会Congress总统，总统制President/Presidential system宪法Constitutional law宪法规约Convention of the constitution宪法/宪政Constitution/constitutionalism神权政治Theocracy神授王权Divine right of kings费边主义Fabianism格劳修斯Grotius恩格斯Engels爱国主义Patriotism竞争性政党制度Competitive party system阶级Bourgeoisie资本主义Capitalism宽容Toleration基本权利Fundamental right基层党组织Primary party organization常设委员会Standing committee唯心主义Idealism第二院，上议院Second chambers殖民统治Colonial government联合，联合政府Coalition/Coalition government 联合民主Consociational democracy联合国United Nations联邦制Federalism联邦党人文集Federalist Papers 斯大林Stalin斯宾诺莎Spinoza斯密，亚当Smith,Adam黑格尔Hegal辉格党与托利党Whigs and Tories 霍布斯Hobbes激进政党Radical parties主义Holism辩证法Dialectic中国外交政策和国际关系 概述 General Terms多极化 multipolarity国家主权 national sovereignty维持外交关系 maintain diplomatic relations 维护世界和平 safeguard world peace武装冲突 armed conflict把自己的意志强加于人 imposeone's own will on others霸权主义和强权政治hegemonism and power politics 保卫国家主权和民族资源 safeguard national sovereignty and national resources status quo of the boundary never to attach any conditions ， with no strings attached non-aligned countries / policy take concerted steps permanent representative Commonwealth of Independent States(CIS)发展和平友好，平等互利，长期稳定的关系develop relations of peace and friendship , equality and mutual benefit , and prolonged stability 高层次，全方位的对话 high-level and all-directional dialogue公认的国际关系原贝 U generally-accepted principles of international relations公正合理的国际政治经济新秩序a fair and rational new international political and economic order 国际关系的准则 norms governing international relations 国际关系中最起码的准则 rudimentary code of international relations 国际惯例 international common practice国家不分大小，应该一律平等All countries , big or small , should be equal捍卫国家主权，领土完整和民族尊严safeguard national sovereignty , territorial integrity , and national dignity 和平共处五项原则 the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence互谅互让 mutual understanding and mutual accommodation互通有无 exchange of needed goods抗美援朝战争 War to Resist US Aggression and Aid Korea联络处 liaison office领土管辖权 territorial jurisdiction领土毗连 territorial contiguity流血冲突 bloody conflict民间夕卜交 people-to-people diplomacy南北对话 South-North dialogue南南合作 South-South cooperation贫穷国家 impoverished nation全方位外交 multi-faceted diplomacy伸张正义，主持公道 adhere to principles and uphold justice神圣不可侵犯 sacred and inviolable边界现状不附带任何条件不结盟国家/政策 采取协调行动 常驻代表 独联体国家审视度势size up the situation 诉诸武力或以武力相威胁 resort to the use or threat of force 夕卜交使团diplomatic mission 夕卜交政策的基石 cornerstone of a country's foreign policy 维持外交关系 maintain diplomatic relations维护人权和不断改善人权状况safeguard human rights and steadily improve the human rights situation维护世界和平 safeguard world peace无中生有make/create something out of nothing 武装冲突 armed conflict削减战略核武器会谈 strategic arms reduction talks (START )用和平手段解决争端solve disputes by peaceful means 正式照会formal note 中立国neutral state 中美联合公报 Sino-US joint communique互相尊重，求同存异adhere to the principle of mutual respect and seek common ground while shelving differences 度假外交 holiday-making diplomacy弹性外交 elastic diplomacy民间夕卜交 people-to-people diplomacy国际组织CommunityCaribbean Common MarketCaribbean community, CARICOMCentral American Market, CACM CommunauteEconomique de l'Afrique l'Ouest, CEAO 共同体 加勒比共同市场 加勒比共同体 中美洲共同市场 de 西非经济共同体，East African Community, EAC,东非共同体and Central African Countries （东非和中非国家首脑会议） Islamic Conference Economic Community of West States, ECOWASEuropean Common MarketEuropean Economic Community, EEC French Community Conference Arab Summit ConferenceAfrican 西非国豕经济共同体 欧洲共同市场 欧洲经济共同体 法兰西共同体 会议 阿拉伯首脑会议Conference of Heads of State and Government of 不结盟国家和政府首脑会议（不结盟国 Non-Aligned Countries 家会议） Assembly of the Heads of State and Government of the Organization of African Unity非洲国家和政府会议 Conference of Developing Countries (the 77-nation group) 开发中国家会议（七十七国集团） Conference of Heads of State and Government of East 东非和中非国家元首和政府首脑会议 伊斯兰会议CouncilAsian and Pacific Council, ASPAC Australia, New Zealand, United States Organization Council, ANZUSNordic CouncilWorld Peace CouncilConfederationInternational Confederation of Free Union, ICFTUWorld Confederation of Labor, WCL World Federation of Trade Unions, WFTU World Federation of United理事会亚洲太平洋地区理事会“既"澳新美理事会北欧理事会世界和平理事会联合会Trade国际自由工会联合会世界劳工联合会世界工会联合会NationsAssociations, WFUNAAssociationAssociation of South East Asian Nations, ASEANEuropean Broadcasting Union, EBUEuropean Free Trade Association, EFTA International Cooperative Alliance, ICA