语言学教程课后习题答案第一章

语言学教程复习题与答案(胡壮麟版第一章)Chapter I IntroductionI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1.Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.Linguistics studies particular language, not languages in general.3. A scientific study of language is based on what the linguist thinks.4. In the study of linguistics,hypotheses formed should be based on languagefacts and checked against the observed facts.5.General linguistics is generally the study of language as a whole.6.General linguistics, which relates itself to the research of other areas,studies the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methodsapplicable in any linguistic study. 7.7. Phonetics is different from phonology in that the latter studies thecombinations of the sounds to convey meaning in communication.8.Morphology studies how words can be formed to produce meaningful sentences.9.The study of the ways in which morphemes can be combined to form wordsis called morphology.10. Syntax i s different from morphology in that the former not only studies themorphemes, but also the combination of morphemes into words and wordsinto sentences.11.The study of meaning in language is known as semantics.12.Both semantics and pragmatics study meanings.13.Pragmatics is different from semantics in that pragmatics studies meaningnot in isolation, but in context.14.Social changes can often bring about language changes.15.Sociolinguistics is the study of language in relation to society.16.Modern linguistics is mostly prescriptive, but sometimes descriptive.17.Modern linguistics is different from traditional grammar.18.A diachronic study of language is the description of language at some pointin time.19.Modern linguistics regards the written language as primary, not the writtenlanguage.20. The distinction between competence and performance was proposed by F.de Saussure.II.Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with theletter given:21. Chomsky defines“ competence” as the ideal user’s k__________ of the rulesof his language.ngue refers to the a__________ linguistic system shared by all the membersof a speech community while the parole is the concrete use of the conventions andapplication of the rules.23.D_________ is one of the design features of human language which refers to thepheno 广告网址 n that language consists of two levels: a lower level of meaninglessindividual sounds and a higher level of meaningful units.nguage is a system of a_________ vocal symbolsused for human communication.25.The discipline that studies the rules governing the formation of words into permissible sentences in languages is called s________.26.Human capacity for language has a g____ basis, but the details of language have to be taught and learned.27.P ____ refers to the realization of langue in actual use.28.Findings in linguistic studies can often be applied to the settlement of some practical problems.The study of such applications is generally known as a________ linguistics.nguage is p___________in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.In other words,they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences which they have never heard before.30.Linguistics is generally defined as the s ____ study of language.III.There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that canbest complete the statement.31. If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, itis said to be ______________.A. prescriptiveB.analyticC. descriptiveD. linguistic32.Which of the following is not a design feature of human language?A. ArbitrarinessB. DisplacementC. DualityD. Meaningfulness33. Modern linguistics regards the written language as ____________.A. primaryB. correctC. secondaryD. stable34.In modern linguistics, speech is regarded as more basic than writing, because___________. A. in linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writingB. speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of informationconveyed. C. speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquireshis mother tongueD. All of the above35.A historical study of language is a ____ study of language.A. synchronicB. diachronicC. prescriptiveD. comparative36.Saussure took a (n)__________view of language, while Chomsky looks at language from a ________ point of view.A. sociological⋯psychologicalB. psychological⋯sociologicalC. applied⋯pragmaticD.semantic and linguistic37. According to F. de Saussure, ____ refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.A. paroleB. performanceC. langueD. Languagenguage is said to be arbitrary because there is no logical connection between_________ and meanings.A. senseB. soundsC. objectsD. ideasnguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. This feature is called_________,A. displacementB. dualityC. flexibilityD. cultural transmission40. The details of any language system is passed on from one generation to the next through ____ , rather than by instinct.A. learningB. teachingC. booksD. both A and BIV. Define the following terms:41.Linguistics42.Phonology43.Syntax44.Pragmatics45. nguage 47.Phonetics48. Morphology49.Semantics50.Sociolinguistics51.Applied Linguistics 52.Arbitrariness53 Productivity54.Displacement55.Duality56.Design Features 57. Competence58 Performance59. Langue60 ParoleV.Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible.Give examples for illustration if necessary:nguage is generally defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Explain it in detail.62.What are the design features of human language? Illustrate them with examples.63.How is modern linguistics different from traditional grammar?64. How do you understand the distinction between a synchronic study and a diachronic study?65. Why does modern linguistics regard the spoken form of language as primary,not the written?66.What are the major distinctions between langue and parole?67.How do you understand competence and performance ?68. Saussure’ s distinction between langue and parole seems similar to Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance. What do you think are their major differences?69. Do you think human language is entirely arbitrary? Why?I.Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:l.T 2.F 3.F 4.T 5.T 6.F 7.T8.F 9.T 10.F 11.T12.T 13.T 14.T15.T 16.F17.T 18.F 19.F20.FII.Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the le tter given:21.knowledge22.abstract23.Duality24.arbitrary25.syntax2 6.genetic27.Parole28.applied 29.productive30.scientific(or systemati c)III. There are best complete fourthechoices followingstatement. 3l.Ceach32.Dstatement.33.C 34.DMark the35.Bchoice36.Athat37.Ccan38.B 39.A 40.DIV. Define the following terms:41. Linguistics: Linguistics is generally definedas the scientific study of language.42. Phonology: The study of how soundsare put together and used in communication is called phonology.43. Syntax: The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is calledsyntax.44.Pragmatics: The study of meaning in context of use is calledpragmatics.45. Psycholinguistics: The study of language with reference tothe workings of mind is called psycholinguistics.46. Language: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.47. Phonetics: The study of sounds which are used in linguistic communication iscalled phonetics.48. Morphology: The study of the way in which morphemesare arranged to form words is called morphology.49. Semantics: The study of meaning in language is called semantics.50. Sociolinguistics:The study of language with reference to society is called sociolinguistics.51.Applied linguistics: In a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the applicationof linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning, especially theteaching of foreign and second languages. In a broad sense, it refers to theapplication of linguistic findings to the solution of practical problems such asthe recovery of speech ability.52. Arbitrariness: It is one of the designfeatures of language. It means that there is no logical connection betweenmeanings and sounds53. Productivity: Language is productive or creative inthat it makes possible the con-struction and interpretation of new signals by itsusers.54. Displacement: Displacement means that language can be usedto refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in thepast, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be usedto refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker55. Duality: The duality nature of language means that language is a system, whichconsists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds and the other ofmeanings. 56. Design features: Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication 57. Competence:Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user's knowledge of the rules of his language, 58. Performance: performance isthe actual realization of the knowl-edge of the rules in linguistic communication.ngue:Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community;Langue is the set of conventions and rule s which language users all have to follow;Langue is relatively stable,it does not change frequently60.Parole:Parole refers to the realization of lang ue in actual use;parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the appli cation of the rules;parole varies from person to person,and from situation t o situation.V. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible.Give exam ples for illustration if necessary:nguage is generally defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Explain it in detail.First of all,language is a sys tem,because elements of language are combined according to rules.Secondl y, language is arbitrary because there is no intrinsic connection between form and meaning,or between the sign and what it stands for.Different language s have different words for the same object in the world.This fact is a good i llustration of the arbitrary nature of language.This also explains the symbolic nature of language:words are just symbols;they are associated with object s, actions,ideas,etc.by convention .Thirdly,language is vocal because the primary medium is sound for all languages,no matter how well-developed t heir writing systems are.The term"human"in the definition indicates that l anguage is possessed by human beings only and is very different from the c ommunication systems of other living creatures.The term"communication"m eans that language makes it possible for its users to talk to each other and fulfill their communicative needs.62.What are the design features of human language?Illustrate them with ex amples.1)Arbitrariness As mentioned earlier,the arbitrary property of langu age means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. For instance,there is no necessary relationship between the word elephant and the animal it symbolizes.In addition,different sounds are used to refer t o the same object in different languages,and even within the same language, the same sound does not refer to the same thing.However,language is not entirelyarbitrary.There are words which are created in the imitation of sound s by sounds,such as crash,bang in English.Besides,some compound word s are also not entirely arbitrary.But the non-arbitrary words are quite limitedin number.The arbitrary nature of language makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions.2)Productivity Language is prod uctive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretationof new signals by its users.This is why they can produce and understand a n infinitely large number of sentences,including sentences that they have ne ver said or heard before.They can send messages which no one else has ever sent before.Productivity is unique to human language.Most animal comm unication systems appear to be highly restricted with respect to the numberof different signals that their users can send and receive.3)Duality The du ality nature of language means that language is a system,which consists of two sets of structure,or two levels,one of sounds and the other of meaning s.At the lower or the basic level,there is the structure of sounds,which are meaningless,discrete,individual sounds.But the sounds of language can be combined according to rules into units of meaning such as morphemes and words,which,at the higher level, can be arranged into sentences.This duality of structure or double articulation of language enables its users to talk abou t anything within their knowledge.No animal communication system has duali ty or even comes near to possessing it.4) Displacement Displacement mea ns that language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present,real or imagined matters in the past, present,or future,or in far-away p laces.In other words,language can be used to refer to contexts removed fro m the immediate situations of the speaker.Animal calls are mainly uttered in response to immediate changes of situation.5)Cultural transmission Huma n beings were born with the ability to acquire language,but the details of an y language are not genetically transmitted or passed down by instinct.They have to be taught and learned, but animal call systems are genetically transmi tted.63.How is modern linguistics different from traditional grammar?Traditional gram-mar is prescriptive;it is based on"high"(religious,literary)writte n language.It sets grammatical rules and imposes the rules on language users.But Modern linguistics is descriptive;It collects authentic,and mai nly spoken language data and then it studies and describes the data in a n objective and scientific way.64.How do you understand the distinction between a synchronic study anda diachronic study?The description of a language at some point in timeis a Synchronic study;the description of a language as it changes throu gh time is a diachronic study.A synchronic study of language describesa language as it is at some particular point in time,while a diachronic study of language is the study of the historical development of language o ver a period of time.65.Why does modern linguistics regard the spoken form of language as primary,not the written?First,the spoken form is prior to the writ-ten for m and most writing systems are derived from the spoken form of langua ge.Second,the spoken form plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed and it serves a wider range of purp oses Finally,the spoken form is the medium through which we acquire o ur mother tongue.66.What are the major distinctions between langue and parole?The distinction between langue,and parole was made by the famous linguist Ferdinand de Saussure early this ngue refers to the abstract linguisticsystem shared by all the members of a speech community,and parole ref ers to the realization of langue in actual use. Langue is the set of conve ntions and rules which language users all have to follow while parole is t he concrete use of the conventions and the application of the ng ue is abstract;it is not the language people actually use,but parole is c oncrete;it refers to the naturally occurring language ngue is rel atively stable;it does not change frequently;while parole varies from per son to person,and from situation to situation.67.How do you understand competence and performance?American linguist N. Chomsky in the late1950 ’s proposed the distinction between comp etence and performance.Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user ’s knowledge of the rules of his language.This internalized set of rules e nables the language user to produce and understand an infinitely large n umber of sentences and recognize sentences that are ungrammatical and ambiguous.According to Chomsky, performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.Although the speaker’s knowledge of his mother tongue is perfect,his performances may have mista kes because of social and psychological factors such as stress,embarras sment,etc..Chomsky believes that what linguists should study is the co mpetence,which is systematic,not the performance,which is too haphaz ard.68. Saussure ’s distinction between langue and parole seems similar to Chomsky ’ s distinction between competence and performance.What do you thi nk are their major differences?Although Saussure’s distinction and Cho msky ’ s are very similar,they differ at least in that Saussure took a soci ological view of language and his notion of langue is a mater of social c onventions,and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of vies and to him,competence is a property of the mind of each individual.69. Do you think human language is entirely arbitrary?Why?Language isarbitrary in nature,it is not entirely arbitrary,because there are a limited number of words whose connections between forms and meanings can be logically explained to a certain extent,for example,the onomatopoeia,words which are coined on the basis of imitation of sounds by sounds s uch as bang,crash,etc..Take compounds for another example.The two el ements“photo ” and“ copy” in“ photocopy” are non-motivated,but t he compound is not arbitrary.语言学教程复习题与答案(胡壮麟版第二章 )Chapter 2 ： PhonologyI.Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1.Voicing is a phonological feature that distinguishes meaning in both Chinese and English.2.If two phonetically similar sounds occur in the same environments and they distinguish meaning,they are said to be in complementary distribution.3.A phone is a phonetic unit that distinguishes meaning.4.English is a tone language while Chinese is not.5.In linguistic evolution,speech is prior to writing.6.In everyday communication,speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.7.Articulatory phonetics tries to describe the physical properties of thestream of sounds which a speaker issues with the help of a machinecalled spectrograph.8.The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important areas:the throat,the mouth and the chest.9.Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called voicing.10.English consonants can be classified in terms of place of articulationand the part of the tongue that is raised the highest.11.According to the manner of articulation,some of the types into whichthe consonants can be classified are stops,fricatives,bilabial and alv eolar.12.Vowel sounds can be differentiated by a number of factors:the position of tongue in the mouth,the openness of the mouth,the shape of the lips,and the length of the vowels.13.According to the shape of the lips,vowels can be classified into close vowels,semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels and open vowels.14.Any sound produced by a human being is a phoneme.15.Phones are the sounds that can distinguish meaning.16.Phonology is concerned with how the sounds can be classified into different categories.17.A basic way to determine the phonemes of a language is to see if substituting one sound for another results in a change of meaning.18.When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings,the two words are said to form a phonemic contrast.19.The rules governing the phonological patterning are language specific.20.Distinctive features of sound segments can be found running over asequence of two or more phonemic segments.II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with t he letter given:puff of air stream in the production of spee 21. A ____refers to astrongch sounds.22.A____phonetics describes the way our speech organs work to produce the speech sounds and how they differ.23.The four sounds/p/,/b/,/m/and/w/have one feature in common,i.e,they are all b_______sounds.24.Of all the speech organs,the t____is the most flexible,and is responsible for varieties of articulation than any other.25.English consonants can be classified in terms of manner of articulation or in terms of p____of articulation.26.When the obstruction created by the speech organs is total or complete,the speech sound produced with the obstruction audibly released a nd the air passing out again is called a s________. <![endif]>27.S_________features are the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments.They include stress,tone,intonation,etc.28.The rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called s ____rules.29.The transcription of speech sounds with letter-symbols only is calledbroad transcription while the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics is called n_________transcription.30.When pitch,stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation,they are collectively known as i_________. 31.P______is a discipline which studies the system of sounds of a particular language and how sounds are combined into meaningful units t o effect linguistic communication.32.The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important cavities:the pharyngeal cavity,the o_______cavity and the na sal cavity.33.T____are pitch variations,which are caused by the differing rates ofvibration of the vocal cords and which can distinguish meaning just li ke phonemes.<![endif]>34. Depending on the context in which stress is considered,there are twokinds of stress: word stress and s_________stressbelow.Mark t III. There are four choices following each of thestatementshe choice that can best complete the statement.35.Of all the speech organs,the_______is/are the most flexible. A. mouth B.lips C.tongue D.vocal cords36.The sounds produced without the vocal cords vibrating are____ sounds. A. voiceless B.voiced C. vowel D.consonantal37.__________is a voiced alveolar stop.A./z/B./d/C./k/D./b/38.The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “ copying ”a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones____________. A.identical B.same C. exactly alike D.similar39.Since/p/and/b/are phonetically similar,occur in the same environments and they can distinguish meaning,they are said to be_________ __.A.in phonemic contrastB.in complementary distributionC.the allophonesD.minimal pair40.The sound/f/is_________________. A.voiced palatal affricateB.voiced alveolar stopC.voiceless velar fricativeD.voiceless labiodental fricative41.A____vowel is one that is produced with the front part of the tongue maintaining the highest position. A. back B.central C.front D.middle42.Distinctive features can be found running over a sequence of two ormore phonemic segments.The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called____________. A. phonetic components B.immediate constituents C.suprasegmental features D.se mantic features43.A(n)___________is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstractunit,a collection of distinctive phonetic features. A.phone B.so und C. allophone D.phoneme44.The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the____of that phoneme. A. phones B.sounds C. phonemes D. allophones<![endif]>IV. Define the terms below:45. phonology46.phoneme47.allophone48.international phonetic alphabet49.intonation50.phonetics51.auditory phonetics52.acoustic phonetics53.phone54. phonemic contrast55. tone56.minimal pairV. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible.Give ex-amples for illustration if necessary:57.Of the two media of language,why do you think speech is more basic than writing?58.What are the criteria that a linguist uses in classifying vowels?59.What are the major differences between phonology and phonetics?60.Illustrate with examples how suprasegmental features can affect meaning.61.In what way can we determine whether a phone is a phoneme or not?I.Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:l.T 2.F 3.F 4.F 5.T 6.T 7.F8.F9.T 10.F 11.F 12.T13.F 14.F15.F16.F17. T 18. F 19.T 20.TII.Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begin s with the letter given:21.Aspiration 22.Articulatory23.b ilabial24. tongue25. place26.st op27.Suprasegmental 28.sequential29.narrow 30.intonation31.P honology32. oral33.Tone34. sentenceIII.There are four choices following each of the statements below.Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:35.C 36.A 37.B 38.D 39.A 40.D 41.C 42.C 43.D44.DIV.Define the terms below:45.phonology: Phonology guage; it aims to discover ns and how these sounds munication.studies the system of sounds of a particular lan how speech sounds in a language form patter are used to convey meaning in linguistic com46. phoneme: The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme; it is a unitof distinctive value. But it is an abstract unit. To be exact, a phoneme is not a sound; it is a collection of distinctive phonetic features.47. allophone:The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phonem e.48. international phonetic alphabet: It is a standardized and internationallyaccepted system of phonetic transcription.49. intonation:When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation,they are collectively known as i ntonation.50.51.phonetics:Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language;it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world's languages52.auditory phonetics:It studies the speech sounds from the hearer's point of view.It studies how the sounds are perceived by the hear-er. 53.acoustic phonetics:It studies the speech sounds by looking at the sound waves.It studies the physical means by which speech sounds a re transmitted through the air from one person to another.54.phone: Phones can be simply defined as the speech sounds we usewhen speaking a language.A phone is a phonetic unit or segment.It does not necessarily distinguish meaning.55. phonemic contrast:Phonemic contrast refers to the relation between two phonemes.If two phonemes can occur in the same environment a nd distinguish meaning,they are in phonemic contrast.56. tone:Tones are pitch variations,which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.57. minimal pair:When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the stri ngs,the two words are said to form a minimal pair.V. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible.Give ex-amples for illustration if necessary:58. Of the two media of language,why do you think speech is more basic than writing?1)In linguistic evolution,speech is prior to writing.2)In everyday communication,speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.3)Speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, and writing is learned and taught later at school.59. What are the criteria that a linguist uses in classifying vowels?。