Inter-Parliamentary Union, IPU League of Arab States (Arab League) Western European Union, WEU AssociationAfro-Asian Journalists' AssociationAfro-Asian Writers' AssociationEuropean Community of WritersInternational Committee of the Red Cross, ICRC International Organization of Journalists, IOJ International PenInternational Red Cross Conference, IRCCLeague of Red Cross Societies, LRCS Universal Esperanto Association, UEA BankAfrican Development Bank, AFDBAsian Development Bank, ADBCaribbean Development Bank, CDBEuropean Investment Bank, CDBInter-American Development Bank, IADBInternational Bank for Economic Co-operation, IBEC Islamic Development Bank, IDB World Bank Organization Andean Pact Organization (Andean group), ANCOM European Organization for Nuclear Research, CERN 联合国协会世界联合会联盟东南亚国家联盟（东盟）欧洲广播联盟欧洲自由贸易联盟国际合作社联盟各国议会联盟阿拉伯国家联盟西欧联盟协会亚非新闻工作者协会亚非作家协会欧洲作家协会红十字国际委员会国际新闻工作者协会国际笔会国际红十字大会红十字会协会国际世界语协会银行非州开发银行亚洲开发银行加勒比开发银行欧洲投资银行美洲开发银行国际经济合作银行伊斯兰开发银行世界银行组织安第斯条约组织（安第斯集团）欧洲核研究组织International Radio and Television Organization, OIRT 国际广播电视组织International Telecommunication Consortium, INTELSATNorth Atlantic Treaty Organization, NATO Organization of African Unity, OAUOrganization of American States, OASSatellite 国际通讯卫星组织 北大西洋公约组织（北约）非洲统一组织美洲国家组织Petroleum Exporting^,,，上一、，工人,阿拉伯石油输出国组织Organization of central American States Organization of the Islamic Conference,OCASPetroleum Exporting石油输出国组织（欧佩克）国际关系protectorate asylumforntier region, border region boundary negotiationstatus quo of the boundary never to attach any conditions non-aligned countries patrimonial sea consultations the third world imperialism200-nauticalmile maritime rights developing countries dependency plebiscitegenerally-accepted principles of international relations joint actionnormalization of relations an established principle of international lawrudimentary code of international relations international watersinternational situationmerger of states national boundary maritime resources mutual understanding and mutual accommodation exchange of needed goods fundamental rightsreduction or cancellation of debts Near Eastright of residenceOrganization of Arab Countries, OAPEC中美洲国家组织伊斯兰会议组织Organization of the Countries, OPEC （被）保护国庇护;避难边界地区 边界谈判 边界现状 不附带任何条件 不结盟国家 承袭海 磋商 第三世界 帝国主义 二百海里海洋权 发展中国家 附庸国公民投票 公认的国际关系原则 共同行动 关系正常化 国际法准则国际关系中最起码的准则 国际水域 国际形势 国家合并 国界 海洋资源 互谅互让 互通有无 基本权利 减轻债务负担arms dealer, merchant of deathterritorial sealimits of territorial seabreadth of territorial seaterritorial airterritorial watersinalienability of territoryterritorial jurisdictionterritorial contiguityterritorial integrityrefugee campcountry of one's residencecomplete prohibition and thorough destruction of nuclear weapons people-to-people contacts and exchangessacred and inviolableecocidepractical, efficient, economical and convenient for usebilateral and multilateral economic cooperationbilateral tradedual nationalitytrusteeshipouter spacesole legal governmentloans with no or low interestcolonialism and neo-colonialismdelayed repayment of capital and interestextraditionZionismfriendly exchangesdisputed areasfishery resourcespolitical offenderpolitical fugitiveMiddle East, Mideastneutral state, neutral countryneutralized stateapartheid, racial segregationgenocidesovereign stateexclusive economic zonesuzerain state, metropolitan statesuzeraintyto maintain neutralityto safeguard national sovereignty and national resources 军火商领海领海范围领海宽度领空领水领土的不可割让性领土管辖权领土毗连领土完整难民营侨居国全面禁止和彻底销毁核武器人民之间的联系和交流神圣不可侵犯生态灭绝实用，有效，廉价，方便双边和多边经济合作双边贸易双重国籍托管制度外层空间唯一合法政府无息和低息贷款新老殖民主义延期还本付息引渡犹太复国主义友好往来有争议的地区渔业资源政治犯政治逃犯中东中立国永久中立国种族隔离种族灭绝主权国家专属经济区宗主国宗主权保持中立保卫国家主权和民族资源to take concerted stepsto undertake obligations in respect of the nuclear-free zone to develop relations of peace and friendship, equality and mutual发展和平友好、平等互利、benefit, and prolonged stability to develop the national economy to peddle munitionsAll countries, big or small, should be equal. to establish normal state relationsto seek a fair and reasonable solutionto make up for each other's deficienciesto negotiate through diplomatic channels 长期稳定的关系发展民族经济贩卖军火国家不分大小，应该一律平等建立正常的国家关系求得公平合理的解决取长补短通过外交途径进行谈判to safeguard national independence and the integrity of sovereignty 维护国家独立和主权完整to safeguard world peaceto solve disputes by peaceful meansin consideration of the actual conditions 维护世界和平用和平手段解决争端照顾现实情况采取协调行动对无核区承担义务。