语⾔学教程课后答案定义归纳胡壮麟《语⾔学教程》（第三版）---------课后习题单词定义归纳Chapter I Invitation to Linguistics1. Define the following terms:定义特征design feature:the distinctive features of human language that essentially make human language distinguishable from languages of animals.功能function:the role language plays in communication . to express ideas, attitudes) or in particular social situations . religious, legal).共时的synchronic:said of an approach that studies language at a theoretical ‘point’ in time.历时的diachronic:said of the study of development of language and languages over time.规定式prescriptive:to make authoritarian statement about the correctness of a particular use of language.描写式descriptive:to make an objective and systematic account of the patterns and use of a language or variety.任意式arbitrariness:the absence of any physical correspondence between linguistic signals and the entities to which they refer.⼆层式duality: the structural organization of language into two abstract levels: meaningful units . words) and meaningless segments . sounds, letters).移位式displacement:the ability of language to refer to contexts removed from the speaker’s immediate situation.寒暄phatic communion:said of talk used to establish atmosphere or maintain social contact.元语⾔metalanguage:a language used for talking about language.宏观语⾔学macrolinguistics:a broad conception of linguistic enquiry, including psychological, cultural, etc.语⾔能⼒competence:unconscious knowledge of the system of grammatical rules in a language.语⾔运⽤performance:the language actually used by people in speaking or writing.语⾔langue:the language system shared by a “speech community”.⾔语parole:the concrete utterances of a speaker.Chapter 2 Speech sounds1. Define the following terms:语⾳学phonetics:the study of how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived. It can be divided into three main areas of study—articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics and perceptual/auditory phonetics.发⾳语⾳学articulatory phonetics:the study of the production of speech sounds, or the study of how speech sounds are produced/made.⾳系学phonology:the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages. It aims to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur.发⾳器官speech organs:those parts of the human body involved in the production of speech, also known as ‘vocal organs’.带声器官voicing:the vibration of the vocal folds. When the vocal folds are close together, the airstream causes them to vibrate again st each other and the resultant sound is said to be ‘voiced’. When the vocal folds are apart and the air can pass through easily, the sound produced is said to be ‘voiceless’.国际⾳标International Phonetic Alphabet:a set of standard phonetic symbols in the form of a chart (the IPA chart), designed by the International Phonetic Association since 1888. It has been revised from time to time to include new discoveries and changes in phonetic theory and practice. The latest version has been revised in 1993 and updated in 1996.辅⾳consonant:a major category of sound segments, produced by a closure in the vocal tract, or by a narrowing which is so marked that air cannot escape without producing audible friction.元⾳vowel:a major category of sound segments, produced without obstruction of the vocal tract so that air escapes in a relatively unimpeded way through the mouth or the nose.发⾳⽅式manner of articulation:ways in which articulation of consonants can be accomplished—(a) the articulators may close off the oral tract for an instant or a relatively long period; (b) they may narrow the space considerably; or (c) they may simply modify the shape of the tract by approaching each other.发⾳部位place of articulation:the point where an obstruction to the flow of air is made in producing a consonant.基本元⾳Cardinal Vowels:a set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined, fixed and unchanging, intended to provide a frame of reference for the description of the actual vowels of existing languages.半元⾳semi-vowel:segments that are neither consonants nor vowels, . [j] and [w].滑元⾳vowel glide:vowels that involve a change of quality, including diphthongs, when a single movement of the tongue is made, and triphthongs, where a double movement is perceived.协同发⾳coarticulation:simultaneous or overlapping articulations, as when the nasal quality of a nasal sound affects the preceding or following sound so that the latter becomes nasalized. If the affected sound becomes more like the followingsound, it is known as ‘anticipatory coarticulation’; if the sound shows the influence of the preceding sound, it is ‘perseverative coarticution’.⾳位phoneme:a unit of explicit sound contrast. If two sounds in a language make a contrast ,between two different words, they are said to be different phonemes.⾳位变体allophone:variants of the same phoneme. If two or more phonetically different sounds do not make a contrast in meaning, they are said to be allophones of the same phoneme. To be allophones, they must be in complementary distribution and bear phonetic similarity.同化现象assimilation:a process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound, a term often used synonymously with ‘coarticulation’. If a following sound is influencing a preceding sound, it is called ‘regressive assimilation’; the converse process, in which a preceding sound is influencing a following sound, is known as ‘progressive assimilation’.剩余位置条件Elsewhere Condition:The more specific rule applied first. It is applied when two or more rules are involved in deriving the surface form from the underlying form.区别特征distinctive features:a means of working out a set of phonological contrasts or oppositions to capture particular aspects of language sounds, first suggested by Roman Jacobson in the 1940s and then developed by numerous other people.⾳节syllable:an important unit in the study of suprasegmentals. A syllable must have a nucleus or peak, which is often the task of a vowel or possibly that of a syllabic consonant, and often involves an optional set of consonants before and/or after the nucleus.最⼤节⾸原则Maximal Onset Principle:a principle for dividing the syllables when there is a cluster of consonants between two vowels, which states that when there is a choice as to where to place a consonant, it is put into the onset rather than the coda.重⾳stress:the degree of force used in producing a syllable. When a syllable is produced with more force and is therefore more‘prominent’, it is a ‘stressed’ syllable in contrast to a less prominent, ‘unstressed’ syllable.语调intonation:the occurrence of recurring fall-rise patterns, each of which is used with a set of relatively consistent meanings, either on single words or on groups of words of varying length.声调tone:a set of fall-rise patterns affecting the meanings of individual words.Chapter 3 Lexicon1.Define the following terms语素morpheme:the smallest unit of language in terms of the relationship between expression and content, a unit that can not be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexically or grammatically. Take forexample, the word tourists contains three morphemes. There is one minimal unit of meaning, tour, another minimal unit of meaning –ist (meaning “person who does someth ing), and a minimal unit of grammatical function –s (indicating plural). Meanwhile, from the above example, we can further classify morphemes into different types on different dimensions: (a) free morphemes, which can stand by themselves as single words, . tour in tourist, and bound morphemes, which cannot normally stand alone, but which are typically attached to another form, . –ist, -s. (b) lexical morphemes and functional morphemes. Both of these two types of morphemes fall into the “free” category. The first category is that set of ordinary nouns, adjectives and verbs that carry the “content” of message we convey, . house, long and follow. The second category consists largely of the functional words in the language such as conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns, . but, above, the and it. (c) derivational morphemes and inflectional morphemes. These two types of morphemes fall into the “bound” category. The derivational morphemes are used to make new words in the language and are often employed to produce words of a different grammatical category from the stem. For example, the addition of the derivational morpheme –ness changes the adjective good to the noun goodness. In contrast, inflectional morphemes never change the grammatical category ofa word, but indicate aspects of the grammatical function of a word. For example, both old and older are adjectives. The –er inflection simply creates a different version of the adjective, indicating a comparative degree. As a useful way to remember the different categories of morphemes, the following chart can be used: It should be pointed out, morphemes may also be divided into roots and affixes, the root being that partof a word structure which is left when all the affixes have been removed. Root morphemes may be bound or free, and are potentially unlimited in number in a language; Affixes are bound morphemes and limited in number. For instance, in try, tries, trying, tried, the root is try, and –s, -ing, -ed are affixes.复合词compound:refers to the words that consist of more than on lexical morpheme or the way to join two separate wordsto produce a single form, such as classroom, mailbox, fingerprint, sunburn. In terms of the word class of compounds, there are Noun compounds . daybreak), Verb compounds . brainwash), Adjective compounds . dutyfree) and Preposition compounds . throughout). Meanwhile compounds can be further divided into endocentric compound and exocentric compound in terms of its structural organization. The head of a nominal or adjectival endocentric compound is d is derived from a Verb, and it is usually the case that the first member is a participant of the process verb. Consider the following two examples: self-control and virus-sensitive. The exocentric nominal compounds are formed by V+N, V+A, and V+P, whereas the exocentric adjectives come from V+N and V+A. Here are some examples: Nouns scarecrow playboy cutthroat Adjectives take home Lackluster breakneck屈折变化inflection:is the manifestation of grammatical relationship through the addition of inflectional affixes such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and cases to which they are attached.词缀affix:the collective term for the type of formative that can be used when added to another morpheme. Affixes ina language are limited in number, and are generally classified into three subtypes, namely, prefix, suffix, and infix, depending on their position around the root or stem of a word. Prefixes are these affixes that have be added to the beginning of a word . un- in unhappy); suffixes are those added to the end of a word . –ish in foolish); infixes, as a third type of affix, is not normally found in English but fairly common。

《新编简明英语语言学教程》第二版第1-3章练习题参考答案Chapter 1IntroductionP131. How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study of language？答：Linguistics is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure. In order to discover the nature and rules of the underlying language system, the linguists has to collect and observe language facts first, which are found to display some similarities, and generalizations are made about them; then he formulates some hypotheses about the language structure. The hypothesesthus formed have to be checked repeatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity. In linguistics, as in any other discipline, data and theory stand in a dialectical complementation, that is, a theory without the support of data can hardly claim validity, and data without being explained by some theory remain a muddled mass of things.2. What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study?答： The major branches of linguistics are:(1)phonetics: it studies the sounds used in linguistic communication;(2)phonology: it studies how sounds are put together and used toconvey meaning in communication;(3)morphology: it studies the way in which linguistic symbolsrepresenting soundsare arranged and combined to formwords;(4)syntax: it studies the rules which govern how words are combinedto form grammatically permissible sentences in languages;(5)semantics: it studies meaning conveyed by language;(6) pragmatics: it studies the meaning in the context of language use.3. In what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar?答： The general approachthus traditionally formed to the study of language over the years is roughly referred to as “t raditional gramma r.” Modern linguistics differs from traditional g rammar in several basic ways.Firstly, linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.Second, modem linguistics regards the spoken language asprimary, not the written. Traditional grammarians, on the other hand, tended to emphasize, maybe over-emphasize, the importance of the written word, partly because of its permanence.Then, modem linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based framework.4. Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? Why?答：In modem linguistics, a synchronic approach seems to enjoy priority over a diachronic one. Because people believed that unless the various states of a language in different historical periods are successfully studied, it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.5. For what reasons does modern linguistics give priority to speech rather than to writing?答：Speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication. Modem linguistics regards the spoken language as the natural or the primary medium of human language for some obvious reasons. From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented” by its users to record speech when the need arises. Even in today's world there are still many languages that can only be spoken but not written. Then in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount ofinformation conveyed. And also, speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, and writingis learned and taught later when he goes to school. For modern linguists, spoken language reveals many true features of human speech while written language is only the “revised” record of spe ech. Thus their data for investigation and analysis are mostly drawn from everyday speech, which they regard as authentic.6. How is Saussure's distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky's distinction between competence and performance?答：Saussure's distinction and Chomsky's are very similar, they differ at least in that Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.7. What characteristics of language do you think should be included in a good, comprehensive definition of language?答： First of all, language is a system, i.e., elements of language are combined according to rules.Second, language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for.Third, language is vocal because the primary medium for all languages is sound.Fourth, language is human-specific, i. e., it is very different from the communication systems other forms of life possess.8. What are the main features of human language that have been specified by C. Hockett to show that it is essentially differentfrom animal communication system?（2．2语言的识别性特征）美国语言学家 C. Hockett提出了人类语言的 12种识别性特征，其中最重要的识别性特种有5种：即语言的任意性、创造性、二重性、移位性和文化传递性。

胡壮麟《语言学教程》修订版1——12章习题及答案(总25页)-CAL-FENGHAI.-(YICAI)-Company One1-CAL-本页仅作为文档封面，使用请直接删除胡壮麟《语言学教程》（修订版）测试题Chapter 1 Introductions to LinguisticsI. Choose the best answer. (20%)1. Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human__________A. contactB. communicationC. relationD. community2. Which of the following words is entirely arbitrary？A. treeB. typewriterC.crash D. bang3. The function of the sentence “Water boils at 100 degrees Centigrade.”is__________.A. interrogativeB. directiveC.informative D. performative4. In Chinese when someone breaks a bowl or a plate the host or the people present are likely to say“碎碎（岁岁）平安”as a means of controlling the forces which they believes feel might affect their lives. Which functions does it perform？A. InterpersonalB. EmotiveC. PerformativeD. Recreational5. Which of the following property of language enables language users to overcome the barriers caused by time and place, due to this feature of language, speakers of a language are free to talk about anything in any situation？A. TransferabilityB. DualityC. DisplacementD. Arbitrariness6. Study the following dialogue. What function does it play according to the functions of language？— A nice day, isn’t it？— Right! I really enjoy the sunlight.A. EmotiveB. PhaticC.Performative D. Interpersonal7. __________ refers to the actual realization of the ideal languageuser’s knowledge of the rules of his language in utterances.A. PerformanceB. CompetenceC.Langue D. Parole8. When a dog is barking, you assume it is barking for somethingor at someone t hat exists hear and now. It couldn’t be sorrowful for some lost love or lost bone. This indicates the design feature of __________.A. cultural transmissionB. productivityC.displacement D. duality9. __________ answers such questions as how we as infants acquire ourfirst language.A. Psycholinguistics linguisticsC. SociolinguisticsD. Applied linguistics10. __________ deals with language application to other fields, particularly education.A. Linguistic theoryB. PracticallinguisticsC. Applied linguisticsD. ComparativelinguisticsII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)11. Language is a means of verbal communication. Therefore, the communication way used by the deaf-mute is not language.12. Language change is universal, ongoing and arbitrary.13. Speaking is the quickest and most efficient way of the human communication systems.14. Language is written because writing is the primary medium for all languages.15. We were all born with the ability to acquire language, which means the details of any language system can be genetically transmitted.16. Only human beings are able to communicate.17. F. de Saussure, who made the distinction between langue and parole in the early 20th century, was a French linguist.18. A study of the features of the English used in Shakespeare’s time is an example of the diachronic study of language.19. Speech and writing came into being at much the same time in human history.20. All the languages in the world today have both spoken and written forms.III. Fill in the blanks. (10%)21. Language, broadly speaking, is a means of __________ communication.22. In any language words can be used in new ways to mean new things and can be combined into innumerable sentences based on limited rules. This feature is usually termed __________.23. Language has many functions. We can use language to talk about itself. This function is __________.24. Theory that primitive man made involuntary vocal noises while performing heavy work has been called the __________ theory.25. Linguistics is the __________ study of language.26. Modern linguistics is __________ in the sense that thelinguist tries to discover what language is rather than lay down some rules for people to observe.27. One general principle of linguistic analysis is the primacy of __________ over writing.28. The description of a language as it changes through time is a __________ study.29. Saussure put forward two important concepts. __________ refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community.30. Linguistic potential is similar to Saussure’s langue and Chomsky’s __________.IV. Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31. Design feature32. Displacement33. Competence34. Synchronic linguisticsV. Answer the following questions. (20%)35. Why do people take duality as one of the important design features of human language Can you tell us what language will be if it has no such design feature （南开大学，2004）36. Why is it difficult to define language （北京第二外国语大学，2004）VI. Analyze the following situation. (20%)37. How can a linguist make his analysis scientific （青岛海洋大学，1999）Key:[In the reference keys, I won’t give examples or further analysis. That seems too much work for me. Therefore, this key is only for reference. In order to answer this kind of question, you need more examples. So you should read the textbook carefully. – icywarmtea]I.1~5 BACCC 6~10 BACACII.11~15FFTFF 16~20 FFFFFIII.verbal22. productivity / creativity23. metalingual function 24. yo-he-ho 25.scientific 26. descriptive27. speech 28. diachronic linguistic29. langue 30. competenceIV.31. Design feature: It refers to the defining properties of human language that tell the difference between human language and any system of animal communication.32. Displacement: It means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts, which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication.33. Competence: It is an essential part of performance. It is the speaker’s knowledge of his or her language; that is, of its sound structure, its words, and its grammatical rules. Competence is, in a way, an encyclopedia of language. Moreover, the knowledge involved in competence is generally unconscious. A transformational-generative grammar is a model of competence. 34. Synchronic linguistics: It refers to the study of a language at a given point in time. The time studied may be either the present or a particular point in the past; synchronic analyses can also be made of dead languages, such as Latin. Synchronic linguistics is contrasted with diachronic linguistics, the study of a language over a period of time.V.35.Duality makes our language productive. A large number of different units can be formed out of a small number of elements – for instance, tens of thousands of words out of a small set of sounds, around 48 in the case of the English language. And out of the huge number of words, there can be astronomical number of possible sentences and phrases, which in turn can combine to form unlimited number of texts. Most animal communication systems do not have this design feature of human language.If language has no such design feature, then it will be like animal communicational system which will be highly limited. It cannot produce a very large number of sound combinations, . words, which are distinct in meaning. 36.It is difficult to define language, as it is such a general term that covers too many things. Thus, definitions for it all have their own special emphasis, and are not totally free from limitations.37.It should be guided by the four principles of science: exhaustiveness, consistency, economy and objectivity and follow the scientific procedure: form hypothesis – collect data – check against the observablefacts – come to a conclusion.Chapter 2 Speech SoundsI. Choose the best answer. (20%)1. Pitch variation is known as __________ when its patterns are imposed on sentences.A. intonationB. toneC.pronunciation D. voice2. Conventionally a __________ is put in slashes (/ /).A. allophoneB. phoneC.phoneme D. morpheme3. An aspirated p, an unaspirated p and an unreleased p are__________ of the p phoneme.A. analoguesB. tagmemesC.morphemes D. allophones4. The opening between the vocal cords is sometimes referred toas__________.A. glottisB. vocal cavityC.pharynx D. uvula5. The diphthongs that are made with a movement of the tongue towards the center are known as __________ diphthongs.A. wideB. closingC. narrowD. centering6. A phoneme is a group of similar sounds called __________.A. minimal pairsB. allomorphsC.phones D. allophones7. Which branch of phonetics concerns the production of speech sounds？A. Acoustic phoneticsB. Articulatory phoneticsC. Auditory phoneticsD. None of the above8. Which one is different from the others according to places of articulation？A. [n]B. [m]C.[ b ] D. [p]9. Which vowel is different from the others according to the characteristics of vowels？A. [i:]B. [ u ]C.[e] D. [ i ]10. What kind of sounds can we make when the vocal cords are vibrating？A. VoicelessB. VoicedC. Glottalstop D. ConsonantII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)11. Suprasegmental phonology refers to the study of phonological properties of units larger than the segment-phoneme, such as syllable, word and sentence.12. The air stream provided by the lungs has to undergo a numberof modification to acquire the quality of a speech sound.13. Two sounds are in free variation when they occur in the same environment and do not contrast, namely, the substitution of one for the other does not produce a different word, but merely a different pronunciation.14. [p] is a voiced bilabial stop.15. Acoustic phonetics is concerned with the perception of speech sounds.16. All syllables must have a nucleus but not all syllablescontain an onset and a coda.17. When pure vowels or monophthongs are pronounced, no vowelglides take place.18. According to the length or tenseness of the pronunciation, vowels can be divided into tense vs. lax or long vs. short.19. Received Pronunciation is the pronunciation accepted by most people.20. The maximal onset principle states that when there is a choice as to where to place a consonant, it is put into the coda rather than the onset.III. Fill in the blanks. (20%)21. Consonant sounds can be either __________ or __________, while all vowel sounds are __________.22. Consonant sounds can also be made when two organs of speech in the mouth are brought close together so that the air is pushed out between them, causing __________.23. The qualities of vowels depend upon the position of the__________ and the lips.24. One element in the description of vowels is the part of the tongue which is at the highest point in the mouth. A second element is the__________ to which that part of the tongue is raised.25. Consonants differ from vowels in that the latter are produced without __________.26. In phonological analysis the words fail / veil are distinguishable simply because of the two phonemes /f/ - /v/. This is an example for illustrating __________.27. In English there are a number of __________, which are produced by moving from one vowel position to another through intervening positions.28. __________ refers to the phenomenon of sounds continually show the influence of their neighbors.29. __________ is the smallest linguistic unit.30. Speech takes place when the organs of speech move to produce patterns of sound. These movements have an effect on the __________ coming from the lungs.IV. Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31. Sound assimilation32. Suprasegmental feature33. Complementary distribution34. Distinctive featuresV. Answer the following questions. (20%)35. What is acoustic phonetics（中国人民大学，2003）36. What are the differences between voiced sounds and voiceless sounds in terms of articulation（南开大学，2004）VI. Analyze the following situation. (20%)37. Write the symbol that corresponds to each of the following phonetic descriptions; then give an English word that contains this sound. Example: voiced alveolar stop [d] dog. （青岛海洋大学，1999）(1) voiceless bilabial unaspirated stop(2) low front vowel(3) lateral liquid(4) velar nasal(5) voiced interdental fricative答案I.1~5 ACDAA6~10 DBABBII.11~15TTTFF 16~20 TTTFFIII.21. voiced, voiceless, voiced 22. friction23. tongue 24. height25.obstruction 26. minimal pairs27.diphthongs 28. Co-articulation29.Phonemes 30.air streamIV.31. Sound assimilation: Speech sounds seldom occur in isolation.In connected speech, under the influence of their neighbors, are replaced by other sounds. Sometimes two neighboring sounds influence each other and are replaced by a third sound which is different from both original sounds. This process is called sound assimilation.32. Suprasegmental feature: The phonetic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features; these are the phonological properties of such units as the syllable, the word, and the sentence. The main suprasegmental ones includes stress, intonation, and tone. 33. Complementary distribution: The different allophones of the same phoneme never occur in the same phonetic context. When two or more allophones of one phoneme never occur in the same linguistic environment they are said to be in complementary distribution.34. Distinctive features: It refers to the features that can distinguish one phoneme from another. If we can group the phonemes into two categories: one with this feature and the other without, this feature is called a distinctive feature.V.35.Acoustic phonetics deals with the transmission of speech sounds through the air. When a speech sound is produced it causes minor air disturbances (sound waves). Various instruments are used to measure the characteristics of these sound waves.36.When the vocal cords are spread apart, the air from the lungs passes between them unimpeded. Sounds produced in this way are described as voiceless; consonants [p, s, t] are produced in this way. But when the vocalcords are drawn together, the air from the lungs repeatedly pushes them apart as it passes through, creating a vibration effect. Sounds produced in this way are described as voiced. [b, z, d] are voiced consonants.VI.37.Omit.Chapter 3 LexiconI. Choose the best answer. (20%)1. Nouns, verbs and adjectives can be classified as __________.A. lexical wordsB. grammatical wordsC. function wordsD. form words2. Morphemes that represent tense, number, gender and case are called __________ morpheme.A. inflectionalB. freeC.bound D. derivational3. There are __________ morphemes in the word denationalization.A. threeB. fourC.five D. six4. In English –ise and –tion are called __________.A. prefixesB. suffixesC.infixes D. stems5. The three subtypes of affixes are: prefix, suffix and__________.A. derivational affixB. inflectional affixC.infix D. back-formation6. __________ is a way in which new words may be formed from already existing words by subtracting an affix which is thought to be part of the old word.A. affixationB. back-formationC.insertion D. addition7. The word TB is formed in the way of __________.A. acronymyB. clippingC.initialism D. blending8. The words like comsat and sitcom are formed by __________.A. blendingB. clippingC. back-formation D. acronymy9. The stem of disagreements is __________.A. agreementB. agreeC. disagreeD. disagreement10. All of them are meaningful except for __________.A. lexemeB. phonemeC.morpheme D. allomorphII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)11. Phonetically, the stress of a compound always falls on thefirst element, while the second element receives secondary stress.12. Fore as in foretell is both a prefix and a bound morpheme.13. Base refers to the part of the word that remains when all inflectional affixes are removed.14. In most cases, prefixes change the meaning of the base whereas suffixes change the word-class of the base.15. Conversion from noun to verb is the most productive process ofa word.16. Reduplicative compound is formed by repeating the same morpheme of a word.17. The words whimper, whisper and whistle are formed in the way of onomatopoeia.18. In most cases, the number of syllables of a word corresponds to the number of morphemes.19. Back-formation is a productive way of word-formations.20. Inflection is a particular way of word-formations.III. Fill in the blanks. (20%)21. An __________ is pronounced letter by letter, while an__________ is pronounced as a word.22. Lexicon, in most cases, is synonymous with __________.23. Orthographically, compounds are written in three ways:__________, __________ and __________.24. All words may be said to contain a root __________.25. A small set of conjunctions, prepositions and pronouns belong to __________ class, while the largest part of nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs belongs to __________ class.26. __________ is a reverse process of derivation, and therefore is a process of shortening.27. __________ is extremely productive, because English had lost most of its inflectional endings by the end of Middle English period, which facilitated the use of words interchangeably as verbs or nouns, verbs or adjectives, and vice versa.28. Words are divided into simple, compound and derived words on the __________ level.29. A word formed by derivation is called a __________, and a word formed by compounding is called a __________.30. Bound morphemes are classified into two types: __________ and __________.IV. Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31. Blending32. Allomorph33. Closed-class word34. Morphological ruleV. Answer the following questions. (20%)35. How many types of morphemes are there in the English language What are they （厦门大学，2003）36. What are the main features of the English compounds？VI. Analyze the following situation. (20%)37. Match the terms under COLUMN I with the underlined forms from COLUMN II （武汉大学，2004）III(1) acronyma. foe(2) freemorpheme b. subconscious (3) derivationalmorpheme c. UNESCO(4) inflectionalmorpheme d. overwhelmed(5) prefixe. calculationKey:I.1~5 AACBB6~10 BCADBII.11~15FTFTT 16~20 FTFFFIII.21. initialism, acronym 22. vocabulary 23. solid, hyphenated, open 24. morpheme25. close,open 26. back-formation27.conversion 28. morpheme29. derivative, compound 30. affix, bound rootIV.31. Blending: It is a process of word-formation in which a new word is formed by combining the meanings and sounds of two words, one of which is not in its full form or both of which are not in their full forms, like newscast (news + broadcast), brunch (breakfast + lunch)32. Allomorph: It is any of the variant forms of a morpheme as conditioned by position or adjoining sounds.33. Close-class word: It is a word whose membership is fixed or limited. Pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, etc. are all closed-class words.34. Morphological rule: It is the rule that governs which affix can be added to what type of base to form a new word, . –ly can be added to a noun to form an adjective.V.Omit.VI.37.(1) c (2) a (3)e (4) d (5) bChapter 4 SyntaxI. Choose the best answer. (20%)1. The sentence structure is ________.A. only linearB. only hierarchicalC. complexD. both linear and hierarchical2. The syntactic rules of any language are ____ in number.A. largeB. smallC.finite D. infinite3. The ________ rules are the rules that group words and phrases to form grammatical sentences.A. lexicalB. morphologicalC. linguisticD. combinational4. A sentence is considered ____ when it does not conform to thegrammati&not;cal knowledge in the mind of native speakers.A. rightB. wrongC.grammatical D. ungrammatical5. A __________ in the embedded clause refers to the introductory wordthat introduces the embedded clause.A. coordinatorB. particleC.preposition D. subordinator6. Phrase structure rules have ____ properties.A. recursiveB. grammaticalC.social D. functional7. Phrase structure rules allow us to better understand _____________.A. how words and phrases form sentences.B. what constitutes the grammaticality of strings of wordsC. how people produce and recognize possible sentencesD. all of the above.8. The head of the phrase “the city Rome” is __________.A. the cityB. RomeC.city D. the city Rome9. The phrase “on the shelf” belongs to __________ construction.A. endocentricB. exocentricC. subordinateD. coordinate10. The sentence “They were wanted to remain quiet and not to expose themselves.” is a __________ sentence.A. simpleB. coordinateC.compound D. complexII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)11. Universally found in the grammars of all human languages, syntacticrules that comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker are known as linguistic competence.12. The syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, but there is no limit to the number of sentences native speakers of that language are ableto produce and comprehend.13. In a complex sentence, the two clauses hold unequal status, one subordinating the other.14. Constituents that can be substituted for one another without loss of grammaticality belong to the same syntactic category.15. Minor lexical categories are open because these categories are notfixed and new members are allowed for.16. In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories are commonly recognized and discussed, namely, noun phrase, verb phrase, infinitive phrase, and auxiliary phrase.17. In English the subject usually precedes the verb and the direct object usually follows the verb.18. What is actually internalized in the mind of a native speaker is a complete list of words and phrases rather than grammatical knowledge.19. A noun phrase must contain a noun, but other elements are optional.20. It is believed that phrase structure rules, with the insertion of the lexicon, generate sentences at the level of D-structure.III. Fill in the blanks. (20%)21. A __________ sentence consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence.22. A __________ is a structurally independent unit that usually comprisesa number of words to form a complete statement, question or command.23. A __________ may be a noun or a noun phrase in a sentence that usually precedes the predicate.24. The part of a sentence which comprises a finite verb or a verb phrase and which says something about the subject is grammatically called __________.25. A __________ sentence contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other.26. In the complex sentence, the incorporated or subordinate clause is normally called an __________ clause.27. Major lexical categories are __________ categories in the sense that new words are constantly added.28. __________ condition on case assignment states that a case assignor anda case recipient should stay adjacent to each other.29. __________ are syntactic options of UG that allow general principles to operate in one way or another and contribute to significant linguistic variations between and among natural languages.30. The theory of __________ condition explains the fact that noun phrases appear only in subject and object positions.IV. Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31. Syntax32. IC analysis33. Hierarchical structure34. Trace theoryV. Answer the following questions. (20%)35. What are endocentric construction and exocentric construction （武汉大学，2004）36. Distinguish the two possible meanings of “more beautiful flowers” by means of IC analysis. （北京第二外国语大学，2004）VI. Analyze the following situation. (20%)37. Draw a tree diagram according to the PS rules to show the deepstructure of the sentence:The student wrote a letter yesterday.Key:I.1~5 DCDDD 6~10 ADDBAII.11~15 TTTTF 16~20 FTFTTIII.21. simple 22. sentence23. subject 24. predicate 25. complex 26. embedded27. open 28. Adjacency29. Parameters 30. CaseIV.31. Syntax: Syntax refers to the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language, or simply, the study of the formation of sentences.32. IC analysis: Immediate constituent analysis, IC analysis for short, refers to the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents –word groups (phrases), which are in turn analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own, and the process goes on until the ultimate sake of convenience.33. Hierarchical structure: It is the sentence structure that groups words into structural constituents and shows the syntactic category of eachstructural constituent, such as NP, VP and PP.34. Trace theory: After the movement of an element in a sentence there will be a trace left in the original position. This is the notion trace in T-G grammar. It’s suggested that if we have the notion trace, all the necessary information for semantic interpretation may come from the surface structure. . The passive Dams are built by beavers. differs from the active Beavers built dams. in implying that all dams are built by beavers. If we add a trace element represented by the letter t after built in the passive as Dams are built t by beavers, then the deep structure information that the word dams was originally the object of built is also captured by the surface structure. Trace theory proves to be not only theoretically significant but also empirically valid.V.35.An endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent, or approaching equivalence, to one of its constituents, which serves as the center, or head, of the whole. A typical example is the three small children with children as its head. The exocentric construction, opposite to the first type, is defined negatively as a construction whose distribution is not functionally equivalent to any of its constituents. Prepositional phrasal like on the shelf are typical examples of this type.36.(1) more | beautiful flowers(2) more beautiful | flowersChapter 5 Meaning[Ma inly taken from lxm1000w’s exercises. – icywarmtea]I. Choose the best answer. (20%)1. The naming theory is advanced by ________.A. PlatoB. BloomfieldC. GeoffreyLeech D. Firth2. “We shall know a word by the company it keeps.” This statement represents _______.A. the conceptualistview B. contexutalismC. the namingtheory D. behaviorism3. Which of the following is NOT trueA. Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.B. Sense is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form.C. Sense is abstract and decontextualized.D. Sense is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are not interested in.4. “Can I borrow your bike”_______ “You have a bike.”A. is synonymous withB. isinconsistent withC.entails D. presupposes5. ___________ is a way in which the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features.A. Predication analysisB. Componential analysisC. Phonemic analysisD. Grammatical analysis6. “Alive” and “dead” are ______________.。

语⾔学教程第四版练习第⼀章Chapter One Introduction to LinguisticsI. Mark the choice that best completes the statement.languages’have three major components: a sound system ,a system of___and a system of semantics.A. morphologyB. lexicogrammarC. syntaxD. meaningof the following words is entirely arbitraryfunction of the sentence Water boils at 100 degrees Centigrade is ___.Chinese when someone breaks a bowl or a plate the host or the people present are likely to say 碎碎（岁岁）平安as a means of controlling the forces which they believe might affect their lives. Which function does it performof the following property of language enables language users to overcome the barriers caused by time and place of speaking (due to this feature of language, speakers of a language are free to talk about anything in any situation)A. TransferabilityB. DualityC. DisplacementD. Arbitrariness6. What language function does the following conversation play(The two chatters just met and were starting their conversation by the following dialogue.)A：A nice day, isn’t itB : Right! I really enjoy the sunlight.A. EmotiveB. PhaticC. PerformativeD. Interpersonalrefers to the a ctual realization of the ideal language user’s knowledge of the rules of his language in utterances.C. LangueD. Parolea dog is barking, you assume it is barking for something or at someone that exists here and now. It couldn’t be sorrowful for some lost love or lost bone. This indicates that dog’s language does not have the feature of --------- .A. ReferenceB. ProductivityC. Displacementanswers such questions as we as infants acquire our first language.A. PsycholinguisticsB. Anthropological linguisticsC. SociolinguisticsD. Applied linguisticsdeals with the study of dialects in different social classes in a particular region.A. Linguistic theoryB. Practical linguisticsC. SociolinguisticsD. Comparative linguisticsII. Mark the following statements with “T” if they are true or “F” if they are false.(10%)1. The widely accepted meaning of arbitrariness was discussed by Chomsky first.2. For learners of a foreign language, it is arbitrariness that is more worth noticing than its conventionality.3. Displacement benefits human beings by giving them the power to handle generalizations and abstractions.4. For Jakobson and the Prague school structuralists, the purpose of communication is to refer.5. Interpersonal function is also called ideational function in the framework of functional grammar.6. Emotive function is also discussed under the term expressive function.7. The relationship between competence and performance in Chomsky’s theory is that between a language community and an individual language user.study of the features of the English used in Shakespeare’s time is an example of the diachronic study of language. phonetics investigates the properties of the sound waves.nature of linguistics as a science determines its preoccupation with prescription instead of description.III．Fill in each of the following blanks with an appropriate word. The first letter of the word is already given(10％)1.Nowadays, two kinds of research methods co-exist in linguistic studies,namely, qualitative and q__________ research approaches.2.In any language words can be used in new ways to mean new things andcan be combined into innumerable sentences based on limited rules. This feature is usually termed as p__________.has many functions. We can use language to talk about language. This function is m__________function.claim that language originated by primitive man involuntary making vocal noises while performing heavy work has been called the y＿theory.is often said to be concerned with the organization of speech within specific language, or with the systems and patterns of sounds that occur in particular language.linguistics is d＿ in the sense that linguist tires to discover what language is rather than lay down some rules for people to observe.general principle of linguistics analysis is the primacy of s___________over writing.8.The description of a language as it changes through time is a d___________ linguistic study.9.Saussure put forward the concept l__________ to refer to the abstractlinguistic system shared by all members of a speech community.10.Linguistic potentia l is similar to Saussure’ s langue and Chomsky’ s c__________.IV. Explain the following concepts or theories.1.Design features2.Displacementpetence4.Synchronic linguisticsV. Answer the following question briefly.(10%)do people take duality as one of the important design features of human languagesCan you tell us what language would be like if it had no such design featurescan we use language to do things Please give two examples to show this point.II. Fill in each of the following blanks with (an) appropriate word(s).1. Language is ____________in that communicating by speaking or writing is a purposeful act.2. Language is_____________ and__________ in that language is a social semiotic and communication can only take place effectively if all the users share a broad understanding of human interaction.features that define our human languages can be called_____________, which include____________, _____________,______________,_____________.the opposite side of arbitrariness.fact that in the system of spoken language, we have the primary units as words and secondary units as sound shows that language has the property of___________. is resourceful because of its_____________ and its___________, which contributes to the_____________ of language.human beings by giving them the power to handle generalization and abstractions.Jakobson’s vers ion, there are six functions of language, namely, ____________, _____________, _______________,________________, ________________and metalingual function.people use language to express attitudes, feelings and emotions, people are using the _____________ function of language in Jakobson’s version. functional grammar, language has three metafunctions, namely,_____________,____________________,__________________.Halliday’s three metafunctions______________creates relevance to context.of language is primary to change the social status of persons.name five main branch of linguistics:___________________________,___________________,_________ _________,_____________________and ____________________.,we study the speech sounds produced by articulatory organs by identifying and classifying the individual sounds.,we focus on the way in which the listener analyzes or processes a sound wavethe minimal unit of meaning.study of sounds used in linguistic communication is called_______________.study of how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication is called_________________.study of the way in which symbols represent sounds in linguist communicate are arranged to form words has constituted the branch of study called_____________.study of rules which governs the combinations of words to form permissible sentences constitutes a major branch of linguistic studies that is_________________.fact that we have alliteration in poems is probably because of the__________________ function of language.III. Mark the choice that best completes the statement.1.The description of a language at some print in time is a_______________ study.A.descriptiveB. prescriptiveC. synchronicD. diachronic2. According to Chomsky, a speaker can produce and understand aninfinitely large number of sentence because_______A. he has come across all of them in his lifeB. he has internalized a set of rules about his languageC. he has acquired the ability through the act of communicating with others language3.Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole is very similar to Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance,but Saussure takes a ____________view of language and Chomsky looks at language from a__________ point of viewA. sociological, psychologicalB. psychological, sociologicalC. biological, psychologicalD. psychological, biological4.The fact that there is no intrinsic connection between the word pen and the thing we write with indicates languageis______A. arbitraryB. rule-governedC. appliedD. illogical5.We can understand and produce an infinitely large number of sentence including sentences we never heard before, because language is______A.creativeB. arbitraryC. limitlessD. resourceful6.______means language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situation of the speakerA.DualityB. DisplacementC. productivityD. Arbitrariness7.______examines how meaning is encoded in a languageB. syntaxC. SemanticD. Pragmatics8.______is concerned with the internal organization of words.B. syntaxC. SemanticD. phonology9.______refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaningB. Arbitrariness C .Replacement D. Creativity10.______of language makes it potentially creative, and______ of language makes learning a language laboriousA. Conventionality, arbitrarinessB. Arbitrariness, replacementC. Arbitrariness, conventionalityD. Conventionality, arbitrariness11.When people use language to indulge in itself for its own sake, people are using the______ function of languageB. creativeC. phaticD. metalingual12.____proposes a theory of metafunctions of language.A.Chomsky D. Halliday13.____function constructs a model of experience and constructs logical relations.B. TextualC. LogicalD. Ideational14.Interpersonal function enacts_________ relationship.A.socialB. experientialC. textualD. personal15.By_____________ function people establish and maintain their status in society.A.experientialB. referentialC. metalingualD.16.The study of the description and classification of speech sounds, words and connected speech belongs to the studyof_____.B. phoneticsC. morphologyD. syntax17.In__________ phonetics, we investigate the properties of the sound waves.B. acousticC. auditoryD. sound18.French distinguishes between nouns like GARE(station)which is feminine and nouns like TRAIN which is masculine. This shows that French is a language which____.illogical B. has grammatical genderbiological gender D. has two casespetence, in the linguistic sense of the word, is______.skill B. intuitive knowledge of languageknowledge of language skill D. communicative ability20.French has Tu (means: you) aimer a (means: will love) Jean and English has You will love Jean. This shows us that____.A. both languages are alike in expressing future timeB.Both languages have a future tense but English requires more wordsC.English is loose while French is compactD.French forms its future tense by adding a special suffix21.Knowing how to say something appropriate in a given situation and with exactly the effect you intend is a question ofthe_____A.lexisB. syntaxC. semanticsD. pragmatics22.A(n)_____is a speaker/listener who is a member of homogeneous speech community, who knows language perfectly and is not affected by memory limitations or distractions.A. perfect language userB. ideal language userC. proficient userD. native language userIV. Analyze the following with your linguistic knowledge.e the following two examples to support the idea that language is not all arbitrary.a.They married and had a baby.b.They had a baby and married.2.Examine the way the following words are separated. Comment on the way of separation in relation to Bloomfield’s idea that word is minimal unit of meaning.3., is the difference between the following two statements in terms of attitude to grammar What kind of linguistic concepts do they representa.Never put an a before an uncountable noun.b.People usually do not put an a before an uncountable noun.4.How do you understand the sentence Music is a universal language5.What are the two interpretations of the sentence They are hunting dogs What is the linguistic knowledge that enables you to distinguish the meanings of this sentenceV. Match each term in Column A with one relevant item in Column B.1. Match the linguistic items in Column A with one relevant item in Column2. Match the sentences in Column B with the language functions in Column。

Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics1. Define the following terms:design feature: the distinctive features of human language that essentially make human language distinguishable from languages of animals.function: the role language plays in communication (e.g. to express ideas, attitudes) or in particular social situations (e.g. religious, legal).synchronic: said of an approach that studies language at a theoretical ‘point’ in time.diachronic: said of the study of development of language and languages over time. prescriptive: to make authoritarian statement about the correctness of a particular use of language.descriptive: to make an objective and systematic account of the patterns and use of a language or variety.arbitrariness: the absence of any physical correspondence between linguistic signals and the entities to which they refer.duality: the structural organization of language into two abstract levels: meaningful units (e.g. words) and meaningless segments (e.g. sounds, letters).displacement: the ability of language to refer to contexts removed from the speaker’s immediate situation.phatic communion: said of talk used to establish atmosphere or maintain social contact.metalanguage: a language used for talking about language.macrolinguistics: a broad conception of linguistic enquiry, including psychological, cultural, etc.competence: unconscious knowledge of the system of grammatical rules in a language.performance: the language actually used by people in speaking or writing.langue: the language system shared by a “speech community”.parole: the concrete utterances of a speaker.2. Consult at least four introductory linguistics textbooks (not dictionaries), and copy the definitions of “language” that each gives. After carefully comparing the definitions, write a paper discussing which points recur and explaining the significance of the similarities and differences among the definitions.ANSWER:All the definitions should not exclude the description of design features that have been mentioned in this course book. Also it will be better if other design features, say, interchangeability or cultural transmission is included. But it seems impossible to give an unimpeachable definition on language, because the facets people want to emphasize are seldom unanimous. To compare several definitions can make you realize where the argument is.3. Can you think of some words in English which are onomatopoeic?ANSWERS:creak: the sound made by a badly oiled door when it opens.cuckoo: the call of cuckoo.bang: a sudden loud noise.roar: a deep loud continuing sound.buzz: a noise of buzzing.hiss: a hissing sound.neigh: the long and loud cry that a horse makes.mew: the noise that a gull makes.bleat: the sound made by a sheep, goat or calf.4. Do you think that onomatopoeia indicates a non-arbitrary relationship between form and meaning?ANSWER:4. No matter you say "Yes" or "No", you cannot deny that onomatopoeia needs arbitrariness. Before we feel a word is onomatopoeic we should first know which sound the word imitates. Just as what is said in Chapter One, in order to imitate the noise of flying mosquitoes, there are many choices like "murmurous" and "murderous". They both bear more or less resemblance to the genuine natural sound, but "murmurous" is fortunately chosen to mean the noise while "murderous" is chosen to mean something quite different. They are arbitrary as signifiers.5. A story by Robert Louis Stevenson contains the sentence “As the night fell, the wind rose.” Could this be expressed as “As the wind rose, the night fell?” If not, why? Does this indicate a degree of non-arbitrariness about word order? (Bolinger, 1981: 15)5. Yes. It is a case in point to illustrate non-arbitrariness about word order. When the two parts interchange, the focus and the meaning of the sentence is forced to change, because clauses occurring in linear sequence without time indicators will be taken as matching the actual sequence of happening. The writer’s original intention is distorted, and we can feel it effortlessly by reading. That is why systemic-functionalists and American functionalists think language is not arbitrary at the syntactic level.6. Does the traffic light system have duality? Can you explain by drawing a simple graph?6. Traffic light does not have duality. Obviously, it is not a double-level system. There is only one-to-one relationship between signs and meaning but the meaning units cannot be divided into smaller meaningless elements further. So the traffic light only has the primary level and lacks the secondary level like animals’ calls.ANSWER:Red→stopGreen→goYellow→get ready to go or stop7. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for the creativity of language. Can you write a recursive sentence following the example in section 1.3.3.ANSWER:Today I encountered an old friend who was my classmate when I was in elementary school where there was an apple orchard in which we slid to select ripe apples that…8. Communication can take many forms, such as sign, speech, body language and facial expression. Do body language and facial expression share or lack the distinctive properties of human language?ANSWER:On a whole, body language and facial expression lack most of the distinctive properties of human language such as duality, displacement, creativity and so on. Body language exhibits arbitrariness a little bit. For instance, nod means "OK/YES" for us but in Arabian world it is equal to saying "NO". Some facial expressions have non-arbitrariness because they are instinctive such as the cry and laugh of a newborn infant.9. Do you agree with the view that no language is especially simple?ANSWER:Yes. All human languages are complicated systems of communication. It is decided by their shared design features.10. What do you think of Bertrand Russell’s observation of the dog language: “No matter how eloquently a dog may bark, he cannot tell you that his parents were poor but honest”? Are you familiar with any type of ways animals communicate among themselves and with human beings? ANSWER:When gazelles sense potential danger, for example, they flee and thereby signal to other gazellesin the vicinity that danger is lurking. A dog signals its wish to be let inside the house by barking and signals the possibility that it might bite momentarily by displaying its fangs.11.Can you mention some typical expressions of phatic communion in Chinese? There is the dialog between Ms. P and Ms. Q. in section 1.5.5. When someone sneezes violently, do you say anything of the nature of phatic communion? Have you noticed your parents or grandparents say something special on such an occasion?Some of the typical phatic expressions in Chinese are: 吃了吗？家里都好吧？这是去哪里啊？最近都挺好的？ANSWER:If someone is sneezing violently, maybe you parents and grandparents may say: “Are you ok?”, “Do you need to see a doctor?”, “Do you need some water?”, “Do you need a handkerchief?”, “Do you have a cold?” or something like these to show their concerns.12．There are many expressions in language which are metalingual or self-reflexives, namely, talking about talk and think about thinking, for instance, to be honest, to make a long story short, come to think of it, on second thought, can you collect a few more to make a list of these expressions? When do we use them most often?ANSWER:To tell the truth, frankly speaking, as a matter of fact, to be precise, in other words, that is to saySuch expressions are used most frequently when we want to expatiate the meaning of former clauses in anther way in argumentation.13. Comment on the following prescriptive rules. Do you think they are acceptable?(A) It is I.(B) It is me.You should say A instead of B because “be” should be followed by the nominative case, not the accusative according to the rules in Latin.(A) Who did you speak to?(B) Whom did you speak to?You should say B instead of A.(A) I haven't done anything.(B) I haven't done nothing.B is wrong because two negatives make a positive.ANSWER:(1) the Latin rule is not universal. In English, me is informal and I is felt to be very formal.(2) Whom is used in formal speech and in writing; who is more acceptable in informal speech.(3) Language does not have to follow logic reasoning. Here two negative only make a more emphatic negative. This sentence is not acceptable in Standard English not because it is illogical, but because language changes and rejects this usage now.14. The prescriptivism in grammar rules has now shifted to prescriptions in choice of words. In the “guidelines on anti-sexist language” issued by the British sociological association, someguidelines are listed below. Do you think they are descriptive and prescriptive? What’s your comment on them?(1) Do not use man to mean humanity in general. Use person, people, human beings, men and women, humanity and humankind.(2) colored: This term is regarded as outdated in the UK and should be avoided as it is generally viewed as offensive to many black people.(3) civilized: This term can still carry racist overtones which derive from a colonialist perception of the world. It is often associated with social Darwinist thought and is full of implicit value judgments and ignorance of the history of the non-industrialized world.ANSWER:They are undoubtedly descriptive. Guidelines are not rules that can determine whether a sentence is right or not. The guidelines advise you to avoid the use of particular words that are grammatically correct but offensive to some certain groups. Actually, they describe the way anti-sexist advocators speak and write.15. Why is the distinction between competence and performance an important one in linguistics? Do you think the line can be neatly drawn between them? How do you like the concept “communicative competence”?ANSWER:This is proposed by Chomsky in his formalist linguistic theories. It is sometimes hard to draw a strict line. Some researchers in applied linguistics think communicative competence may be a more revealing concept in language teaching than the purely theoretical pair—competence and performance.16. Which branch of linguistics do you think will develop rapidly in China and why?It is up to you to decide after you have gone through the whole book. At this stage, we suggest all branches of linguistics have the potential to flourish.17. The following are some well-known ambiguous sentences in syntactic studies of language. Can you disambiguate them?The chicken is too hot to eat.Flying planes can be dangerous.ANSWER:The chicken is too hot to eat.The chicken meat is too hot, so it cannot be eaten at the moment.The chicken feels so hot (maybe after some intense aerobic exercises) that it cannot start eating and needs to calm down first.Flying planes can be dangerous.The ambiguity comes from "flying planes". It can be deciphered as "the planes that is flying" or "to fly planes".18. There are many reasons for the discrepancy between competence and performance in normal language users. Can you think of some of them?ANSWEREthnic background, socioeconomic status, region of the country, and physical state (such as intoxication, fatigue, distraction, illness) vary from individual to individual.19. What do these two quotes reveal about the different emphasis or perspectives of language studies?(1) A human language is a system of remarkable complexity. To come to know a human language would be an extraordinary intellectual achievement for a creature not specifically designed to accomplish this task. A normal child acquires this knowledge on relatively slight exposure and without specific training. He can then quite effortlessly make use of an intricate structure of specific rules and guiding principles to convey his thoughts and feelings to others, ... Thus language is a mirror of mind in a deep and significant sense. It is a product of human intelligence, created anew in each individual by operations that lie far beyond the reach of will or consciousness.(Noam Chomsky: Reflections on Language. 1975: 4)(2) It is fairly obvious that language is used to serve a variety of different needs, but until we examine its grammar there is no clear reason for classifying its uses in any particular way. However, when we examine the meaning potential of language itself, we find that the vast numbers of options embodied in it combine into a very few relatively independent “networks”; and these networks of options correspond to certain basic functions of language. This enables us to give an account of the different functions of language that is relevant to the general understanding of linguistic structure rather than to any particular psychological or sociological investigation. (M. A. K. Halliday, 1970: 142)ANSWER:The first quote shows children’s inborn ability of acquiring the knowledge of intricate structure of specific rules. It implies that the language user's underlying knowledge about the system of rules is the valuable object of study for linguists. The second attaches great importance to the functions of language. It regards the use of language as the choice of needed function. The meaning of language can be completely included by a few “networks” which is directly related to basic functions of language. It indicates the necessity to study the functions of language.20. You may be familiar with the following proverbs. How do you perceive them according to the arbitrariness and conventionality of language?The proof of the pudding is in the eating.Let sleeping dogs lie.You can’t make a silk purse out of a sow’s ear.Rome was not built in a day.When in Rome, do as the Romans do.All roads lead to Rome.ANSWER:20. Arbitrariness and conventionality derive from the choice of the subject matter. For example, in the “The proof of the pudding is in the eating.” The word “pudding” is selected arbitrarily, for we can use another word such as cheese instead of pudding without changing the associative meaning of the proverb. On the other hand, once such links between particular words and associativemeaning are fixed, it becomes a matter of conventionality.21. Give examples of situations in which a usage generally considered non-standard (e.g. ain’t) would be acceptable, even appropriate.ANSWER21. In the talks between intimate friends, one may say “gimme that!” instead of “give me that!” and “wachya doin’?” instead of “what are you doing?” and this list may go on.22. The following are some book titles of linguistics. Can you judge the diachronic and diachronic orientation just from the titles?English Examined: Two centuries of Comment on the Mother-Tongue.Protean Shape: A Study in Eighteenth-century Vocabulary and Usage.Pejorative Sense Development in English.The Categories and Types of Present-Day English Word-Formation.Language in the Inner City: Studies in the Black English Vernacular.ANSWER22. Synchronic:Protean Shape: A Study in Eighteenth-century Vocabulary and Usage.The Categories and Types of Present-Day English Word-Formation.Language in the Inner City: Studies in the Black English Vernacular.Diachronic:English Examined: Two centuries of Comment on the Mother-Tongue.Pejorative Sense Development in English。

第1章导言1.1复习笔记本章要点：1.The definition and main branches of linguistics study语言学的定义和研究的范围2.The definition and the origins of language语言的定义与起源3.The design feature and the function of language语言的特征和功能4.Some major concepts in linguistics语言学中重要的概念本章考点：1.有关语言学的常考考点(1)语言学的定义，现代语言学与传统语法学研究的区别。

(2)语言学中几组重要概念，每组两个概念的含义、区分及其意义。

(3)普通语言学的主要分支学科及各自的研究范畴。

(4)宏观语言学及应用语言学的主要分支及各自的研究范畴。

2.有关语言的常考考点(1)语言的定义；语言的基本特征(任意性、二重性、多产性、移位性、互换性、专门性和文化传递性)；(2)语言的功能(寒暄、指示、信息、疑问、表达、劝说和施为)；(3)语言的起源(叮咚说、唱歌说、哒哒说、汪汪、噗噗、哟嘿吼理论等。

)本章内容索引：I.Definition of linguisticsII.Linguistics vs.traditional grammarIII.Scope of linguistics1.Microlinguistics2.MacrolinguisticsIV.Definition of languageV.Origins of language1.Ding-Dong Theory2.Sing-Song Theory3.Pooh-Pooh Theory4.Yo-He-Ho Theory5.Ta-Ta Theory6.Bow-Wow TheoryVI.Design features of language1.Arbitrariness2.Duality3.Productivity4.Interchangeability5.Displacement6.Specialization7.Cultural transmissionVII.Functions of language1.Phatic function/communion2.Directive functionrmative function4.Interrogative function5.Expressive function6.Evocative function7.Performative functionVIII.Some major concepts in linguistics1.Descriptive and prescriptive grammar2.Synchronic and diachronic linguisticsngue and parolepetence and performance5.Syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations6.Functionalism and formalismI.Definition of linguistics(语言学的定义)【考点：名词解释】The scientific or systemic study of language,which is always guided by the-three canons ofscience:exhaustiveness,consistency and economy.语言学是对语言的科学或系统的研究。

语言学教程复习题与答案(胡壮麟版)1语言学教程复习题与答案(胡壮麟版第一章)Chapter I Introduction I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1. Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2. Linguistics studies particular language, not languages in general.3. A scientific study of language is based on what the linguist thinks.4. In the study of linguistics, hypotheses formed should be based on language facts and checked against the observed facts.5. General linguistics is generally the study of language as a whole.6. General linguistics, which relates itself to the research of other areas, studies the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study.7.7. Phonetics is different from phonology inthat the latter studies the combinations of the sounds to convey meaning in communication.8. Morphology studies how words can be formed to produce meaningful sentences.9. The study of the ways in which morphemes can be combined to form words is called morphology.10. Syntax is different from morphology in that the former not only studies the morphemes, but also the combination of morphemes into words and words into sentences.11. The study of meaning in language is known as semantics.12. Both semantics and pragmatics study meanings.13. Pragmatics is different from semantics in that pragmatics studies meaning not in isolation, but in context.14. Social changes can often bring about language changes.15. Sociolinguistics is the study of language in relation to society.16. Modern linguistics is mostly prescriptive, but sometimes descriptive.17. Modern linguistics is different from traditional grammar.18. A diachronic study of language is the description of language at some point in time.19. Modern linguistics regards the written language as primary, not the written language.20. The distinction between competence and performance was proposed by F.de Saussure.II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:21. Chomsky defines “competence”as the ideal user’s k__________ of the rules of his language.ngue refers to the a__________linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community while the parole is the concrete use of the conventions and application of the rules. 23.D_________ is one of the design features of human language which refers to the pheno广告网址n that language consists of two levels: a lower level of meaningless individual sounds and a higher level of meaningful units.24. Language is a system of a_________ vocal symbols used for human communication.25. The discipline that studies the rules governing the formation of words into permissible sentences in languages is called s________.26. Human capacity for language has a g ____ basis, but the details of language have to be taught and learned.27. P ____ refers to the realization of langue in actual use.28. Findings in linguistic studies can often be applied to the settlement of some practical problems. The study of such applications is generally known as a________ linguistics.29. Language is p___________ in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. In other words, they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences which they have never heard before.30. Linguistics is generally defined as the s ____ study of language.III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement.31. If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be ______________.A. prescriptiveB. analyticC. descriptiveD. linguistic32.Which of the following is not a design feature of human language?A. ArbitrarinessB. DisplacementC. DualityD. Meaningfulness33. Modern linguistics regards the written language as ____________.A. primaryB. correctC. secondaryD. stable34. In modern linguistics, speech is regarded as more basic than writing, because ___________. A. in linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writingB. speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.C. speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongueD. All of the above35. A historical study of language is a ____ study of language.A. synchronicB. diachronicC. prescriptiveD. comparative36.Saussure took a (n)__________ view of language, while Chomsky looks at language from a ________ point of view.A. sociological…psychologicalB. psychological…sociologicalC. applied…pragmaticD.semantic and linguistic37. According to F. de Saussure, ____ refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community. A. parole B. performance C. langue D. Language38. Language is said to be arbitrary because there is no logical connection between _________ and meanings.A. senseB. soundsC. objectsD. ideas39. Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. This feature is called_________,A. displacementB. dualityC. flexibilityD. cultural transmission40. The details of any language system is passed on from one generation to the next through ____ , rather than by instinct.A. learningB. teachingC. booksD. both A and BIV. Define the following terms:41. Linguistics 42. Phonology 43. Syntax 44. Pragmatics 45. Psycholinguistics 46. Language 47. Phonetics 48.Morphology 49.Semantics 50. Sociolinguistics 51. Applied Linguistics 52.Arbitrariness 53 Productivity 54. Displacement 55.Duality 56. Design Features 57. Competence 58 Performance 59. Langue 60 Parole V. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give examples for illustration if necessary:61. Language is generally defined as asystem of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Explain it in detail.62. What are the design features of human language? Illustrate them with examples. 63. How is modern linguistics different from traditional grammar?64. How do you understand the distinction between a synchronic study and a diachronic study?65. Why does modern linguistics regard the spoken form of language as primary, not the written?66. What are the major distinctions between langue and parole?67. How do you understand competence and performance ?68. Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole seems similar to Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance. What do you think are their major differences?69. Do you think human language is entirely arbitrary? Why?I. Decide whether each of the followingstatements is True or False:l.T 2.F 3.F 4.T 5.T 6.F 7.T 8.F 9.T 10.F 11.T 12.T 13.T 14.T 15.T 16.F 17.T 18.F 19.F 20.FII. Fill in each of the following blanks wi th one word which begins with the letter given: 21. knowledge 22. abstract 23. Duality 24. arbitrary 25. syntax 26.genetic 27. Parole 28. applied 29. productive 30. scientific (or systematic)III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that canbest complete the statement. 3l.C 32.D 33.C 34.D 35.B 36.A 37.C38.B 39.A 40.DIV. Define the following terms:41. Linguistics: Linguistics is generallydefined as the scientific study oflanguage. 42. Phonology: Thestudy of how sounds are put togetherand used in communication is calledphonology. 43. Syntax: The studyof how morphemes and words arecombined to form sentences is calledsyntax. 44.Pragmatics: The study of meaning in context of use is calledpragmatics. 45. Psycholinguistics: The study of language with reference to the workings of mind is calledpsycholinguistics. 46. Language:Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for humancommunication. 47. Phonetics:The study of sounds which are used inlinguistic communication is calledphonetics. 48. Morphology: Thestudy of the way in which morphemesare arranged to form words is called morphology. 49. Semantics: The study of meaning in language is called semantics.50. Sociolinguistics: The study of language with reference to society is called sociolinguistics.51. Applied linguistics: In a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages. In a broad sense, it refers to the application of linguistic findings to the solution of practical problems such as the recovery of speech ability.52. Arbitrariness: It is one of the design features of language. It means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds53. Productivity: Language isproductive or creative in that it makes possible the con-struction and interpretation of new signals by its users. 54. Displacement: Displacement means that language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker55. Duality: The duality nature of language means that language is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds and the other of meanings.56. Design features: Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication 57. Competence: Chomsky definescompetence as the ideal user'sknowledge of the rules of his language,58. Performance: performance is theactual realization of the knowl-edge ofthe rules in linguistic communication.59. langue : Langue refers to the abstra ct linguistic system shared by all the me mbers of a speech community; Langue i s the set of conventions and rules whic h language users all have to follow; Lan gue is relatively stable, it does not chan ge frequently 60. Parole: Parole refe rs to the realization of langue in actual use; parole is the concrete use of the c onventions and the application of the rul es; parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.V. Answer the following questions as co mprehensively as possible. Give example s for illustration if necessary:61. Language is generally defined as a s ystem of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Explain it in d etail.First of all, language is a system, b ecause elements of language are combin ed according to rules. Secondly, languag e is arbitrary because there is no intrins ic connection between form and meanin g, or between the sign and what it stan ds for. Different languages have different words for the same object in the world. This fact is a good illustration of the ar bitrary nature of language. This also exp lains the symbolic nature of language: w ords are just symbols; they are associat ed with objects, actions, ideas, etc. by c onvention . Thirdly, language is vocal be cause the primary medium is sound for all languages, no matter how well - deve loped their writing systems are. The te rm "human" in the definition indicates th at language is possessed by human bei ngs only and is very different from the communication systems of other living creatures. The term "communication" mea ns that language makes it possible for it s users to talk to each other and fulfill t heir communicative needs.62. What are the design features of hu man language? Illustrate them with exam ples. 1) Arbitrariness As mentioned ear lier, the arbitrary property of language m eans that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. For insta nce, there is no necessary relationship b etween the word elephant and the anima l it symbolizes. In addition, different sou nds are used to refer to the same object in different languages, and even within the same language, the same sound doe s not refer to the same thing. However, l anguage is not entirelyarbitrary. There ar e words which are created in the imitati on of sounds by sounds, such as crash, bang in English. Besides, some compo und words are also not entirely arbitrary.But the non-arbitrary words are quite li mited in number. The arbitrary nature of language makes it possible for languag e to have an unlimited source of expres sions. 2) Productivity Language is pro ductive or creative in that it makes poss ible the construction and interpretation o f new signals by its users. This is why t hey can produce and understand an infi nitely large number of sentences, includi ng sentences that they have never said or heard before. They can send message s which no one else has ever sent befor e. Productivity is unique to human langu age. Most animal communication system s appear to be highly restricted with res pect to the number of different signals t hat their users can send and receive. 3) Duality The duality nature of languag e means that language is a system, whi ch consists of two sets of structure, or t wo levels, one of sounds and the otherof meanings. At the lower or the basic l evel, there is the structure of sounds, w hich are meaningless, discrete, individual sounds. But the sounds of language ca n be combined according to rules into u nits of meaning such as morphemes and words, which, at the higher level, can be arranged into sentences. This duality of structure or double articulation of lang uage enables its users to talk about any thing within their knowledge. No animal communication system has duality or ev en comes near to possessing it. 4) Displ acement Displacement means that lang uage can be used to refer to things whi ch are present or not present, real or im agined matters in the past, present, or f uture, or in far-away places. In other wo rds, language can be used to refer to co ntexts removed from the immediate situa tions of the speaker. Animal calls are m ainly uttered in response to immediate changes of situation. 5) Cultural transmis sion Human beings were born with th e ability to acquire language, but the det ails of any language are not genetically transmitted or passed down by instinct. They have to be taught and learned, but animal call systems are genetically trans mitted.63. How is modern linguistics different fro m traditional grammar? Traditional g ram-mar is prescriptive; it is based on "high "(religious, literary) written lang uage. It sets grammatical rules and im poses the rules on language users. Bu t Modern linguistics is descriptive; It c ollects authentic, and mainly spoken la nguage data and then it studies and d escribes the data in an objective and scientific way.64. How do you understand the distincti on between a synchronic study and a diachronic study? The description of alanguage at some point in time is a Synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. A synchronic st udy of language describes a language as it is at some particular point in ti me, while a diachronic study of langua ge is the study of the historical devel opment of language over a period of t ime.65. Why does modern linguistics regard t he spoken form of language as primar y, not the written? First, the spoken form is prior to the writ-ten form and most writing systems are derived fro m the spoken form of language. Seco nd, the spoken form plays a greater r ole than writing in terms of the amoun t of information conveyed and it serve s a wider range of purposes Finally, t he spoken form is the medium throug h which we acquire our mother tongue.66. What are the major distinctions betwe en langue and parole? The distinction between langue, and parole was made by the famous linguist Ferdinand de Saussure early this century. Langue re fers to the abstract linguistic system s hared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the r ealization of langue in actual use. Lan gue is the set of conventions and rule s which language users all have to fol low while parole is the concrete use o f the conventions and the application of the rules. Langue is abstract; it is not the language people actually use, but parole is concrete; it refers to the naturally occurring language events. L angue is relatively stable; it does not change frequently; while parole varies from person to person, and from situa tion to situation.67. How do you understand competence and performance? American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s propos ed the distinction between competence and performance. Chomsky defines c ompetence as the ideal user’s knowle dge of the rules of his language. This internalized set of rules enables the l anguage user to produce and understa nd an infinitely large number of sente nces and recognize sentences that are ungrammatical and ambiguous. Accor ding to Chomsky, performance is the a ctual realization of this knowledge in li nguistic communication. Although the speaker’s knowledge of his mother to ngue is perfect, his performances may have mistakes because of social and psychological factors such as stress, e mbarrassment, etc.. Chomsky believes that what linguists should study is the competence, which is systematic, notthe performance, which is too haphaz ard.68. Saussure’s distinction between langueand parole seems similar to Chomsk y’s distinction between competence a nd performance. What do you think ar e their major differences? Although S aussure’s distinction and Chomsky’s are very similar, they differ at least in that Saussure took a sociological vie w of language and his notion of langu e is a mater of social conventions, an d Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of vies and to him, competence is a property of the mind of each individual.69. Do you think human language is entir ely arbitrary? Why? Language is arb itrary in nature, it is not entirely arbitr ary, because there are a limited numb er of words whose connections betwe en forms and meanings can be logically explained to a certain extent, for ex ample, the onomatopoeia, words which are coined on the basis of imitation o f sounds by sounds such as bang, cr ash,etc.. Take compounds for another example. The two elements “photo”and “copy”in “photocopy”are non -motivated, but the compound is not a rbitrary.语言学教程复习题与答案(胡壮麟版第二章) Chapter 2：PhonologyI. Decide whether each of the followingstatements is True or False:1. Voicing is a phonological feature thatdistinguishes meaning in both Chine se and English.2. If two phonetically similar sounds occur in the same environments and t hey distinguish meaning, they are said to be in complementary distribution.3. A phone is a phonetic unit that distinguishes meaning.4. English is a tone language while Chinese is not.5. In linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing.6. In everyday communication, speechplays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.7. Articulatory phonetics tries to describe the physical properties of the stream of sounds which a speaker issueswith the help of a machine called spectrograph.8. The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three impo rtant areas: the throat, the mouth and the chest.9. Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds calledvoicing.10. English consonants can be classifiedin terms of place of articulation andthe part of the tongue that is raisedthe highest.11. According to the manner of articulation, some of the types into which theconsonants can be classified are stops, fricatives, bilabial and alveolar.12. Vowel sounds can be differentiated by a number of factors: the position of tongue in the mouth, the opennessof the mouth, the shape of the lips,and the length of the vowels.13. According to the shape of the lips, vowels can be classified into close vo wels, semi-close vowels, semi-open v owels and open vowels.14. Any sound produced by a human being is a phoneme.15. Phones are the sounds that can distinguish meaning.16. Phonology is concerned with how the sounds can be classified into different categories.17. A basic way to determine the phonemes of a language is to see if substituting one sound for another resultsin a change of meaning.18. When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the sameplace in the strings, the two wordsare said to form a phonemic contrast.19. The rules governing the phonological patterning are language specific.20. Distinctive features of sound segments can be found running over a sequence of two or more phonemic segments.II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the lettergiven:21. A ____ refers to a strong puff of airstream in the production of speech s ounds.22. A ____ phonetics describes the wayour speech organs work to produce t he speech sounds and how they differ.23. The four sounds /p/,/b/,/m/ and /w/ have one feature in common, i.e, theyare all b_______ sounds.24. Of all the speech organs, the t ____is the most flexible, and is responsib le for varieties of articulation than an y other.25. English consonants can be classifiedin terms of manner of articulation or in terms of p____ of articulation.26. When the obstruction created by thespeech organs is total or complete, t he speech sound produced with theobstruction audibly released and theair passing out again is called a s________. <![endif]>27. S_________ features are the phonemic features that occur above the levelof the segments. They include stress, tone, intonation, etc.28. The rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular languageare called s ____ rules.29. The transcription of speech soundswith letter-symbols only is called bro ad transcription while the transcriptio n with letter-symbols together with the diacritics is called n_________ transcription.30. When pitch, stress and sound lengthare tied to the sentence rather thanthe word in isolation, they are collectively known as i_________.31. P______ is a discipline which studiesthe system of sounds of a particular language and how sounds are combined into meaningful units to effectlinguistic communication.32. The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important cavities: the pharyngeal cavity, the o_______ cavity and the nasal cavity.33. T____ are pitch variations, which arecaused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords and which can distinguish meaning just like phonemes. <![endif]>34. Depending on the context in which stress is considered, there are two kinds of stress: word stress and s_________ stressIII. There are four choices following each of the statements below. Mark the cho ice that can best complete the stateme nt.35. Of all the speech organs, the _______ is/ are the most flexible. A. mouth B. lips C. tongue D. vocal cords36. The sounds produced without the vocal cords vibrating are ____ sounds.A. voicelessB. voicedC. vowel D. consonantal37. __________ is a voiced alveolar stop.A. /z/B. /d/C. /k/D./b/38. The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying”a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones ____________. A. identical B. same C. exactly alike D. similar39. Since /p/ and /b/ are phonetically similar, occur in the same environmentsand they can distinguish meaning, they are said to be ___________.A. in phonemic contrastB. in complementary distributionC. the allophonesD. minimal pair40. The sound /f/ is _________________.A. voiced palatal affricateB.voiced alveolar stopC. voiceless velar fricativeD. voiceless labiodental fricative41. A ____ vowel is one that is produced with the front part of the tongue maintaining the highest position. A. back B. central C. front D. mid dle42. Distinctive features can be found running over a sequence of two or more phonemic segments. The phonemicfeatures that occur above the levelof the segments are called _________ ___. A. phonetic components B. immediate constituents C. suprasegmen tal features D. semantic features43. A(n) ___________ is a unit that is ofdistinctive value. It is an abstract unit, a collection of distinctive phonetic features. A. phone B. soundC. allophoneD. phoneme44. The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phoneticenvironments are called the ____ ofthat phoneme. A. phones B. sounds C. phonemes D. allophones <![endif]>IV. Define the terms below:45. phonology 46. phoneme 47.allophone 48. international phonetic alphabet 49. intonation 50. phonetics 51. auditory phonetics52. acoustic phonetics 53. phone 54. phonemic contrast 55. tone 56. minimal pairV. Answer the following questions as com prehensively as possible. Give ex-ampl es for illustration if necessary:57. Of the two media of language, why do you think speech is more basic than writing?58. What are the criteria that a linguist uses in classifying vowels?59. What are the major differences between phonology and phonetics?60. Illustrate with examples how suprasegmental features can affect meaning.61. In what way can we determine whether a phone is a phoneme or not?I. Decide whether each of the followingstatements is True or False:l.T 2.F 3.F 4.F 5.T 6.T 7.F 8.F 9.T 10.F 11.F 12.T 13.F 14.F15.F 16. F 17. T 18. F 19. T 20.TII. Fill in each of the following blanks w ith one word which begins with the letter given:21. Aspiration 22.Articulatory 23. bilabial 24. tongue 25. place 26. stop 27. Suprasegmental 28. sequential 29.narrow 30. intonation 31. Phonology 32. oral 33. Tone 34. sentenceIII. There are four choices following each of the statements below. Mark thechoice that can best complete the statement:35.C 36.A 37.B 38.D 39.A 40.D 41.C 42.C 43.D 44.DIV. Define the terms below:45.phonology: Phonology studies the system of sounds of a particular language;it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey m eaning in linguistic communication.46. phoneme: The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme; it is a unit ofdistinctive value. But it is an abstractunit. To be exact, a phoneme is nota sound; it is a collection of distinctive phonetic features.47. allophone: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called t he allophones of that phoneme.48. international phonetic alphabet: It isa standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription.49. intonation: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentencerather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation.50.。