Politics and administrationFrank j.GoodnowIf we analyze the organization of any concrete government,we shall find that there are three kinds of authorities which are engaged in the execution of the state will.These are,in the first place,the authorities which apply the law in concrete cases where controversies arise owing to the failure of private individuals or public authorities to observe the rights of others.Such authorities are known as judicial authorities,they are,in the second place,the authorities which have the general supervision of the execution of the state will,and which are commonly referred to as executive authorities.They are,finally,the authorities which are attending to the scientific, technical,and,so to speak,commercial activities of the government,and which are in all countries,where such activities have attained prominence,known as administrative authorities.As government becomes more complex these three authorities,all of which are engaged in the execution of the will of the state,tend to become more and more differentiated.The first to become so differentiated.The first to become so differentiated are the judicial authorities.Not only is this differentiation of the judicial authorities first in point of time,it is also the clearest. Indeed,it is so clear in some instances as to lead many students,as has been pointed out,to mark off the activity of the judicial authorities al a separate power or function of government.Enough has been said,it is believed,to show that there are two distinct functions of government,and that their differentiation results in a differentiation,though less complete,of the organs of government provided by the formal government system.These two functions of government may for purposes of convenience be designated respectively as Politics and Administration.Politics has to do with policies or expressions of the state will.Administration has to do with the execution of these policies.It is of course true that the meaning which is here given to the word“politics”is not the mean -ing which is here given to the word“politics’is not the meaning which has been attributed to that word by most political writers.At the same time it is submitted that the sense in which politics is here used is the sense in which it is used by most people in ordinary affairs.Thus the Century Dictionary defines“politics”.In the narrower and more usual sense,the act or vocation of guiding or influencing the policy of a government through the organization of a party among its citizens-including,therefore, not only the ethics of government,but more especially,and often to the exclusion of ethical principles,the art of influencing public opinion,attracting and marshalling voters,and obtaining and distributing public patronage,so far as the possession of offices may depend upon the political opinions or political services of individuals.An explanation of the word“administration”is not perhaps so necessary,since in scientific parlance it has not as yet acquired so fixed a meaning as has“politics”.Block,in his Dictionnaire de l’administration francaise,defines“administration”as:“L’ensemble des services publiques destines a concuurir a I execution de la pensee du governement et a l application des loisd interet general.”The Century Dictionary speaks of it as:“the duty or duties of the administrator; specifically,the executive functions of government,consisting in the exercise of all the powers and duties of government,both general and local,which are neither legislative nor judicial.”These definitions,it will be noticed,both lay stress upon the fact that politics has to do with the guiding or influencing of governmental policy,while administration has to do with the execution of that policy.It is these two functions which the words“politics”and“administration”have been chosen.The use of the word“administration”in this connection is unfortunately somewhat misleading,for the word when accompanied by the definite article is also used to indicate a series of governmental authorities,“the administration”means popularly the most important executive or administrative authorities.“Administration,”therefore,when used as indicative of function,is apt to promote the idea that this function of government is to be found exclusively in the work of what are commonly referred to as executive or administrative authorities.These in their turn are apt to be regarded as confined to the discharge of the function of administration.Such,however,is rarely the case in any political system,and is particularly not the case in the American governmental system.The American legislature discharges very frequently the function of administration very frequently the function of administration through its power of passing special acts.The American executive has an important influence on the discharge of the function of politics through the exercise of its veto power.Further,in the United States,the words“administration”and“administrative”as indicative of governmental function,are commonly used by the courts in a very loose way.The attempt was made at the time of the formation of our government system,as has been pointed out,to incorporate into it the principle of the separation of powers.What had been a some what nebulous theory of political science thus became a rigid legal doctrine.What had been a somewhat attractive political theory in its nebulous form became at once an unworkable and unapplicable rule of law.To avoid the inconvenience resulting from the attempt made to apply it logically to our governmental system,the judges of the United States have been accustomed to call “administrative”any power which was not in their eyes exclusively and unqualifiedly legislative, executive,or judicial,and to permit such a power to be exercised by any authority.While this habit on the part of the judges makes the selection of the word“administration”somewhat unfortunate;at the same time it is indicative of the fact to which attention has been more than once directed,that although the differentiation of two functions of government is clear, the assignment of such functions to separate authorities is impossible.Finally,the different position assigned in different states to the organ to which most of the work of executing the will of the state has been interested,has resulted in quite different conceptions in different states of what has been usually called administration.For administration has been conceived of as the function of the executing,that is,the executive,authority.Recently, however,writes on administration have seen that,from the point of view both of theoretical speculation and of practical expediency,administration should not be regarded as merely a function of the executive authority,that is,the authority in the government which by the positive law is the executing authority.It has been seen that administration is,on the contrary,the function of executing the will of the state.It may be in some respects greater,and in others less in extent than the function of the executing authority as determined by the positive law.There are,then,in all governmental systems two primary or ultimate functions of government,viz.the expression of the will of the state and the execution of that will.There are also in all states separate organs,each of which is mainly busied with the discharge of one of these functions.These functions are,respectively,Politics and Administration.The function of politicsThe function of politics,it has been shown,consists in the expression of the will of the state.Its discharge may not,however,be intrusted exclusively to any authority or any set of authorities in the government.Nor on the other hand may any authority or set of authorities be confined exclusively to its discharge.The principle of the separation of powers in its extreme form cannot, therefore,be made the basis of any concrete political organization.For this principle demands that there shall be separate authorities of the government,each of one of the functions of government which are differentiated.Actual political necessity however requires that there shall be harmony between the expression and execution of the state will.Lack of harmony between the law and its execution results in political paralysis.A rule of conduct,i,e.,an expression of the state will,practically amounts to nothing if it is not executed.It is a mere brutum fulmen.On the other hand the execution of a rule of conduct which is not the expression of the state will is really an exercise by the executing authority of the right to express the state will.Now in order that this harmony between the expression and the execution of the state will may be obtained,the independence either of the body which expresses the state will or of the body which executes it must be sacrificed.Either the executing authority must be subordinated to the expressing authority,or the expressing authority must be subjected to the control of the executing authority.Only in this way will there be harmony in the government.Only in this way can the expression of the real state will become an actual rule of conduct generally observed.Finally,popular government requires that it is the executing authority which shall be subordinated to the expressing authority,since the latter in the nature of things can be made much more representative of the people than can the executing authority.In other words,practical political necessity makes impossible the consideration of the function of politics apart from that of administration,politics must have a certain control over administration,using the words in the broad senses heretofore attribute to them.That some such relation must exist between the two ultimate functions of government is seen when we examine the political development of any state.If,in the hope of preventing politics from influencing administration in its details,the attempt is made to provide for the legal separation of the government mainly charged with these two functions respectively,the tendency is for the necessary control to develop extra-legally.This is the case in the American political system.The American political system is largely based on the fundamental principle of the separation of government powers.It has been impossible for the necessary control of politics over administration to develop within the formal governmental system on account of the independent position assigned by the constitutional law to execution and administrative officers.The control has therefore developed in the party system.The American political party busies itself as much with the election of administrative and executive officers as it does with the election of bodies recognized as distinctly political in character,as having to do with the expression of the state will. The party system thus secures that harmony between the functions of politics and administration which must exist if government is to be carried on successfully.On the other hand,if no attempt is made in the government system to provide for the separation of politics and administration,and if the government institutions are not put into comparatively unyielding and inflexible form through the adoption of a written constitution,the control and superintendence of the function of administration tends to be assumed by the governmental body which discharges the political function.。