语言学教程复习题与答案(胡壮麟版)1语言学教程复习题与答案(胡壮麟版第一章)Chapter I Introduction I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1. Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2. Linguistics studies particular language, not languages in general.3. A scientific study of language is based on what the linguist thinks.4. In the study of linguistics, hypotheses formed should be based on language facts and checked against the observed facts.5. General linguistics is generally the study of language as a whole.6. General linguistics, which relates itself to the research of other areas, studies the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study.7.7. Phonetics is different from phonology inthat the latter studies the combinations of the sounds to convey meaning in communication.8. Morphology studies how words can be formed to produce meaningful sentences.9. The study of the ways in which morphemes can be combined to form words is called morphology.10. Syntax is different from morphology in that the former not only studies the morphemes, but also the combination of morphemes into words and words into sentences.11. The study of meaning in language is known as semantics.12. Both semantics and pragmatics study meanings.13. Pragmatics is different from semantics in that pragmatics studies meaning not in isolation, but in context.14. Social changes can often bring about language changes.15. Sociolinguistics is the study of language in relation to society.16. Modern linguistics is mostly prescriptive, but sometimes descriptive.17. Modern linguistics is different from traditional grammar.18. A diachronic study of language is the description of language at some point in time.19. Modern linguistics regards the written language as primary, not the written language.20. The distinction between competence and performance was proposed by F.de Saussure.II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:21. Chomsky defines “competence”as the ideal user’s k__________ of the rules of his language.ngue refers to the a__________linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community while the parole is the concrete use of the conventions and application of the rules. 23.D_________ is one of the design features of human language which refers to the pheno广告网址n that language consists of two levels: a lower level of meaningless individual sounds and a higher level of meaningful units.24. Language is a system of a_________ vocal symbols used for human communication.25. The discipline that studies the rules governing the formation of words into permissible sentences in languages is called s________.26. Human capacity for language has a g ____ basis, but the details of language have to be taught and learned.27. P ____ refers to the realization of langue in actual use.28. Findings in linguistic studies can often be applied to the settlement of some practical problems. The study of such applications is generally known as a________ linguistics.29. Language is p___________ in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. In other words, they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences which they have never heard before.30. Linguistics is generally defined as the s ____ study of language.III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement.31. If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be ______________.A. prescriptiveB. analyticC. descriptiveD. linguistic32.Which of the following is not a design feature of human language?A. ArbitrarinessB. DisplacementC. DualityD. Meaningfulness33. Modern linguistics regards the written language as ____________.A. primaryB. correctC. secondaryD. stable34. In modern linguistics, speech is regarded as more basic than writing, because ___________. A. in linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writingB. speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.C. speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongueD. All of the above35. A historical study of language is a ____ study of language.A. synchronicB. diachronicC. prescriptiveD. comparative36.Saussure took a (n)__________ view of language, while Chomsky looks at language from a ________ point of view.A. sociological…psychologicalB. psychological…sociologicalC. applied…pragmaticD.semantic and linguistic37. According to F. de Saussure, ____ refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community. A. parole B. performance C. langue D. Language38. Language is said to be arbitrary because there is no logical connection between _________ and meanings.A. senseB. soundsC. objectsD. ideas39. Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. This feature is called_________,A. displacementB. dualityC. flexibilityD. cultural transmission40. The details of any language system is passed on from one generation to the next through ____ , rather than by instinct.A. learningB. teachingC. booksD. both A and BIV. Define the following terms:41. Linguistics 42. Phonology 43. Syntax 44. Pragmatics 45. Psycholinguistics 46. Language 47. Phonetics 48.Morphology 49.Semantics 50. Sociolinguistics 51. Applied Linguistics 52.Arbitrariness 53 Productivity 54. Displacement 55.Duality 56. Design Features 57. Competence 58 Performance 59. Langue 60 Parole V. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give examples for illustration if necessary:61. Language is generally defined as asystem of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Explain it in detail.62. What are the design features of human language? Illustrate them with examples. 63. How is modern linguistics different from traditional grammar?64. How do you understand the distinction between a synchronic study and a diachronic study?65. Why does modern linguistics regard the spoken form of language as primary, not the written?66. What are the major distinctions between langue and parole?67. How do you understand competence and performance ?68. Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole seems similar to Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance. What do you think are their major differences?69. Do you think human language is entirely arbitrary? Why?I. Decide whether each of the followingstatements is True or False:l.T 2.F 3.F 4.T 5.T 6.F 7.T 8.F 9.T 10.F 11.T 12.T 13.T 14.T 15.T 16.F 17.T 18.F 19.F 20.FII. Fill in each of the following blanks wi th one word which begins with the letter given: 21. knowledge 22. abstract 23. Duality 24. arbitrary 25. syntax 26.genetic 27. Parole 28. applied 29. productive 30. scientific (or systematic)III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that canbest complete the statement. 3l.C 32.D 33.C 34.D 35.B 36.A 37.C38.B 39.A 40.DIV. Define the following terms:41. Linguistics: Linguistics is generallydefined as the scientific study oflanguage. 42. Phonology: Thestudy of how sounds are put togetherand used in communication is calledphonology. 43. Syntax: The studyof how morphemes and words arecombined to form sentences is calledsyntax. 44.Pragmatics: The study of meaning in context of use is calledpragmatics. 45. Psycholinguistics: The study of language with reference to the workings of mind is calledpsycholinguistics. 46. Language:Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for humancommunication. 47. Phonetics:The study of sounds which are used inlinguistic communication is calledphonetics. 48. Morphology: Thestudy of the way in which morphemesare arranged to form words is called morphology. 49. Semantics: The study of meaning in language is called semantics.50. Sociolinguistics: The study of language with reference to society is called sociolinguistics.51. Applied linguistics: In a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages. In a broad sense, it refers to the application of linguistic findings to the solution of practical problems such as the recovery of speech ability.52. Arbitrariness: It is one of the design features of language. It means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds53. Productivity: Language isproductive or creative in that it makes possible the con-struction and interpretation of new signals by its users. 54. Displacement: Displacement means that language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker55. Duality: The duality nature of language means that language is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds and the other of meanings.56. Design features: Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication 57. Competence: Chomsky definescompetence as the ideal user'sknowledge of the rules of his language,58. Performance: performance is theactual realization of the knowl-edge ofthe rules in linguistic communication.59. langue : Langue refers to the abstra ct linguistic system shared by all the me mbers of a speech community; Langue i s the set of conventions and rules whic h language users all have to follow; Lan gue is relatively stable, it does not chan ge frequently 60. Parole: Parole refe rs to the realization of langue in actual use; parole is the concrete use of the c onventions and the application of the rul es; parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.V. Answer the following questions as co mprehensively as possible. Give example s for illustration if necessary:61. Language is generally defined as a s ystem of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Explain it in d etail.First of all, language is a system, b ecause elements of language are combin ed according to rules. Secondly, languag e is arbitrary because there is no intrins ic connection between form and meanin g, or between the sign and what it stan ds for. Different languages have different words for the same object in the world. This fact is a good illustration of the ar bitrary nature of language. This also exp lains the symbolic nature of language: w ords are just symbols; they are associat ed with objects, actions, ideas, etc. by c onvention . Thirdly, language is vocal be cause the primary medium is sound for all languages, no matter how well - deve loped their writing systems are. The te rm "human" in the definition indicates th at language is possessed by human bei ngs only and is very different from the communication systems of other living creatures. The term "communication" mea ns that language makes it possible for it s users to talk to each other and fulfill t heir communicative needs.62. What are the design features of hu man language? Illustrate them with exam ples. 1) Arbitrariness As mentioned ear lier, the arbitrary property of language m eans that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. For insta nce, there is no necessary relationship b etween the word elephant and the anima l it symbolizes. In addition, different sou nds are used to refer to the same object in different languages, and even within the same language, the same sound doe s not refer to the same thing. However, l anguage is not entirelyarbitrary. There ar e words which are created in the imitati on of sounds by sounds, such as crash, bang in English. Besides, some compo und words are also not entirely arbitrary.But the non-arbitrary words are quite li mited in number. The arbitrary nature of language makes it possible for languag e to have an unlimited source of expres sions. 2) Productivity Language is pro ductive or creative in that it makes poss ible the construction and interpretation o f new signals by its users. This is why t hey can produce and understand an infi nitely large number of sentences, includi ng sentences that they have never said or heard before. They can send message s which no one else has ever sent befor e. Productivity is unique to human langu age. Most animal communication system s appear to be highly restricted with res pect to the number of different signals t hat their users can send and receive. 3) Duality The duality nature of languag e means that language is a system, whi ch consists of two sets of structure, or t wo levels, one of sounds and the otherof meanings. At the lower or the basic l evel, there is the structure of sounds, w hich are meaningless, discrete, individual sounds. But the sounds of language ca n be combined according to rules into u nits of meaning such as morphemes and words, which, at the higher level, can be arranged into sentences. This duality of structure or double articulation of lang uage enables its users to talk about any thing within their knowledge. No animal communication system has duality or ev en comes near to possessing it. 4) Displ acement Displacement means that lang uage can be used to refer to things whi ch are present or not present, real or im agined matters in the past, present, or f uture, or in far-away places. In other wo rds, language can be used to refer to co ntexts removed from the immediate situa tions of the speaker. Animal calls are m ainly uttered in response to immediate changes of situation. 5) Cultural transmis sion Human beings were born with th e ability to acquire language, but the det ails of any language are not genetically transmitted or passed down by instinct. They have to be taught and learned, but animal call systems are genetically trans mitted.63. How is modern linguistics different fro m traditional grammar? Traditional g ram-mar is prescriptive; it is based on "high "(religious, literary) written lang uage. It sets grammatical rules and im poses the rules on language users. Bu t Modern linguistics is descriptive; It c ollects authentic, and mainly spoken la nguage data and then it studies and d escribes the data in an objective and scientific way.64. How do you understand the distincti on between a synchronic study and a diachronic study? The description of alanguage at some point in time is a Synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. A synchronic st udy of language describes a language as it is at some particular point in ti me, while a diachronic study of langua ge is the study of the historical devel opment of language over a period of t ime.65. Why does modern linguistics regard t he spoken form of language as primar y, not the written? First, the spoken form is prior to the writ-ten form and most writing systems are derived fro m the spoken form of language. Seco nd, the spoken form plays a greater r ole than writing in terms of the amoun t of information conveyed and it serve s a wider range of purposes Finally, t he spoken form is the medium throug h which we acquire our mother tongue.66. What are the major distinctions betwe en langue and parole? The distinction between langue, and parole was made by the famous linguist Ferdinand de Saussure early this century. Langue re fers to the abstract linguistic system s hared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the r ealization of langue in actual use. Lan gue is the set of conventions and rule s which language users all have to fol low while parole is the concrete use o f the conventions and the application of the rules. Langue is abstract; it is not the language people actually use, but parole is concrete; it refers to the naturally occurring language events. L angue is relatively stable; it does not change frequently; while parole varies from person to person, and from situa tion to situation.67. How do you understand competence and performance? American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s propos ed the distinction between competence and performance. Chomsky defines c ompetence as the ideal user’s knowle dge of the rules of his language. This internalized set of rules enables the l anguage user to produce and understa nd an infinitely large number of sente nces and recognize sentences that are ungrammatical and ambiguous. Accor ding to Chomsky, performance is the a ctual realization of this knowledge in li nguistic communication. Although the speaker’s knowledge of his mother to ngue is perfect, his performances may have mistakes because of social and psychological factors such as stress, e mbarrassment, etc.. Chomsky believes that what linguists should study is the competence, which is systematic, notthe performance, which is too haphaz ard.68. Saussure’s distinction between langueand parole seems similar to Chomsk y’s distinction between competence a nd performance. What do you think ar e their major differences? Although S aussure’s distinction and Chomsky’s are very similar, they differ at least in that Saussure took a sociological vie w of language and his notion of langu e is a mater of social conventions, an d Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of vies and to him, competence is a property of the mind of each individual.69. Do you think human language is entir ely arbitrary? Why? Language is arb itrary in nature, it is not entirely arbitr ary, because there are a limited numb er of words whose connections betwe en forms and meanings can be logically explained to a certain extent, for ex ample, the onomatopoeia, words which are coined on the basis of imitation o f sounds by sounds such as bang, cr ash,etc.. Take compounds for another example. The two elements “photo”and “copy”in “photocopy”are non -motivated, but the compound is not a rbitrary.语言学教程复习题与答案(胡壮麟版第二章) Chapter 2：PhonologyI. Decide whether each of the followingstatements is True or False:1. Voicing is a phonological feature thatdistinguishes meaning in both Chine se and English.2. If two phonetically similar sounds occur in the same environments and t hey distinguish meaning, they are said to be in complementary distribution.3. A phone is a phonetic unit that distinguishes meaning.4. English is a tone language while Chinese is not.5. In linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing.6. In everyday communication, speechplays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.7. Articulatory phonetics tries to describe the physical properties of the stream of sounds which a speaker issueswith the help of a machine called spectrograph.8. The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three impo rtant areas: the throat, the mouth and the chest.9. Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds calledvoicing.10. English consonants can be classifiedin terms of place of articulation andthe part of the tongue that is raisedthe highest.11. According to the manner of articulation, some of the types into which theconsonants can be classified are stops, fricatives, bilabial and alveolar.12. Vowel sounds can be differentiated by a number of factors: the position of tongue in the mouth, the opennessof the mouth, the shape of the lips,and the length of the vowels.13. According to the shape of the lips, vowels can be classified into close vo wels, semi-close vowels, semi-open v owels and open vowels.14. Any sound produced by a human being is a phoneme.15. Phones are the sounds that can distinguish meaning.16. Phonology is concerned with how the sounds can be classified into different categories.17. A basic way to determine the phonemes of a language is to see if substituting one sound for another resultsin a change of meaning.18. When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the sameplace in the strings, the two wordsare said to form a phonemic contrast.19. The rules governing the phonological patterning are language specific.20. Distinctive features of sound segments can be found running over a sequence of two or more phonemic segments.II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the lettergiven:21. A ____ refers to a strong puff of airstream in the production of speech s ounds.22. A ____ phonetics describes the wayour speech organs work to produce t he speech sounds and how they differ.23. The four sounds /p/,/b/,/m/ and /w/ have one feature in common, i.e, theyare all b_______ sounds.24. Of all the speech organs, the t ____is the most flexible, and is responsib le for varieties of articulation than an y other.25. English consonants can be classifiedin terms of manner of articulation or in terms of p____ of articulation.26. When the obstruction created by thespeech organs is total or complete, t he speech sound produced with theobstruction audibly released and theair passing out again is called a s________. <![endif]>27. S_________ features are the phonemic features that occur above the levelof the segments. They include stress, tone, intonation, etc.28. The rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular languageare called s ____ rules.29. The transcription of speech soundswith letter-symbols only is called bro ad transcription while the transcriptio n with letter-symbols together with the diacritics is called n_________ transcription.30. When pitch, stress and sound lengthare tied to the sentence rather thanthe word in isolation, they are collectively known as i_________.31. P______ is a discipline which studiesthe system of sounds of a particular language and how sounds are combined into meaningful units to effectlinguistic communication.32. The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important cavities: the pharyngeal cavity, the o_______ cavity and the nasal cavity.33. T____ are pitch variations, which arecaused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords and which can distinguish meaning just like phonemes. <![endif]>34. Depending on the context in which stress is considered, there are two kinds of stress: word stress and s_________ stressIII. There are four choices following each of the statements below. Mark the cho ice that can best complete the stateme nt.35. Of all the speech organs, the _______ is/ are the most flexible. A. mouth B. lips C. tongue D. vocal cords36. The sounds produced without the vocal cords vibrating are ____ sounds.A. voicelessB. voicedC. vowel D. consonantal37. __________ is a voiced alveolar stop.A. /z/B. /d/C. /k/D./b/38. The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying”a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones ____________. A. identical B. same C. exactly alike D. similar39. Since /p/ and /b/ are phonetically similar, occur in the same environmentsand they can distinguish meaning, they are said to be ___________.A. in phonemic contrastB. in complementary distributionC. the allophonesD. minimal pair40. The sound /f/ is _________________.A. voiced palatal affricateB.voiced alveolar stopC. voiceless velar fricativeD. voiceless labiodental fricative41. A ____ vowel is one that is produced with the front part of the tongue maintaining the highest position. A. back B. central C. front D. mid dle42. Distinctive features can be found running over a sequence of two or more phonemic segments. The phonemicfeatures that occur above the levelof the segments are called _________ ___. A. phonetic components B. immediate constituents C. suprasegmen tal features D. semantic features43. A(n) ___________ is a unit that is ofdistinctive value. It is an abstract unit, a collection of distinctive phonetic features. A. phone B. soundC. allophoneD. phoneme44. The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phoneticenvironments are called the ____ ofthat phoneme. A. phones B. sounds C. phonemes D. allophones <![endif]>IV. Define the terms below:45. phonology 46. phoneme 47.allophone 48. international phonetic alphabet 49. intonation 50. phonetics 51. auditory phonetics52. acoustic phonetics 53. phone 54. phonemic contrast 55. tone 56. minimal pairV. Answer the following questions as com prehensively as possible. Give ex-ampl es for illustration if necessary:57. Of the two media of language, why do you think speech is more basic than writing?58. What are the criteria that a linguist uses in classifying vowels?59. What are the major differences between phonology and phonetics?60. Illustrate with examples how suprasegmental features can affect meaning.61. In what way can we determine whether a phone is a phoneme or not?I. Decide whether each of the followingstatements is True or False:l.T 2.F 3.F 4.F 5.T 6.T 7.F 8.F 9.T 10.F 11.F 12.T 13.F 14.F15.F 16. F 17. T 18. F 19. T 20.TII. Fill in each of the following blanks w ith one word which begins with the letter given:21. Aspiration 22.Articulatory 23. bilabial 24. tongue 25. place 26. stop 27. Suprasegmental 28. sequential 29.narrow 30. intonation 31. Phonology 32. oral 33. Tone 34. sentenceIII. There are four choices following each of the statements below. Mark thechoice that can best complete the statement:35.C 36.A 37.B 38.D 39.A 40.D 41.C 42.C 43.D 44.DIV. Define the terms below:45.phonology: Phonology studies the system of sounds of a particular language;it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey m eaning in linguistic communication.46. phoneme: The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme; it is a unit ofdistinctive value. But it is an abstractunit. To be exact, a phoneme is nota sound; it is a collection of distinctive phonetic features.47. allophone: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called t he allophones of that phoneme.48. international phonetic alphabet: It isa standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription.49. intonation: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentencerather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation.50.。