中国历史英语演讲稿history of china(中国历史)china, one of the four oldest civilizations in the world, has a written history of 4,000 years and boasts rich cultural relics and historical sites. it is the inventor of compass, pa-pe-r-ma-ki-ng, gunpowder and printing. the great wall, grand canal and karez irrigation system are three great ancient engineering projects built 2,000 years ago. now they are the symbols of the rich culture of the chinese nation. china has gone over a long history of primitive society, slavery society, feudal society and semi-feudal semi-colonial society and the present socialist society.condensed china is an introduction to chinese history. it exists to inform, enlighten, and attract netizens interested in china. it is not a complete history of china; i deliberately skipped over and left out a lot of information. this is more like ''chinese history: the cliff notes version" or "chinese history's greatest hits" than a full-fledged history.the state examination system with its 1500 years long history was the most important means of recruiting state officials in the large administration system of the chinese imperial state. still today, the chinese taiwan perpetuates this institution in the shape of the examination yuan , altough the taiwan government thinks about abolishing this institution because of its uselessness in a modern state. the method to recruit state officials by subjecting them to an examination on the one side opened access to higher posts to everyone who had fortune enough to finance ten years or more of intensive studies, but on the other side tied up manforce and capital that could otherwise serve for investment in business or in politics. and the intensive studies ofconfucian classics that was imposed on the candidates could also divert their thoughts and activities from critique or even rebellion - not always successful, like the case of the successless and disappointed candidate hong xiuquan, leader of the ta-iping rebellion, proves.中国，其中四个最古老的文明，在世界上有文字记载的历史，4000年，拥有丰富的文物和历史遗迹。