《新编简明英语语言学教程》第二版第1-3章练习题参考答案Chapter 1IntroductionP131. How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study of language？答：Linguistics is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure. In order to discover the nature and rules of the underlying language system, the linguists has to collect and observe language facts first, which are found to display some similarities, and generalizations are made about them; then he formulates some hypothesesabout the language structure. The hypothesesthus formed have to be checked repeatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity. In linguistics, as in any other discipline, data and theory stand in a dialectical complementation, that is, a theory without the support of data can hardly claim validity, and data without being explained by some theory remain a muddled mass of things.2. What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study?答： The major branches of linguistics are:(1)phonetics: it studies the sounds used in linguistic communication;(2)phonology: it studies how sounds are puttogether and used to convey meaning incommunication;(3)morphology: it studies the way in whichlinguistic symbols representing soundsarearranged and combined to form words; (4)syntax: it studies the rules which govern howwords are combined to formgrammatically permissible sentences inlanguages;(5)semantics: it studies meaning conveyed by language;(6) pragmatics: it studies the meaning in the context of language use.3. In what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar?答：The general approachthus traditionally formed to the study of language over the years is roughly referred to as “t raditional gramma r.” Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar in several basic ways.Firstly, linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.Second, modem linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. Traditional grammarians, on the other hand, tended to emphasize, maybe over-emphasize, the importance of the written word, partlybecause of its permanence.Then, modem linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based framework.4. Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? Why?答：In modem linguistics, a synchronic approach seems to enjoy priority over a diachronic one. Because people believed that unless the various states of a language in different historical periods are successfully studied, it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.5. For what reasons does modern linguistics give priority to speech rather than to writing?答：Speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication. Modem linguistics regards the spoken language as the natural or the primary medium of human language for some obvious reasons. From the point of view oflinguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented” by its users to record speech when the need arises. Even in today's world there are still many languages that can only be spoken but not written. Then in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed. And also, speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, and writingis learned and taught later when he goes to school. For modern linguists, spoken language reveals many true features of human speech while written language is only the “revised” record of speech. Thus their data for investigation and analysis are mostly drawn from everyday speech, which they regard as authentic.6. How is Saussure's distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky's distinction between competence and performance?答：Saussure's distinction and Chomsky's are verysimilar, they differ at least in that Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.7. What characteristics of language do you think should be included in a good, comprehensive definition of language?答：First of all, language is a system, i.e., elements of language are combined according to rules.Second, language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for. Third, language is vocal because the primary medium for all languages is sound.Fourth, language is human-specific, i. e., it is very different from the communication systems other forms of life possess.8. What are the main features of human language that have been specified by C. Hockett to show that it is essentially differentfrom animal communication system?（2．2语言的识别性特征）美国语言学家 C. Hockett提出了人类语言的 12种识别性特征，其中最重要的识别性特种有5种：即语言的任意性、创造性、二重性、移位性和文化传递性。

语言学教程复习题与答案(胡壮麟版第一章)Chapter I IntroductionI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1.Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.Linguistics studies particular language, not languages in general.3. A scientific study of language is based on what the linguist thinks.4.In the study of linguistics, hypotheses formed should be based on language facts andchecked against the observed facts.5.General linguistics is generally the study of language as a whole.6.General linguistics, which relates itself to the research of other areas, studies the basicconcepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study. 7.7.Phonetics is different from phonology in that the latter studies the combinations of thesounds to convey meaning in communication.8.Morphology studies how words can be formed to produce meaningful sentences.9.The study of the ways in which morphemes can be combined to form words is calledmorphology.10.Syntax is different from morphology in that the former not only studies the morphemes,but also the combination of morphemes into words and words into sentences.11.The study of meaning in language is known as semantics.12.Both semantics and pragmatics study meanings.13.Pragmatics is different from semantics in that pragmatics studies meaning not in isolation,but in context.14.Social changes can often bring about language changes.15.Sociolinguistics is the study of language in relation to society.16.Modern linguistics is mostly prescriptive, but sometimes descriptive.17.Modern linguistics is different from traditional grammar.18.A diachronic study of language is the description of language at some point in time.19.Modern linguistics regards the written language as primary, not the written language.20.The distinction between competence and performance was proposed by Saussure.II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:21.Chomsky defines “competence”as the ideal user’s k__________ of the rules of his language.refers to the a__________ linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community while the parole is the concrete use of the conventions and application of the rules.is one of the design features of human language which refers to the pheno广告网址n that language consists of two levels: a lower level of meaningless individual sounds and a higher level of meaningful units.24. Language is a system of a_________ vocal symbols used for human communication.25. The discipline that studies the rules governing the formation of words into permissible sentences in languages is called s________.26. Human capacity for language has a g ____ basis, but the details of language have to be taught and learned.27. P ____ refers to the realization of langue in actual use.28. Findings in linguistic studies can often be applied to the settlement of some practical problems. The study of such applications is generally known as a________ linguistics.29. Language is p___________ in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. In other words, they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences which they have never heard before.30. Linguistics is generally defined as the s ____ study of language.III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement.31. If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be ______________.A. prescriptiveB. analyticC. descriptiveD. linguistic of the following is not a design feature of human languageA. ArbitrarinessB. DisplacementC. DualityD. Meaningfulness33. Modern linguistics regards the written language as ____________.A. primaryB. correctC. secondaryD. stable34. In modern linguistics, speech is regarded as more basic than writing, because ___________.A.in linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writingB.speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.C.speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongueD.All of the above35. A historical study of language is a ____ study of language.A. synchronicB. diachronicC. prescriptiveD. comparativetook a (n)__________ view of language, while Chomsky looks at language from a ________ point of view.A. sociological…psychologicalB. psychological…sociologicalC. applied…pragmatic and linguistic37. According to F. de Saussure, ____ refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.A. paroleB. performanceC. langueD. Language38. Language is said to be arbitrary because there is no logical connection between _________ and meanings.A. senseB. soundsC. objectsD. ideas39. Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. This feature is called_________,A. displacementB. dualityC. flexibilityD. cultural transmission40. The details of any language system is passed on from one generation to the next through ____ , rather than by instinct.A. learningB. teachingC. booksD. both A and BIV. Define the following terms:41. Linguistics42. Phonology43. Syntax44. Pragmatics 45. Psycholinguistics46. Language47. Phonetics48. Morphology 50. Sociolinguistics51. Applied Linguistics 53 Productivity54. Displacement56. Design Features 57. Competence 58 Performance 59. Langue60 ParoleV. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give examplesfor illustration if necessary:61. Language is generally defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Explain it in detail.62. What are the design features of human language Illustrate them with examples.63. How is modern linguistics different from traditional grammar64. How do you understand the distinction between a synchronic study and a diachronic study65. Why does modern linguistics regard the spoken form of language as primary, not the written66. What are the major distinctions between langue and parole67. How do you understand competence and performance68. Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole seems similar to Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance. What do you think are their major differences69. Do you think human language is entirely arbitrary WhyI.Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter gi ven: 21. knowledge22. abstract23. Duality24. arbitrary 25. syntax 27. Parole28. applie d29. productive 30. scientific (or systematic)III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best c omplete the statement.IV. Define the following terms: 41.Linguistics: Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. 42.Phonology: The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology. 43.Syntax: The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax. : The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics. 45.Psycholinguistics: The study of language with reference to the workings of mind is called psycholinguistics. nguage: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 47.Phonetics: The study of sounds which are used in linguistic communication is called phonetics.48.Morphology: The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words is called morphology. 49.Semantics: The study of meaning in language is called semantics. 50.Sociolinguistics: The study of language with reference to society is called sociolinguistics. 51.Applied linguistics: In a narrow sense, applied linguisticsrefers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages. In a broad sense, it refers to the application of linguistic findings to the solution of practical problems such as the recovery of speech ability. 52.Arbitrariness: It is one of the design features of language. It means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds 53.Productivity: Language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the con-struction and interpretation of new signals by its users. 54.Displacement: Displacement means that language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker55.Duality: The duality nature of language means that language is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds and the other of meanings. 56.Design features: Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication petence: Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user's knowledge of the rules of his language, 58.Performance: performance is the actual realization of the knowl-edge of the rules in linguistic communication.ngue : Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community; Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language u sers all have to follow; Langue is relatively stable, it does not change frequently60. Parole: Parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use; parole is the concr ete use of the conventions and the application of the rules; parole varies from perso n to person, and from situation to situation.V. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give examplesfor ill ustration if necessary:61. Language is generally defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for hu man communication. Explain it in of all, language is a system, because elements of l anguage are combined according to rules. Secondly, language is arbitrary because ther e is no intrinsic connection between form and meaning, or between the sign and what it stands for. Different languages have different words for the same object in the world. This fact is a good illustration of the arbitrary nature of language. This also ex plains the symbolic nature of language: words are just symbols; they are associated w ith objects, actions, ideas, etc. by convention . Thirdly, language is vocal because the primary medium is sound for all languages, no matter how well - developed their wri ting systems are. The term "human" in the definition indicates that language is posse ssed by human beings only and is very different from the communication systems of other living creatures. The term "communication" means that language makes it possib le for its users to talk to each other and fulfill their communicative needs.62.What are the design features of human language Illustrate them with examples. 1) Arbitrariness As mentioned earlier, the arbitrary property of language means that the re is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. For instance, there is no n ecessary relationship between the word elephant and the animal it symbolizes. In add ition, different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages, an d even within the same language, the same sound does not refer to the same thing. However, language is not entirelyarbitrary. There are words which are created in the imitation of sounds by sounds, such as crash, bang in English. Besides, some compou nd words are also not entirely arbitrary. But the non-arbitrary words are quite limited in number. The arbitrary nature of language makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions. 2) Productivity Language is productive or creative i n that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its use rs. This is why they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of senten ces, including sentences that they have never said or heard before. They can send me ssages which no one else has ever sent before. Productivity is unique to human lang uage. Most animal communication systems appear to be highly restricted with respect to the number of different signals that their users can send and receive. 3) Duality The duality nature of language means that language is a system, which consists of tw o sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds and the other of meanings. At the l ower or the basic level, there is the structure of sounds, which are meaningless, discr ete, individual sounds. But the sounds of language can be combined according to rules into units of meaning such as morphemes and words, which, at the higher level,can be arranged into sentences. This duality of structure or double articulation of langua ge enables its users to talk about anything within their knowledge. No animal commu nication system has duality or even comes near to possessing it. 4) Displacement Disp lacement means that language can be used to refer to things which are present or n ot present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away pl aces. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the i mmediate situations of the speaker. Animal calls are mainly uttered in response to im mediate changes of situation. 5) Cultural transmission Human beings were born with t he ability to acquire language, but the details of any language are not genetically tra nsmitted or passed down by instinct. They have to be taught and learned,but animal call systems are genetically transmitted.63.How is modern linguistics different from traditional grammar Traditional gram-maris prescriptive; it is based on "high "(religious, literary) written language. It sets grammatical rules and imposes the rules on language users. But Modern linguistic s is descriptive; It collects authentic, and mainly spoken language data and then i t studies and describes the data in an objective and scientific way.64.How do you understand the distinction between a synchronic study and a diachronic study The description of a language at some point in time is a Synchronic s tudy; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic st udy. A synchronic study of language describes a language as it is at some particu lar point in time, while a diachronic study of language is the study of the histori cal development of language over a period of time.65.Why does modern linguistics regard the spoken form of language as primary, notthe written First, the spoken form is prior to the writ-ten form and most writing systems are derived from the spoken form of language. Second, the spoken form plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conve yed and it serves a wider range of purposes Finally, the spoken form is the med ium through which we acquire our mother tongue.66.What are the major distinctions between langue and paroleThe distinction between langue, and parole was made by the famous linguist Ferdinand de Saussure e arly this century. Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users al l have to follow while parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the app lication of the rules. Langue is abstract; it is not the language people actually us e, but parole is concrete; it refers to the naturally occurring language events. Lan gue is relatively stable; it does not change frequently; while parole varies from p erson to person, and from situation to situation.67.How do you understand competence and performance American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s proposed the distinction between competence and perfor mance. Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language. This internalized set of rules enables the language user to produ ce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences and recognize sentence s that are ungrammatical and ambiguous. According to Chomsky,performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. Although the speaker’s knowledge of his mother tongue is perfect, his performances may have mistakes because of social and psychological factors such as stress, embarrassment, etc.. Chomsky believes that what linguists should study is the competence, which is systematic, not the performance, which is too haphazard.68.Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole seems similar to Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance. What do you think are their maj or differences Although Saussure’s distinction and Chomsky’s are very similar, t hey differ at least in that Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a mater of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of vies and to him, competence is a property of the mind of each individual.69.Do you think human language is entirely arbitrary Why Language is arbitrary in nature, it is not entirely arbitrary, because there are a limited number of words w hose connections between forms and meanings can be logically explained to a certain extent, for example, the onomatopoeia, words which are coined on the basi s of imitation of sounds by sounds such as bang, crash,etc.. Take compounds for another example. The two elements“photo”and “copy”in “photocopy”are non-motivated, but the compound is not arbitrary.语言学教程复习题与答案(胡壮麟版第二章)Chapter 2：PhonologyI.Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1.Voicing is a phonological feature that distinguishes meaning in both Chinese and English.2.If two phonetically similar sounds occur in the same environments and theydistinguish meaning, they are said to be in complementary distribution.3. A phone is a phonetic unit that distinguishes meaning.4.English is a tone language while Chinese is not.5.In linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing.6.In everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in termsof the amount of information conveyed.7.Articulatory phonetics tries to describe the physical properties of the streamof sounds which a speaker issues with the help of a machine called spectrograph.8.The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important areas: the throat, the mouth and the chest.9.Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called voicing.10.English consonants can be classified in terms of place of articulation and thepart of the tongue that is raised the highest.11.According to the manner of articulation, some of the types into which the consonants can be classified are stops, fricatives, bilabial and alveolar.12.Vowel sounds can be differentiated by a number of factors: the position of tongue in the mouth, the openness of the mouth, the shape of the lips, and the length of the vowels.13.According to the shape of the lips, vowels can be classified into close vowels,semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels and open vowels.14.Any sound produced by a human being is a phoneme.15.Phones are the sounds that can distinguish meaning.16.Phonology is concerned with how the sounds can be classified into differentcategories.17.A basic way to determine the phonemes of a language is to see if substituting one sound for another results in a change of meaning.18.When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a phonemic contrast.19.The rules governing the phonological patterning are language specific.20.Distinctive features of sound segments can be found running over a sequenceof two or more phonemic segments.II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the lett er given:21.A ____ refers to a strong puff of air stream in the production of speech sounds.22.A ____ phonetics describes the way our speech organs work to produce thespeech sounds and how they differ.23.The four sounds /p/,/b/,/m/ and /w/ have one feature in common, , they are all b_______ sounds.24.Of all the speech organs, the t ____ is the most flexible, and is responsiblefor varieties of articulation than any other.25.English consonants can be classified in terms of manner of articulation or interms of p____ of articulation.26.When the obstruction created by the speech organs is total or complete, thespeech sound produced with the obstruction audibly released and the air pa ssing out again is called a s________.<![endif]>27.S_________ features are the phonemic features that occur above the level ofthe segments. They include stress, tone, intonation, etc.28.The rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language arecalled s____ rules.29.The transcription of speech sounds with letter-symbols only is called broad transcription while the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacri tics is called n_________ transcription.30.When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as i_________.31.P______ is a discipline which studies the system of sounds of a particular language and how sounds are combined into meaningful units to effect linguistic communication.32.The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three importantcavities: the pharyngeal cavity, the o_______ cavity and the nasal cavity. 33.T____ are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords and which can distinguish meaning just like phonemes.<![endif]>34.Depending on the context in which stress is considered, there are two kindsof stress: word stress and s_________ stressIII. There are four choices following each of the statements below. Mark the choi ce that can best complete the statement.35.Of all the speech organs, the _______ is/ are the most flexible. A. mouth B.lips C. tongue D. vocal cords36.The sounds produced without the vocal cords vibrating are ____ sounds. A. voicelessB. voiced C. vowelD. consonantal37.__________ is a voiced alveolar stop.38.A. /z/ B. /d/ C. /k/ D./b/39.The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying”a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones ____________. A.identicalB. same C. exactly alike D. similar40.Since /p/ and /b/ are phonetically similar, occur in the same environments and they can distinguish meaning, they are said to be ___________.41.A. in phonemic contrastB. in complementary distribution42.C. the allophonesD. minimal pair43.The sound /f/ is _________________. A. voiced palatal affricate B. voiced alveolar stop44.C. voiceless velar fricativeD. voiceless labiodental fricative45.A ____ vowel is one that is produced with the front part of the tongue maintaining the highest position. A. backB. central C. frontD. middle46.Distinctive features can be found running over a sequence of two or more phonemic segments. The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called ____________. A. phonetic componentsB. immediate consti tuents C. suprasegmental featuresD. semantic features47.A(n) ___________ is a unit that is of distinctive value.It is an abstract unit, acollection of distinctive phonetic features. A. phoneB. sound C. allophoneD. p honeme48.The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the ____ of that phoneme. A. phonesB. sounds C. phon emes D. allophones<![endif]>IV. Define the terms below:49.phonology46. phoneme 48. international phonetic alphabet49. intonation50. phonetics51. auditory phonetics52. acoustic phonetics53. phone54. phonemic con trast 55. tone56. minimal pairV. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give ex-amples for illustration if necessary:57.Of the two media of language, why do you think speech is more basic thanwriting58.What are the criteria that a linguist uses in classifying vowels59.What are the major differences between phonology and phonetics60.Illustrate with examples how suprasegmental features can affect meaning.61.In what way can we determine whether a phone is a phoneme or notI.Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:16. F 17. T 18. F19. T20. TII.Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:21. Aspiration23.bilabial 24. tongue 25. place 26. stop27. Suprasegmental28. sequential 29. narrow 30. intonation 31. Phonology 32. oral 33. Tone 34. sent enceIII.There are four choices following each of the statements below. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:IV.Define the terms below:: Phonology studies the system of sounds of a particular language; it aims to dis cover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.50.phoneme: The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme; it is a unit of distinctive value. But it is an abstract unit. To be exact, a phoneme is not a so und; it is a collection of distinctive phonetic features.51.allophone: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in differentphonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.52.international phonetic alphabet: It is a standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription.53.intonation: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation.54.55.phonetics: Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world' s languages 56.auditory phonetics: It studies the speech sounds from the hearer's point ofview. It studies how the sounds are perceived by the hear-er.57.acoustic phonetics: It studies the speech sounds by looking at the sound waves. It studies the physical means by which speech sounds are transmitted th rough the air from one person to another.58.phone : Phones can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use whenspeaking a language. A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. It does not nec essarily distinguish meaning.59.phonemic contrast: Phonemic contrast refers to the relation between two phonemes. If two phonemes can occur in the same environment and distinguish meaning, they are in phonemic contrast.60.tone: Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.61.minimal pair: When two different forms are identical in every way except forone sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the twowords are said to form a minimal pair.V. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give ex-amples for illustration if necessary:62.Of the two media of language, why do you think speech is more basic thanwriting 1)In linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. 2)In everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amountof information conveyed. 3)Speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, and writing is learned and taught later atschool.63.What are the criteria that a linguist uses in classifying vowels1)Vowels may be distinguished as front, central and back in terms of the position of the tongue in the mouth. 2)According to how wide our mouth is opened, we classify the vowels into four groups: close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vo wels, and open vowels. 3)According to the shape of the lips, vowels are divided i nto rounded vowels and unrounded vowels. 4)The English vowels can also be class ified into long vowels and short vowels according to the length of the sound.64.What are the major differences between phonology and phonetics They differin their approach and focus. Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interestedin all the speech sounds used in all human languages: how they are produc ed, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess, ho w they can be classified. Phonology, on the other hand, is interested in the s ystem of sounds of a particular language; it aims to discover how speech sou nds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to conveymeaning in linguistic communication.65.Illustrate with examples how suprasegmental features can affect meaning. 1)The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning, such as `import and imp。

Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics1. Define the following terms:design feature: the distinctive features of human language that essentially make human language distinguishable from languages of animals.function: the role language plays in communication (e.g. to express ideas, attitudes) or in particular social situations (e.g. religious, legal).synchronic: said of an approach that studies language at a theoretical ‘point’ in time.diachronic: said of the study of development of language and languages over time. prescriptive: to make authoritarian statement about the correctness of a particular use of language.descriptive: to make an objective and systematic account of the patterns and use of a language or variety.arbitrariness: the absence of any physical correspondence between linguistic signals and the entities to which they refer.duality: the structural organization of language into two abstract levels: meaningful units (e.g. words) and meaningless segments (e.g. sounds, letters).displa cement: the ability of language to refer to contexts removed from the speaker’s immediate situation.phatic communion: said of talk used to establish atmosphere or maintain social contact.metalanguage: a language used for talking about language.macrolinguistics: a broad conception of linguistic enquiry, including psychological, cultural, etc.competence: unconscious knowledge of the system of grammatical rules in a language.performance: the language actually used by people in speaking or writing.l angue: the language system shared by a “speech community”.parole: the concrete utterances of a speaker.2. Consult at least four introductory linguistics textbooks (not dictionaries), and copy the definitions of “language” that each gives. After careful ly comparing the definitions, write a paper discussing which points recur and explaining the significance of the similarities and differencesamong the definitions.ANSWER:All the definitions should not exclude the description of design features that have been mentioned in this course book. Also it will be better if other design features, say, interchangeability or cultural transmission is included. But it seems impossible to give an unimpeachable definition on language, because the facets people want to emphasize are seldom unanimous. To compare several definitions can make you realize where the argument is.3. Can you think of some words in English which are onomatopoeic?ANSWERS:creak: the sound made by a badly oiled door when it opens.cuckoo: the call of cuckoo.bang: a sudden loud noise.roar: a deep loud continuing sound.buzz: a noise of buzzing.hiss: a hissing sound.neigh: the long and loud cry that a horse makes.mew: the noise that a gull makes.bleat: the sound made by a sheep, goat or calf.4. Do you think that onomatopoeia indicates a non-arbitrary relationship between form and meaning?ANSWER:4. No matter you say "Yes" or "No", you cannot deny that onomatopoeia needs arbitrariness. Before we feel a word is onomatopoeic we should first know which sound the word imitates. Just as what is said in Chapter One, in order to imitate the noise of flying mosquitoes, there are many choices like "murmurous" and "murderous". They both bear more or less resemblance to the genuine natural sound, but "murmurous" is fortunately chosen to mean the noise while "murderous" is chosen to mean something quite different. They are arbitrary as signifiers.5. A story by Robert Louis Stevenson contains the sentence “As the night fell, the wind rose.” Could this be expressed as “As the wind rose, the night fell?” If not, why? Does this indicate a degree of non-arbitrariness about word order? (Bolinger, 1981: 15)5. Yes. It is a case in point to illustrate non-arbitrariness about word order. When the two parts interchange, the focus and the meaning of the sentence is forced to change, because clauses occurring in linear sequence without time indicators will be taken as matching the actual sequence of happening. The writer’s original intention is distorted, and we c an feel it effortlessly by reading. That is why systemic-functionalists and American functionalists think language is not arbitrary at the syntactic level.6. Does the traffic light system have duality? Can you explain by drawing a simple graph?6. Traffic light does not have duality. Obviously, it is not a double-level system. There is only one-to-one relationship between signs and meaning but the meaning units cannot be divided into smaller meaningless elements further. So the traffic light only has the primary level and lacks the secondary level like animals’ calls.ANSWER:Red→stopGreen→goYellow→get ready to go or stop7. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for the creativity of language. Can you write a recursive sentence following the example in section 1.3.3.ANSWER:Today I encountered an old friend who was my classmate when I was in elementary school where there was an apple orchard in which we slid to select ripe apples that…8. Communication can take many forms, such as sign, speech, body language and facial expression. Do body language and facial expression share or lack the distinctive properties of human language?ANSWER:On a whole, body language and facial expression lack most of the distinctive properties of human language such as duality, displacement, creativity and so on. Body language exhibits arbitrariness a little bit. For instance, nod means "OK/YES" for us but in Arabian world it is equal to saying "NO". Some facial expressions have non-arbitrariness because they are instinctive such as the cry and laugh of a newborn infant.9. Do you agree with the view that no language is especially simple?ANSWER:Yes. All human languages are complicated systems of communication. It is decided by their shared design features.10. What do you think of Bertrand Russell’s observation of the dog language: “No matter how eloquently a dog may bark, he cannot tell you that his parents were poor but honest”? Are you familiar with any type of ways animals communicate among themselves and with human beings? ANSWER:When gazelles sense potential danger, for example, they flee and thereby signal to other gazelles in the vicinity that danger is lurking. A dog signals its wish to be let inside the house by barking and signals the possibility that it might bite momentarily by displaying its fangs.11.Can you mention some typical expressions of phatic communion in Chinese? There is the dialog between Ms. P and Ms. Q. in section 1.5.5. When someone sneezes violently, do you say anything of the nature of phatic communion? Have you noticed your parents or grandparents say something special on such an occasion?Some of the typical phatic expressions in Chinese are: 吃了吗？家里都好吧？这是去哪里啊？最近都挺好的？ANSWER:If someone is sneezing violently, maybe you parents and grandparents may say: “Are you ok?”, “Do you need to see a doctor?”, “Do you need some water?”, “Do you need a handkerchief?”, “Do you have a cold?” or something like these to show their concerns.12．There are many expressions in language which are metalingual or self-reflexives, namely, talking about talk and think about thinking, for instance, to be honest, to make a long story short, come to think of it, on second thought, can you collect a few more to make a list of these expressions? When do we use them most often?ANSWER:To tell the truth, frankly speaking, as a matter of fact, to be precise, in other words, that is to say Such expressions are used most frequently when we want to expatiate the meaning of former clauses in anther way in argumentation.13. Comment on the following prescriptive rules. Do you think they are acceptable?(A) It is I.(B) It is me.You should say A instead of B because “be” should be followed by the nominative case, not the accusative according to the rules in Latin.(A) Who did you speak to?(B) Whom did you speak to?You should say B instead of A.(A) I haven't done anything.(B) I haven't done nothing.B is wrong because two negatives make a positive.ANSWER:(1) the Latin rule is not universal. In English, me is informal and I is felt to be very formal.(2) Whom is used in formal speech and in writing; who is more acceptable in informal speech.(3) Language does not have to follow logic reasoning. Here two negative only make a more emphatic negative. This sentence is not acceptable in Standard English not because it is illogical, but because language changes and rejects this usage now.14. The prescriptivism in grammar rules has now shifted to prescriptions in choice of words. In the “guidelines on anti-sexist language” issued by the British sociological association, some guidelines are listed below. Do you think they are descriptive and prescriptive? What’s your comment on them?(1) Do not use man to mean humanity in general. Use person, people, human beings, men and women, humanity and humankind.(2) colored: This term is regarded as outdated in the UK and should be avoided as it is generally viewed as offensive to many black people.(3) civilized: This term can still carry racist overtones which derive from a colonialist perception of the world. It is often associated with social Darwinist thought and is full of implicit valuejudgments and ignorance of the history of the non-industrialized world.ANSWER:They are undoubtedly descriptive. Guidelines are not rules that can determine whether a sentence is right or not. The guidelines advise you to avoid the use of particular words that are grammatically correct but offensive to some certain groups. Actually, they describe the way anti-sexist advocators speak and write.15. Why is the distinction between competence and performance an important one in linguistics? Do you think the line can be neatly drawn between them? How do you like the concept “communicative competence”?ANSWER:This is proposed by Chomsky in his formalist linguistic theories. It is sometimes hard to draw a strict line. Some researchers in applied linguistics think communicative competence may be a more revealing concept in language teaching than the purely theoretical pair—competence and performance.16. Which branch of linguistics do you think will develop rapidly in China and why?It is up to you to decide after you have gone through the whole book. At this stage, we suggest all branches of linguistics have the potential to flourish.17. The following are some well-known ambiguous sentences in syntactic studies of language. Can you disambiguate them?The chicken is too hot to eat.Flying planes can be dangerous.ANSWER:The chicken is too hot to eat.The chicken meat is too hot, so it cannot be eaten at the moment.The chicken feels so hot (maybe after some intense aerobic exercises) that it cannot start eating and needs to calm down first.Flying planes can be dangerous.The ambiguity comes from "flying planes". It can be deciphered as "the planes that is flying" or "to fly planes".18. There are many reasons for the discrepancy between competence and performance in normal language users. Can you think of some of them?ANSWEREthnic background, socioeconomic status, region of the country, and physical state (such as intoxication, fatigue, distraction, illness) vary from individual to individual.19. What do these two quotes reveal about the different emphasis or perspectives of language studies?(1) A human language is a system of remarkable complexity. To come to know a human language would be an extraordinary intellectual achievement for a creature not specifically designed to accomplish this task. A normal child acquires this knowledge on relatively slight exposure andwithout specific training. He can then quite effortlessly make use of an intricate structure of specific rules and guiding principles to convey his thoughts and feelings to others, ... Thus language is a mirror of mind in a deep and significant sense. It is a product of human intelligence, created anew in each individual by operations that lie far beyond the reach of will or consciousness.(Noam Chomsky: Reflections on Language. 1975: 4)(2) It is fairly obvious that language is used to serve a variety of different needs, but until we examine its grammar there is no clear reason for classifying its uses in any particular way. However, when we examine the meaning potential of language itself, we find that the vast numbers of options embodied in it combine into a very few relatively independent “networks”; and these networks of options correspond to certain basic functions of language. This enables us to give an account of the different functions of language that is relevant to the general understanding of linguistic structure rather than to any particular psychological or sociological investigation. (M. A. K. Halliday, 1970: 142)ANSWER:The first quote shows chil dren’s inborn ability of acquiring the knowledge of intricate structure of specific rules. It implies that the language user's underlying knowledge about the system of rules is the valuable object of study for linguists. The second attaches great importance to the functions of language. It regards the use of language as the choice of needed function. The meaning of language can be completely included by a few “networks” which is directly related to basic functions of language. It indicates the necessity to study the functions of language.20. You may be familiar with the following proverbs. How do you perceive them according to the arbitrariness and conventionality of language?The proof of the pudding is in the eating.Let sleeping dogs lie.You can’t make a silk purse out of a sow’s ear.Rome was not built in a day.When in Rome, do as the Romans do.All roads lead to Rome.ANSWER:20. Arbitrariness and conventionality derive from the choice of the subject matter. For example, in the “The proof of the pudding is in the eating.” The word “pudding” is selected arbitrarily, for we can use another word such as cheese instead of pudding without changing the associative meaning of the proverb. On the other hand, once such links between particular words and associative meaning are fixed, it becomes a matter of conventionality.21. Give examples of situations in which a usage generally considered non-standard (e.g. ain’t) would be acceptable, even appropriate.ANSWER21. In the talks between intimate friends, o ne may say “gimme that!” instead of “give me that!” and “wachya doin’?” instead of “what are you doing?” and this list may go on.22. The following are some book titles of linguistics. Can you judge the diachronic and diachronic orientation just from the titles?English Examined: Two centuries of Comment on the Mother-Tongue.Protean Shape: A Study in Eighteenth-century V ocabulary and Usage.Pejorative Sense Development in English.The Categories and Types of Present-Day English Word-Formation.Language in the Inner City: Studies in the Black English Vernacular.ANSWER22. Synchronic:Protean Shape: A Study in Eighteenth-century V ocabulary and Usage.The Categories and Types of Present-Day English Word-Formation.Language in the Inner City: Studies in the Black English Vernacular.Diachronic:English Examined: Two centuries of Comment on the Mother-Tongue.Pejorative Sense Development in English。

语言学教程复习题与答案(胡壮麟版第一章)Chapter I IntroductionI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1.Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.Linguistics studies particular language, not languages in general.3. A scientific study of language is based on what the linguist thinks.4.In the study of linguistics, hypotheses formed should be based on language factsand checked against the observed facts.5.General linguistics is generally the study of language as a whole.6.General linguistics, which relates itself to the research of other areas, studies thebasic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study. 7.7.Phonetics is different from phonology in that the latter studies the combinations ofthe sounds to convey meaning in communication.8.Morphology studies how words can be formed to produce meaningful sentences.9.The study of the ways in which morphemes can be combined to form words iscalled morphology.10.Syntax is different from morphology in that the former not only studies themorphemes, but also the combination of morphemes into words and words into sentences.11.The study of meaning in language is known as semantics.12.Both semantics and pragmatics study meanings.13.Pragmatics is different from semantics in that pragmatics studies meaning not inisolation, but in context.14.Social changes can often bring about language changes.15.Sociolinguistics is the study of language in relation to society.16.Modern linguistics is mostly prescriptive, but sometimes descriptive.17.Modern linguistics is different from traditional grammar.18.A diachronic study of language is the description of language at some point in time.19.Modern linguistics regards the written language as primary, not the writtenlanguage.20.The distinction between competence and performance was proposed by F.deSaussure.II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given: 21.Chomsky defines “competence”as the ideal user’s k__________ of the rules of his language.ngue refers to the a__________ linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community while the parole is the concrete use of the conventions and application of the rules.23.D_________ is one of the design features of human language which refers to the pheno广告网址n that language consists of two levels: a lower level of meaningless individual sounds and a higher level of meaningful units.24. Language is a system of a_________ vocal symbols used for human communication.25. The discipline that studies the rules governing the formation of words into permissible sentences in languages is called s________.26. Human capacity for language has a g ____ basis, but the details of language have to be taught and learned.27. P ____ refers to the realization of langue in actual use.28. Findings in linguistic studies can often be applied to the settlement of some practical problems. The study of such applications is generally known as a________ linguistics.29. Language is p___________ in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. In other words, they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences which they have never heard before.30. Linguistics is generally defined as the s ____ study of language.III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement.31. If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be ______________.A. prescriptiveB. analyticC. descriptiveD. linguistic 32.Which of the following is not a design feature of human language?A. ArbitrarinessB. DisplacementC. DualityD. Meaningfulness33. Modern linguistics regards the written language as ____________.A. primaryB. correctC. secondaryD. stable34. In modern linguistics, speech is regarded as more basic than writing, because ___________. A.in linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writingB.speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.C.speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongueD.All of the above35. A historical study of language is a ____ study of language.A. synchronicB. diachronicC. prescriptiveD. comparative36.Saussure took a (n)__________ view of language, while Chomsky looks at language from a ________ point of view.A. sociological…psychologicalB. psychological…sociologicalC. applied…pragmaticD.semantic and linguistic37. According to F. de Saussure, ____ refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.A. paroleB. performanceC. langueD. Language38. Language is said to be arbitrary because there is no logical connection between _________ and meanings.A. senseB. soundsC. objectsD. ideas39. Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situationsof the speaker. This feature is called_________,A. displacementB. dualityC. flexibilityD. cultural transmission40. The details of any language system is passed on from one generation to the next through ____ , rather than by instinct.A. learningB. teachingC. booksD. both A and BIV. Define the following terms:41. Linguistics42. Phonology43. Syntax44. Pragmatics45. Psycholinguistics46. Language47. Phonetics48. Morphology49.Semantics50. Sociolinguistics51. Applied Linguistics 52.Arbitrariness53 Productivity54. Displacement55.Duality56. Design Features 57. Competence58 Performance59. Langue60 ParoleV. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give examples for illustration if necessary:61. Language is generally defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Explain it in detail.62. What are the design features of human language? Illustrate them with examples.63. How is modern linguistics different from traditional grammar?64. How do you understand the distinction between a synchronic study and a diachronic study?65. Why does modern linguistics regard the spoken form of language as primary, not the written?66. What are the major distinctions between langue and parole?67. How do you understand competence and performance ?68. Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole seems similar to Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance. What do you think are their major differences?69. Do you think human language is entirely arbitrary? Why?I.Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:l.T 2.F 3.F 4.T 5.T 6.F7.T8.F9.T10.F11.T12.T13.T14.T15.T16.F17.T18.F19.F20.FII. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the lette r given: 21. knowledge22. abstract23. Duality24. arbitrary 25. syntax2 6.genetic27. Parole28. applied29. productive30. scientific (or system atic)III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can be st complete the statement. 3l.C32.D33.C34.D35.B36.A37.C38. B39.A40.DIV. Define the following terms: 41.Linguistics: Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. 42.Phonology: The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology. 43.Syntax: The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax.44.Pragmatics: The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics.45.Psycholinguistics: The study of language with reference to the workings of mind is called psycholinguistics. nguage: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 47.Phonetics: The study of sounds which are used in linguistic communication is called phonetics. 48.Morphology: The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words is called morphology. 49.Semantics: The study of meaning in language is called semantics. 50.Sociolinguistics: The study of language with reference to society is called sociolinguistics. 51.Applied linguistics: In a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages. In a broad sense, it refers to the application of linguistic findings to the solution of practical problems such as the recovery of speech ability.52.Arbitrariness: It is one of the design features of language. It means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds 53.Productivity: Language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the con-struction and interpretation of new signals by its users. 54.Displacement: Displacement means that language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker 55.Duality: The duality nature of language means that language is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds and theother of meanings. 56.Design features: Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication petence: Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user's knowledge of the rules of his language, 58.Performance: performance is the actual realization of the knowl-edge of the rules in linguistic communication.ngue : Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the me mbers of a speech community; Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to follow; Langue is relatively stable, it does not change frequently 60.Parole: Parole refers to the realization of langue in actual u se; parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules; parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.V. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give example s for illustration if necessary:61. Language is generally defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used fo r human communication. Explain it in detail.First of all, language is a system, bec ause elements of language are combined according to rules. Secondly, language i s arbitrary because there is no intrinsic connection between form and meaning, o r between the sign and what it stands for. Different languages have different wo rds for the same object in the world. This fact is a good illustration of the arbitr ary nature of language. This also explains the symbolic nature of language: word s are just symbols; they are associated with objects, actions, ideas, etc. by conve ntion . Thirdly, language is vocal because the primary medium is sound for all la nguages, no matter how well - developed their writing systems are. The ter m "human" in the definition indicates that language is possessed by human bein gs only and is very different from the communication systems of other living cre atures. The term "communication" means that language makes it possible for its users to talk to each other and fulfill their communicative needs.62.What are the design features of human language? Illustrate them with exa mples. 1) Arbitrariness As mentioned earlier, the arbitrary property of language means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. For i nstance, there is no necessary relationship between the word elephant and the a nimal it symbolizes. In addition, different sounds are used to refer to the same o bject in different languages, and even within the same language, the same sound does not refer to the same thing. However, language is not entirelyarbitrary. Th ere are words which are created in the imitation of sounds by sounds, such as c rash, bang in English. Besides, some compound words are also not entirely arbitr ary. But the non-arbitrary words are quite limited in number. The arbitrary natur e of language makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of exp ressions. 2) Productivity Language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. This is w hy they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences, incl uding sentences that they have never said or heard before. They can send messa ges which no one else has ever sent before. Productivity is unique to human lan guage. Most animal communication systems appear to be highly restricted with r espect to the number of different signals that their users can send and receive.3) Duality The duality nature of language means that language is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds and the oth er of meanings. At the lower or the basic level, there is the structure of sounds, which are meaningless, discrete, individual sounds. But the sounds of language c an be combined according to rules into units of meaning such as morphemes an d words, which, at the higher level,can be arranged into sentences. This duality of structure or double articulation of language enables its users to talk about an ything within their knowledge. No animal communication system has duality or e ven comes near to possessing it. 4) Displacement Displacement means that la nguage can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate s ituations of the speaker. Animal calls are mainly uttered in response to immediat e changes of situation. 5) Cultural transmission Human beings were born with the ability to acquire language, but the details of any language are not geneti cally transmitted or passed down by instinct. They have to be taught and learne d,but animal call systems are genetically transmitted.63.How is modern linguistics different from traditional grammar? Traditionalgram-mar is prescriptive; it is based on "high "(religious, literary) written la nguage. It sets grammatical rules and imposes the rules on language users.But Modern linguistics is descriptive; It collects authentic, and mainly spoken language data and then it studies and describes the data in an objective and scientific way.64.How do you understand the distinction between a synchronic study and adiachronic study? The description of a language at some point in time is a Synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time i s a diachronic study. A synchronic study of language describes a language as it is at some particular point in time, while a diachronic study of language i s the study of the historical development of language over a period of time.65.Why does modern linguistics regard the spoken form of language as primary, not the written?First, the spoken form is prior to the writ-ten form a nd most writing systems are derived from the spoken form of language. Sec ond, the spoken form plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amou nt of information conveyed and it serves a wider range of purposes Finally, t he spoken form is the medium through which we acquire our mother tongue.66.What are the major distinctions between langue and parole?The distinction between langue, and parole was made by the famous linguist Ferdinand de Saussure early this century. Langue refers to the abstract linguistic systemshared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. Langue is the set of conventions and rule s which language users all have to follow while parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules. Langue is abstract; it is not the language people actually use, but parole is concrete; it refers to the na turally occurring language events. Langue is relatively stable; it does not cha nge frequently; while parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.67.How do you understand competence and performance?American linguistN. Chomsky in the late 1950’s proposed the distinction between competence and performance. Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language. This internalized set of rules enables the lan guage user to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentenc es and recognize sentences that are ungrammatical and ambiguous. According to Chomsky,performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. Although the speaker’s knowledge of his mother tongue is perfect, his performances may have mistakes because of social and psychological factors such as stress, embarrassment, etc.. Chomsky believes that what linguists should study is the competence, which is systematic, not the p erformance, which is too haphazard.68.Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole seems similar to Chomsky’sdistinction between competence and performance. What do you think are th eir major differences?Although Saussure’s distinction and Chomsky’s are ve ry similar, they differ at least in that Saussure took a sociological view of lan guage and his notion of langue is a mater of social conventions, and Choms ky looks at language from a psychological point of vies and to him, compet ence is a property of the mind of each individual.69.Do you think human language is entirely arbitrary? Why? Language is arbitrary in nature, it is not entirely arbitrary, because there are a limited num ber of words whose connections between forms and meanings can be logical ly explained to a certain extent, for example, the onomatopoeia, words which are coined on the basis of imitation of sounds by sounds such as bang, cra sh,etc.. Take compounds for another example. The two elements“photo”and “copy”in “photocopy”are non-motivated, but the compound is not arbitrary.语言学教程复习题与答案(胡壮麟版第二章)Chapter 2：PhonologyI.Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1.Voicing is a phonological feature that distinguishes meaning in both Chinese and English.2.If two phonetically similar sounds occur in the same environments and they distinguish meaning, they are said to be in complementary distributio n.3. A phone is a phonetic unit that distinguishes meaning.4.English is a tone language while Chinese is not.5.In linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing.6.In everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.7.Articulatory phonetics tries to describe the physical properties of the stream of sounds which a speaker issues with the help of a machine called s pectrograph.8.The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important areas: the throat, the mouth and the chest.9.Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds calledvoicing.10.English consonants can be classified in terms of place of articulation andthe part of the tongue that is raised the highest.11.According to the manner of articulation, some of the types into which the consonants can be classified are stops, fricatives, bilabial and alveolar.12.Vowel sounds can be differentiated by a number of factors: the positionof tongue in the mouth, the openness of the mouth, the shape of the li ps, and the length of the vowels.13.According to the shape of the lips, vowels can be classified into close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels and open vowels.14.Any sound produced by a human being is a phoneme.15.Phones are the sounds that can distinguish meaning.16.Phonology is concerned with how the sounds can be classified into different categories.17.A basic way to determine the phonemes of a language is to see if substituting one sound for another results in a change of meaning.18.When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two wordsare said to form a phonemic contrast.19.The rules governing the phonological patterning are language specific.20.Distinctive features of sound segments can be found running over a sequence of two or more phonemic segments.II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the l etter given:21.A ____ refers to a strong puff of air stream in the production of speech sounds.22.A ____ phonetics describes the way our speech organs work to produce the speech sounds and how they differ.23.The four sounds /p/,/b/,/m/ and /w/ have one feature in common, i.e, they are all b_______ sounds.24.Of all the speech organs, the t ____ is the most flexible, and is responsible for varieties of articulation than any other.25.English consonants can be classified in terms of manner of articulation orin terms of p____ of articulation.26.When the obstruction created by the speech organs is total or complete,the speech sound produced with the obstruction audibly released and the air passing out again is called a s________.<![endif]>27.S_________ features are the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments. They include stress, tone, intonation, etc.28.The rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular languageare called s____ rules.29.The transcription of speech sounds with letter-symbols only is called broad transcription while the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics is called n_________ transcription.30.When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather thanthe word in isolation, they are collectively known as i_________.31.P______ is a discipline which studies the system of sounds of a particular language and how sounds are combined into meaningful units to effect li nguistic communication.32.The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important cavities: the pharyngeal cavity, the o_______ cavity and the nasal cavi ty.33.T____ are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords and which can distinguish meaning just like pho nemes.<![endif]>34.Depending on the context in which stress is considered, there are two kinds of stress: word stress and s_________ stressIII. There are four choices following each of the statements below. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement.35.Of all the speech organs, the _______ is/ are the most flexible. A. mouth B. lips C. tongue D. vocal cords36.The sounds produced without the vocal cords vibrating are ____ sounds.A. voicelessB. voicedC. vowelD. consonantal37.__________ is a voiced alveolar stop.A. /z/B. /d/C. /k/D./b/38.The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying”a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones ____________.A. identicalB. sameC. exactly alikeD. similar39.Since /p/ and /b/ are phonetically similar, occur in the same environments and they can distinguish meaning, they are said to be ___________.A. in phonemic contrastB. in complementary distributionC. the allophonesD. minimal pair40.The sound /f/ is _________________. A. voiced palatal affricateB. voiced alveolar stopC. voiceless velar fricativeD. voiceless labiodental fricative41. A ____ vowel is one that is produced with the front part of the tonguemaintaining the highest position. A. back B. central C. fron t D. middle42.Distinctive features can be found running over a sequence of two or more phonemic segments. The phonemic features that occur above the levelof the segments are called ____________. A. phonetic components B. im mediate constituents C. suprasegmental features D. semantic f eatures43.A(n) ___________ is a unit that is of distinctive value.It is an abstract unit,a collection of distinctive phonetic features. A. phone B. sound C. allophone D. phoneme44.The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the ____ of that phoneme. A. phones B. sounds C. phonemes D. allophones<![endif]>IV. Define the terms below:45.phonology46. phoneme47.allophone48. internationalphonetic alphabet49. intonation50. phonetics51. audi tory phonetics52. acoustic phonetics53. phone54. phonemic contr ast55. tone56. minimal pairV. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give ex-a mples for illustration if necessary:57.Of the two media of language, why do you think speech is more basicthan writing?58.What are the criteria that a linguist uses in classifying vowels?59.What are the major differences between phonology and phonetics?60.Illustrate with examples how suprasegmental features can affect meaning.61.In what way can we determine whether a phone is a phoneme or not?I.Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:l.T 2.F 3.F 4.F 5.T 6.T7.F8.F9.T10.F 11.F12.T13.F14.F15.F16. F17. T18. F19. T20. TII.Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:21. Aspiration22.Articulatory23.bilabial24. tongue25. place 26.stop27. Suprasegmental28. sequential 29. narrow 30. intonation 31.Phonology32. oral33. Tone34. sentenceIII.There are four choices following each of the statements below. M ark the choice that can best complete the statement:35.C36.A37.B38.D39.A40.D41.C42.C43.D44.DIV.Define the terms below:45.phonology: Phonology studies the system of sounds of a particular langua ge; it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.46.phoneme: The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme; it is a unit ofdistinctive value. But it is an abstract unit. To be exact, a phoneme is n ot a sound; it is a collection of distinctive phonetic features.47.allophone: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme. 48.international phonetic alphabet: It is a standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription.49.intonation: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentencerather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonati on.50.51.phonetics: Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world' s lan guages52.auditory phonetics: It studies the speech sounds from the hearer's pointof view. It studies how the sounds are perceived by the hear-er.53.acoustic phonetics: It studies the speech sounds by looking at the soundwaves. It studies the physical means by which speech sounds are transm itted through the air from one person to another.54.phone : Phones can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a language. A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. It doesnot necessarily distinguish meaning.55.phonemic contrast: Phonemic contrast refers to the relation between twophonemes. If two phonemes can occur in the same environment and disti nguish meaning, they are in phonemic contrast.56.tone: Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing ratesof vibration of the vocal cords.57.minimal pair: When two different forms are identical in every way exceptfor one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair.V. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give ex-a mples for illustration if necessary:58.Of the two media of language, why do you think speech is more basic than writing? 1)In linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. 2)Ineveryday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in term s of the amount of information conveyed. 3)Speech is always the way i n which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, and writing is l earned and taught later at school.59.What are the criteria that a linguist uses in classifying vowels?1)Vowels may be distinguished as front, central and back in terms of the position of the tongue in the mouth. 2)According to how wide our mouth is ope ned, we classify the vowels into four groups: close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels, and open vowels. 3)According to the shape of the lips, vowels are divided into rounded vowels and unrounded vowels. 4)The Englis。