一院制Unicameral一党制国家One—party States人权Human rights人权宣言Declarations of the Rights of Man and the Citizen工会Trade unions下议院House of Commons上议院House of Lords个人主义Individualism女权主义Feminism马列主Marxism—Leninism马克思主义Marxism马基雅维里主Machiavelli王权Crown无产阶级Proletariat无产阶专政Dictatorship of the proletariat无政府主义Anarchism专制Despotism专制政府/绝对专制主义Absolute government/absolutism中央与地方的关系Central/Local relations分权Separation of powers公共行政Public administration公民权利Civil rights公民自由Civil liberties正义Justice可审判性Justiciability平等Equality奴隶制Slavery占统治地位的党Dominant party代表Delegate代议员Representative 代议制政府Representative government代表制Representation主权Sovereignty市民社会Civil society市（镇）长Major立宪主义Constitutionalism立宪政体Constitutional government立法机关Legislatures立法否决Legislative veto立法委员会Legislative committees立法起草Legislative drafting半总统制Semi-presidential systems议长Speaker议会制度Parliamentary system司法机构Judiciary司法行政官Magistrate司法审查Judicial review民主Democracy民主党Democratic Party民主集中制Democratic centralism民意测验Opinion polls共产党Communist Parties共和国Republic机构/制度Institution权力Power权利Rights权利法案Bill of rights权威Authority妇女选举权Women’s suffrage地方长官Prefect地方政府Local government地方政府财政Local government finance地方政治Local politics同意Consent同意投票Approval voting团体理论Group theory邦联Confederation邦联条例Articles of Confederation自由Freedom自由党Liberal parties自由裁量权Discretion自决Self-determination自治Self-government自治领Dominion行为主义Behaviouralism行政Administration行政机关Executives政委员Administrative board行政法庭Administrative tribunal行政法院Administrative court州长Governor多元主义Pluralism多元社会Plural society多头制Polyarchy多数派政府Majority government多数统治Majority rule决策Decision making决策理论Decision theory农奴制Serfdom阶层/阶级Class麦迪逊，詹姆斯Madison,James苏格拉底Socrates极权主义Totalitarianism否决权Veto投票Voting投票率Turnout护宪Entrenchment财产权Property利益Interests利益表达与聚合Interest articulation and aggregation 利益集团Interest group言论，表达和出版自由Freedom of speech,expression,and the press社区/共同体Community社团主义Corporatism社会主义Socialism社会民主主义Social democracy社会契约论Social contract君主制Monarchy责任Responsibility责任政府Responsible government直接民主Direct democracy直接行动Direct action杰斐逊，托马斯Jefferson,Thomas 欧洲议会European Parliament欧洲共同体European Community歧视Discrimination国际法International Law国家State国家元首Head of state国家消亡Withering away of the state国家财政危机Fiscal crisis of the state非暴力反抗Civil disobedience非暴力行为Non-violent action制定法Statute Law制衡Checks and balance委任Patronage委员会Commission质询Interpellation法Law法令Act法官Judge法治Rule of law法律的正当程序Due process of law法案，议案Bill宗教自由Freedom of religion审判Adjudication审查制度Censorship官僚制/官僚Bureaucracy实证主义Positivism封建主义Feudalism革命和反革命Revolutionand counter-revolution政体Polity政纲platform政变Coup D’etat政府Government政府组成过程Government formationprocess政府首脑Head of government政府调查Public inquiry政治Politics政治义务Politicalobligation政治文化Political culture政治中的种族问题Race in politics政治心理学Political psychology政治发展Political development政治行动委员会（美国）Politicalaction committee政治行为研究Political behaviour政治地理学Political geography政治权力Political power政治局（及常务委员会）Politburo(andPesidium)政治沟通Political communication政治体系/政治系统Political system政治参与Political participation政治财政Political finance政治科学Political science政治社会化Political socialization政治社会学Political sociology政治学的定量方法Quantitative methods in politics政治态度Political attitudes政治腐败Political corruption政治继承Political succession政治理论Political theory政治暴力Political violence政治影响Political influence政治整合/政治一体化Politicalintegratio政党分赃制Spoils system政党认同Party identification政党代表大会Party convention政党功能Parties,political:functions of 政党组织Party organization政党核心集团Machine政党秘密会议Caucus政策分析Policy analysis政策实施Implementation政策输出研究Policy output studies城市政府City government城邦国家City state贵族/贵族制Aristocracy思想库Think tank看守政府Caretaker government选区Constituency选民登记Registration of electors选择投票Ticket-splitting选择领导Leadership selection选举Elections选举团Electoral college选举纲领Election program选举制度Electoral system选票Ballot重农主义Physiocracy重划选区Redistribution重商主义Mercantilism种族灭绝Genocide种族主义Racism种族隔离Apartheid顺从Deference保守主义Conservatism保守党Conservative parties保护主义Clientelism修正主义Revisionism独立机构Independent agency独立宣言Declaration ofIndependence独裁主义，权威主义Authoritarianism独裁制Autocracy帝国Empire帝国主义Imperialism美国革命American Revolution美国国会Congress美国辉格党Whig:U.S.首相（总理）/首相（总理）制政府Prime minister/Primeministerial government总统，总统制President/Presidentialsystem总罢工Generalstrike总督Governor-General派别Faction咨询和同意Advice and consent宣传Propaganda宪法Constitutional law宪法规约Conventionoftheconstitution宪法/宪政Constitution/constitutionalism神权政治Theocracy神授王权Divine right of kings费边主义Fabianism绝对专制主义Absolutism统治阶级Ruling class统治能力Governability恐怖Terror恐怖主义Terrorism格劳修斯Grotius监护Tutelage监察专员Ombudsman党派首领Boss罢免Recall恩格斯Engels缺席投票Absence voting特权Prerogative特许状Charter秘密警察Secret police倒台与政权更迭Breakdown and regime change候选人选择candidate selection爱国主义Patriotism被保护国Protectorate竞争性政党制度Competitive partysystem竞选运动Election campaign部门Department部长，部Minister/Ministry部长会议Council of Ministers准司法Quasi-judicial准--非政府组织Quango资历制Seniority资产阶级Bourgeoisie资本主义Capitalism浮动投票人Floating vote浪漫主义Romanticism宽容Toleration家长型控制Paternalism调查委员会Selectcommittee预算，预算编制Budget/Budgeting陪审团Jury理性Rationality理性选择方法Rational choice 教权主义Clericalism教会与国家Church and State基本权利Fundamental right基层党组织Primary party organization职能代表Functional representation授权立法Delegated legislation授权学说Mandate theory常设委员会Standing committee累计投票Cumulative vote唯心主义Idealism领导Leadership第二院，上议院Second chambers康德Kant混合政府Mixed government弹劾Impeachment隐私Privacy殖民统治Colonial government 联合，联合政府Coalition/Coalition government 联合民主Consociational democracy联合国United Nations联邦制Federalism联邦党人文集Federalist Papers联盟，联合League超载Overload超国家政府Supranational government博爱Fraternity斯大林Stalin 斯宾诺莎Spinoza斯密，亚当Smith,Adam最低下限Droop quota最高行政法院Conseil d’A etat最高法院Supreme court黑格尔Hegal辉格党与托利党Whigs and Tories等级Estates集体主义Collectivism集体行动Collective action集体领导Collective leadership集合理论Coalition theory街区选举，集团投票Block vote普通法Common law游说Lobbying雇主组织Employer’sorganization强制性投票Compulsory voting鼓励性行动Affirmative action路德，马丁Luther,Martin●解散议会社会工作：social work●社会工作者：socialworker●案主：client●个案社会工作：socialcase work●团体社会工作：socialgroup/team work●社区社会工作：socialcommunity work●社会工作导论：Theintroduction ofsocial work●社会工作实务：socialwork practice●做好事的人：do-gooders●预防贫穷协会:theSociety for thePrevention of Pauperism●慈善组织协会:the CharityOrganization Society●睦邻运动:the settlementmovement●汤恩比馆:Toybee Hall●霍尔馆:Hull House●《社会保障法案》:SocialSecurity Act●《济贫法》:The Elizabeth PoorLaw●《社会诊断》:Social Diagnosis●全美社会工作者协会：theNational Association of SocialWorkers●社会福利：social welfare●人类行为的生态学模式：Ecological model of humanbehavior●人类行为的医学模式： MedicalModel of Human Behavior●人格紊乱： personalitydisorders●客观事实：objective facts●主观感受：subjective feelings●问题觉醒：problem awareness●家庭暴力：domestic violence●老年人虐待 elder abuse●遗弃： abandonment●忽视：neglect●吸毒：addiction disorders●社会学概论：Introduction toSociololgy●社会问题：social issues●社会调查：social research●弱势群体：Vulnerable groups●/a disadvantaged minority●独身子女： the only child●单亲家庭：a single parent family农民工：migrant workers●社会排斥：social exclusion●社会融合：social integration●社会救助：social assistance●功能主义：functionalistperspective●镜中我：looking-glass self●机械团结:mechanical solidarity●越轨：delinquency●矫治： Correction●社会调查的理论与方法 Theories& Methods for SocialInvestigation●社会调查方法 Methods forSocial Investigation●社会工作 Social Work●社会统计分析与SYSTAT应用Social Statistics Analysis &SYSTAT Application●社会统计学 Social Statistics●社会问题研究 Research onSocial Problems●社会心理学 Social Psychology●社会学概论 Introduction toSociololgy●社会学简论 Brief Introductionto Sociology●社会学理论专题 Current Issuesin Theories of Socilolgy●社会学问题研究 Research onProblems of Sociology●社会学研究方法 ResearchMethods of Sociology●社会主义财政学 Finance ofSocialism●社会主义各国政，经体制讨论Discussion on Political &Economic Systems in Socialism ●社会学 Sociology●社会工作者 Social worker●案主 Client●社会问题 Social problem●社会心理 Social mental state ●社会调查 The societyinvestigates●个案社会工作 Social cases work ●团体社会工作 Social group work ●社区社会工作 social Communitywork●社工导论 The introdution ofsocial work●社会调查应用 the applicationfor society investigates●家庭暴力 Domestic violence●失恋 Disappoint in love●人在情境中 Person in situation ●弱势群体 disadvantaged groups ●社会保障 social security●社会福利制度the socialwelfare system●社会公德 social morality●单亲家庭 single parent family ●独生子女 the only child●失业率 rate of unemployment ●民工 the imigrant worker●社会学概论 Introduction toSociology●社会工作概论 Introduction toSocial Work●社会心理学 Social Psychology ●国外社会学学说 SociologicalTheories in the West●社会调查与研究方法 SocialSurvey & Research Method●社会统计与计算机应用 SocialStatistics and Application ofComputer●马克思主义社会学经典著作选读Selected Readings ofMarxist-Leninist Classics●社会保障与社会福利 SocialSecurity & Social Welfare●当代社会学理论 ModernSociological Theories●社会政策 Social Policy ●文化人类学CulturalAnthropology●中国社会思想史History of SocialTheories in China●人口社会学Sociology ofPopulation●农村社会学 RuralSociology●城市社会学 UrbanSociology●家庭社会学Sociology of Family●发展社会学Sociology ofDevelopment●经济社会学Economic Sociology●组织社会学Sociology ofOrganization●专业英语 Englishfor Sociology●社会学专题讲座Issues of Sociology●民俗学 FolkloreStudies●文化社会学Cultural Sociology●宗教社会学Sociology ofReligion●教育社会学Sociology ofEducation●越轨与犯罪社会学Sociology ofDeviance & Crime●当代社会的生活文化Life Style in CurrentSociety●西方社会思想史History of WesternSocial Thought●社会问题 SocialProblems●社会分层与社会流动SocialStratification &Mobility●科学社会学Sociology ofEducation●社会项目评估和统计指标 StatisticalIndexes & uation ofSocial Projects●文化社会学Cultural Sociology●历史社会学Historical Sociology●政治社会学 PoliticalSociology●法律社会学 Sociology of Law●环境社会学 Sociology ofEnvironment●劳动社会学 Sociology of Labor●公共关系 Public Relations●团体工作 Group Work●社区工作 Community Work●社会工作实习 Practice ofSocial Work●社会行政 SocialAdministration●数据分析技术 StatisticalPackage & Applications for theSocial Sciences●贫困与发展 Poverty andDevelopment●社会性别研究 Gender Studies●家庭社会工作 Family SocialWork●临床社会工作 Clinical SocialWork●社会立法 Social lagislation●老年社会工作 GerontologicalSocial Work●青少年越轨与矫治 JuvenileDelinquency & Correction●社区服务 Community Services●心理咨询 PsychologicalCounseling●整合社会工作实务 IntegrativeSocial Work Practice●社会工作专业英语 English forSocial Work●保险与信托 Insurance andEntrustment●教学实习 Teaching Practice●管理学 Management Theory● Administration 行政● Basic assumptions andprinciples of ~ 行政的基本假定与原则● Collaboration in 行政工作的合并● In community organization 社区组织中的行政● Consultation in 行政咨询● Defined 行政的定义● Importancy of 行政的重要性● Interagency coopration 行政的重要性● Shifting power in 行政分权● Supervision in 行政督导● social workers'club 社工俱乐部● Administration in social work(journal ) 《社会工作行政》（杂志）● Adolescents 青少年● Drug abuse and 吸毒与青少年● Health care services 青少年卫生保健服务● Pregnancy and 怀孕与青少年● Suicide and 自杀与青少年● Adoption 领养● Applicants for 申请领养人● Indepengdent placements 独立安置● Open 公开领养● Sa fe families act 《领养与安全家庭法案》sDissolution of parliament意识形态Ideology新左派New Left新右派New Right新政New deal新教政党Protestant parties福利国家Welfare state群众性政党Mass membership party 僭主制/暴政Tyranny寡头制Oligarchy寡头政治铁律Iron law of oligarchy精英，精英主义Elites,Elitism精英理论Doctrine of elites腐败选区Rotten borough弊政Maladministration熊彼特Schumpeter影子内阁Shadow cabinet暴力Violence潘恩Paine霍布斯Hobbes穆勒Mill激进主义Radicalism激进政党Radical parties整体主义Holism辩证法Dialectic辩证唯物主义Dialectical materialism 警察Police警察国家Police state。

有关政治的英文美文阅读政治秩序是人类群体生活中可欲的价值,是人类文明发展过程中,必然出现的一种现象。

它作为人们世代生活所依存的具体环境,代表着人们组织自我生活的安排形式。

下面是店铺带来的有关政治的英文美文阅读，欢迎阅读!有关政治的英文美文阅读篇一The Cats and Dogs Theory of Politics“猫狗”政治论Politics looks complicated but it's actually very simple.政治看似复杂，实则简单。

As an ambitious leader you are looking for people to follow you,to be inspired by your ideas, and—most important of all—to love you.一个雄心勃勃的领导需要找到愿意追随自己的属下，然后能够激发他们，最重要的是博得他们的爱戴。

Think of your loving supporters as pets and everything will fall into place.把你忠诚的支持者当做宠物，那么所有的事情都会井井有条。

As F. Scott Fitzgerald once said, "Almost everybody can be imagined as either a cat or a dog."F·斯考特·菲茨杰拉德曾经说，“几乎每个人都可以被想象成一只猫或者狗。

”Dog-like supporters like to belong to packs.狗一样的支持者喜欢成群结队。

They appreciate a strong leader who can tell them who to bark at, who to slobber over, and who to chase and tear apart.他们欣赏强硬派的领袖。

Why Public Management Reform?为什么要进行公共管理改革？Public management reform is usually thought of as a means to an end, not an end in itself. 公共管理改革通常被认为是一种达到目的的手段，而并非目的本身。

To be more precise we should perhaps say that it potentially a means to multiple ends. 更准确说，我们可以认为它是一种潜在地达到多种目的的手段。

These include making saving (economies) in public expenditure, improving the quality of public services, making the operation of government more efficient, and increasing the chances that the policies which are chosen and implemented will be effective. 这些目的包括：节约公共开支（经济），提高公共服务的质量，使政府的运作更加有效，增加被选用的和实施的政策变得有效的机会。

On the way to achieving these important objectives, public management reform may also serve a number of intermediate ends, including those of strengthening the control of politicians over the bureaucracy, freeing public officials1 from bureaucratic constrains which inhibit their opportunities to manage and enhance the government’s accountability to the legislature and the citizenry for its policies and programs. 在实现这些重要目标的同时，公共管理改革还可能为一系列中间目标提供服务，包括强化政治家对官僚的控制和把公务员从官僚政治的束缚中解放出来，这些束缚阻碍了他们在政策和计划实施1公务员、国家公职人员、政府官员中管理和提升政府对立法部门和公民所负责任的机会。

美国公共行政学百年回顾二消息是：尽管私有化对于校正公共部门的缺陷并非灵丹妙药，但私有部门的确给公共项目带来更有效率和更负责任的真正机会；私有化的坏消息是：政治压力可能导致私有部门能干得更好的事让公共部门干，由公共部门干更适合的事反而让私有部门去做。

组织思想的演变：女性的观点到1990年，妇女在公共部门中的比例达到60%。

妇女参与公共事务存在两大问题：一是工资偏低；二是所谓的“天花板效应”——即高层管理阶层的妇女比例偏低。

笔者曾经做过计算，按照二十世纪的发展趋势，要达到国会中男女数量平等需要400年。

女权主义组织分析家安克尔(Joan Acker)在《性别组织理论》(1992)一书中认为，长期男性对组织的控制导致了组织理论的男性观点：1.男女分工产生了男女不同的工作类型；2.创立了男性组织标志和形象；3.男女的关系是领导与被领导的关系；4.由于组织内男女分工和机会不均，不同性别应有不同行为和态度的观点逐渐成为心理和思维定势。

对组织和管理的女性观点将会对公共行政学产生深刻的影响。

公共行政学的女权主义理论家斯蒂夫(Camilla Stivers)在《公共行政中的男女形象：合法性与行政国》(1993)中说，“只要行政领域被看成与性别无关，妇女就将面对目前的霍布森(Hobson)选择，即或是接受男性行政标志，或是接受官僚体制中靠边站的地位”。

机构前景：官僚体制改革还是质量改善的继续？在二十世纪九十年代，新的管理见解对组织机构应当如何被管理、下属应当如何被指导、政府项目的消费者应当如何被对待等问题有重大影响。

1992年，巴泽勒(Michael Barzelay)与阿摩亚尼(Babak Armajani)发表《突破官僚制：政府管理的新视野》。

该书基于在明尼苏达州的革新实验，即通过强调顾客服务、给雇员授权、有选择性的竞争和减少行政规章制度而改变公共项目。

两位作者认为，政府不应当是官僚型、规章制度约束、强调控制和没有灵活性，他们向韦伯型的传统组织结构和运作机理提出了挑战。

公共行政学经典文选(英文版)1 .The Study of Administration Woodrow WilsonP18第二部分的前两段The field of administration is a field of business. It is removed from the hurry and strife of politics; it at most points stands apart even from the debatable ground of constitutional study.It is a part of political life only as the methods of the counting-house are a part of the life of society; only as machinery is part of the manufactured product. But it is, at the same time, raised very far above the dull level of mere technical detail by the fact that through its greater principles it is directly connected with the lasting maxims of political wisdom, the permanent truths of political progress.The object of administrative study is to rescue executive methods from the confusion and costliness of empirical experiment and set them upon foundations laid deep in stable principle.行政管理的领域是一种事务性的领域，它与政治领域的那种混乱和冲突相距甚远。