Chapter 1Introduction1. Define the following terms briefly.(1) linguistics语言学: the scientific or systematic study of language.(2) language语言: a system of arbitrary vocal 任意的声音symbols used for human communication.用于人类交流的任意声音符号系统(3) arbitrariness任意性: the absence of similarity betweenthe form of a linguistic sign and what it relates to in reality,语言符号的形式与现实的关系缺乏相似性e.g. the worddog does not look like a dog.(4) duality双重性: the way meaningless elements of languageat one level (sounds and letters) combine to formmeaningful units (words) at another level.在一个层面上（语言和字母）的无意义的语言元素结合在另一个层次上形成有意义的单位（词）(5) competence语言能力: knowledge of the grammar of alanguage as a formal abstraction and distinct from thebehavior of actual language use作为一种形式抽象的语言的语法知识，区别于实际语言使用的行为, i.e.performance.(6) performance语言运用: Chomsky’s term for actuallanguage behavior as distinct from the knowledge thatunderlies it, or competence.乔姆斯基对实际语言行为的术语不同于它的知识，或能力。

《新编简洁英语语言学教程》第二版练习题参照答案Chapter 1 Introduction1. Howdo you interpret the following definition of linguistics:Linguistics is the scientific study of language.答： Linguistics is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data,conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure. In order todiscover the nature and rules of the underlying language system, the linguists has tocollect and observe language facts first, which are found to display some similarities,and generalizations are made about them; then he formulates some hypothesesabout the language structure. The hypotheses thus formed have to be checkedrepeatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity. In linguistics, as inany other discipline, data and theory stand in a dialectical complementation, that is,a theory without the support of data can hardly claim validity, and data without being explained by some theory remain a muddled mass of things.2.What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study?答： The major branches of linguistics are:(1) phonetics: it studies the sounds used in linguistic communication;(2) phonology: it studies how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication;(3)morphology: it studies the way in which linguistic symbolsrepresenting sounds are arranged and combined to form words;(4)syntax: it studies the rules which govern how words are combined toform grammatically permissible sentences in languages;(5)semantics: it studies meaning conveyed by language;(6)pragmatics: it studies the meaning in the context of language use.3.In what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar?答： The general approach thus traditionally formed to the study of language over the years is roughly referred to as“ traditional grammar.” Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar in several basic ways.Firstly, linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.Second, modem linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. Traditional grammarians, on the other hand, tended to emphasize, maybeover-emphasize, the importance of the written word, partly because of itspermanence.Then, modem linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does notforce languages into a Latin-based framework.4. Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? Why?答： In modem linguistics, a synchronic approach seems to enjoy priority over adiachronic one. Because people believed that unless the various states of a language in different historical periods are successfully studied, it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.5. For what reasons does modern linguistics give priority to speech rather than towriting?答： Speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication.Modem linguistics regards the spoken language as the natural or the primary mediumof human language for some obvious reasons. From the point of view of linguistic evolution,speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented ”by its users to record speech when the need arises. Even in today's world there are still many languages that can only be spoken but not written. Then in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount ofinformation conveyed. And also, speech is always the way in which every nativespeaker acquires his mother tongue, and writing is learned and taught later whenhe goes to school.For modern linguists,spoken language reveals many true features of human speech while written language is only the“revised ” record of speech. Thus their data for investigation and analysis are mostly drawn from everyday speech, which they regard as authentic.6.How is Saussure's distinction between langue and parole similar toChomsky's distinction between competence and performance?答： Saussure's distinction and Chomsky's are very similar, they differ at least inthat Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of langue isa matter of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychologicalpoint of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.7.What characteristics of language do you think should be included in a good, comprehensive definition of language?答： First of all, language is a system, ., elements of language are combinedaccording to rules.Second, language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connectionbetween a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for.Third,language is vocal because the primary mediumfor all languages is sound. Fourth, language is human-specific, i. e., it is very different from thecommunication systems other forms of life possess.8. What are the main features of humanlanguage that have been specified by C. Hockett to show that it is essentially different from animal communication system?答： The main features of human language are termed design features. They include:1) ArbitrarinessLanguage is arbitrary.This means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. A good example is the fact that different sounds are used torefer to the same object in different languages.2) ProductivityLanguage is productive or creative in that it makes possible the constructionand interpretation of new signals by its users. This is why they can produce andunderstand an infinitely large number of sentences, including sentences they havenever heard before.3) DualityLanguage consists of two sets of structures, or two levels. At the lower orthe basic level there is a structure of sounds, which are meaningless by themselves.But the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning, which are found at the higher level of the system.4) DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to things which are present or not present,real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediatesituations of the speaker. This is what“displacement” means.5) Cultural transmissionWhile humancapacity for language has a genetic basis, ., we were all born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language system arenot genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned.9.What are the major functions of language? Think of your own examplesfor illustration.答： Three main functions are often recognized of language:the descriptive function, the expressive function, and the social function.The descriptive function is the function to convey factual information, which canbe asserted or denied, and in some cases even verified. For example:“China is a large country with a long history.”The expressive function supplies information about the user’s feelings, preferences,prejudices,and values.For example: “I will never go window-shopping with her. ”The social function serves to establish and maintain social relations betweenpeople. . For example:“We are your firm supporters.”Chapter 2 Speech Sounds1.What are the two major media of linguistic communication? Of the two, whichone is primary and why?答： Speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication.Of the two media of language, speech is more primary than writing, for reasons, pleaserefer to the answer to the fifth problem in the last chapter.2. What is voicing and how is it caused?答： Voicing is a quality of speech sounds and a feature of all vowels and someconsonants in English. It is caused by the vibration of the vocal cords.3.Explain with examples how broad transcription and narrow transcription differ?答： The transcription with letter-symbols only is called broad transcription.This is the transcription normally used in dictionaries and teaching textbooks for general purposes.The latter,. the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics is called narrow transcription.This is the transcription needed and used by the phoneticians in their study of speech sounds. With the help of thediacritics they can faithfully represent as much of the fine details as it isnecessary for their purpose.In broad transcription, the symbol [l] is used for the sounds [l] in the fourwords leaf [li:f], feel [fi:l], build [bild], and health [helθ]. As a matter of fact, the sound [l] in all these four sound combinations differs slightly. The [l]in[li:f],occurring before a vowel,is called a dear [l],and no diacritic is needed to indicate it;the[1] in[fi:l]and [bild],occurring at the end of a word or before another consonant, is pronounced differently from the clear [1]as in“leaf”. Itis called dark[?]and in narrow transcription the diacritic[?]is used to indicate it.Then in the sound combination[hel θ],the sound [l]is followed by the English dental sound [ θ], its pronunciation is somewhat affected by the dental sound that follows it.It is thus called a dental[l],and in narrow transcription the diacritic [ 、 ] is used to indicate it. It is transcribed as [helθ].Another example is the consonant [p]. We all know that [p] is pronounceddifferently in the two words pit and spit.In the word pit,the sound [p] is pronounced with a strong puff of air, but in spit the puff of air is withheld to some extent.In the case of pit, the [p] sound is said to be aspirated and in the case of spit,the [p] sound is unaspirated. This difference is not shown in broad transcription,but in narrow transcription, a small raised“h” is used to show aspiration, thuspit is transcribed as [ph?t] and spit is transcribed as [sp?t].4. How are the English consonants classified?答： English consonants can be classified in two ways: one is in terms of mannerof articulation and the other is in terms of place of articulation.In terms of manner of articulation the English consonants can be classified into the following types: stops, fricatives, affricates, liquids, nasals and glides. In terms of place ofarticulation, it can be classified into following types: bilabial, labiodental,dental, alveolar, palatal, velar and glottal.5. What criteria are used to classify the English vowels?答： Vowels may be distinguished as front, central, and back according to whichpart of the tongue is held highest. To further distinguish members of each group,we need to apply another criterion, . the openness of the mouth. Accordingly, weclassify the vowels into four groups: close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-openvowels,and open vowels. A third criterion that is often used in the classificationof vowels is the shape of the lips.In English,all the front vowels and the central vowels are unfounded vowels,i. e.,without rounding the lips,and all the back vowels, with the exception of [a:], are rounded. It should be noted that some front vowelscan be pronounced with rounded lips.6.A. Give the phonetic symbol for each of the following sound descriptions:1)voiced palatal affricate2)voiceless labiodental fricative3)voiced alveolar stop4)front, close, short5)back, semi-open, long6)voiceless bilabial stopB. Give the phonetic features of each of the following sounds:1) [ t ] 2) [ l ] 3) [?] 4) [w] 5) [?]6) [?]答： A. (1) [?] (2) [ f ] (3) [d ] (4) [ ? ] (5) [ ?:] (6) [p]B. (1) voiceless alveolar stop(2) voiced alveolar liquid(3) voiceless palatal affricate(4) voiced bilabial glide(5) back, close, short(6) front, open7.How do phonetics and phonology differ in their focus of study? Who do youthink will be more interested in the difference between, say, [l] and [?], [ph] and [p],a phonetician or a phonologist? Why?答： (1) Both phonology and phonetics are concerned with the sameaspect of language–– the speech sounds. But while both are related to the study of sounds,, theydiffer in their approach and focus. Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages: how they are produced, howthey differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess, how they can beclassified, etc. Phonology, on the other hand, aims to discover how speechsounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to conveymeaning in linguistic communication.(2)A phonologist will be more interested in it. Because one of the tasksof the phonologists is to find out rule that governs the distribution of [l] and[?], [ph] and [p].8.What is a phone? How is it different from a phoneme? How are allophonesrelated to a phoneme?答： A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produceduring linguistic communication are all phones. A phonemeis not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phoneticcontext. The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phoneticenvironments are called the allophones of that phoneme. For example, the phoneme/l/ in English can be realized as dark [?], clear [l], etc. which are allophonesof the phoneme /l/.9. Explain with examples the sequential rule, the assimilation rule, and the deletion rule.答： Rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called sequential rules.There are many such sequential rules in English. For example, if a word beginswith a [l] or a [r], then the next sound must be a vowel. That is why [lbik] [lkbi]are impossible combinations in English.They have violated the restrictions on the sequencing of phonemes.The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying ” a featureof a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar. Assimilation ofneighbouring sounds is, for the most part,caused by articulatory or physiological processes. When we speak, we tend to increase the ease of articulation. This“sloppy ” tendency may become regularized as rules of language.We all know that nasalization is not a phonological feature in English, ., itdoes not distinguish meaning. But this does not meanthat vowels in English are never nasalized in actual pronunciation; in fact they are nasalized in certain phoneticcontexts. For example, the [i:] sound is nasalized in words like bean, green,team, and scream. This is because in all these sound combinations the [i:] sound is followed by a nasal [n] or [m].The assimilation rule also accounts for the varying pronunciation of thealveolar nasal [n] in some sound combinations. The rule is that within a word, thenasal [n] assumes the same place of articulation as the consonant that follows it.Weknow that in English the prefix in- can be added to maadjective to makethe meaning of the word negative, . discreet–indiscreet, correct–incorrect. But the [n]sound in the prefix in- is not always pronounced as an alveolar nasal. It is so inthe word indiscreet because the consonant that follows it, . [d], is an alveolarstop,but the [n]sound in the word incorrect is actually pronounced as a velar nasal, . [?]; this is because the consonant that follows it is [k], which is a velar stop.So we can see that while pronouncing the sound [n], we are“copying ” a feature of the consonant that follows it.Deletion rule tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented.Wehave noticed that in the p ronunciation of such words as sign,design, and paradigm, there is no [g] sound although it is represented in spelling by theletter g. But in their corresponding forms signature,designation,and paradigmatic, the [g]represented by the letter g is pronounced.The rule can be stated as: Delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal consonant. Given the rule, the phonemic representation of the stems in sign– signature, resign– resignation, phlegm–phlegmatic, paradigm – paradigmatic will include the phoneme /g/, which will bedeleted according to the regular rule if no suffix is added.10. What are suprasegmental features? How do the major suprasegmental features ofEnglish function in conveying meaning?答： The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features. The main suprasegmental features include stress,intonation,and tone. The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning. There are two kinds of stress: word stress and sentence stress. For example, a shift ofstress may change the part of speech of a word from a noun, to a verb although itsspelling remains unchanged. Tones are pitch variations which can distinguish meaning just like phonemes.Intonation plays an important role in the conveyance of meaning in almost every language, especially in a language like English. When spoken in different tones,the same sequence of words may have different meanings.Chapter 3 Morphology1. Divide the following words into their separate morphemes by placing a“+”between each morpheme and the next:a. microfile e. telecommunicationb. bedraggled f. forefatherc. announcement g. psychophysicsd. predigestion h. mechanist答： a. micro + file b. be + draggle + edc. announce + mentd. pre + digest + ione. tele + communicate + ionf. fore + fatherg. psycho + physics h. mechan + ist2.Think of three morpheme suffixes, give their meaning, and specify the typesof stem they may be suffixed to. Give at least two examples of each.Model: -orsuffix: -ormeaning: the person or thing performing the actionstem type: added to verbsexamples: actor, “one who acts in stage plays, motion pictures, etc. ” translator, “one who translates ”答： (1) suffix:-ablemeaning: something can be done or is possiblestem type: added to verbsexamples:acceptable,respectable,“can be accepted “can be respected””(2) suffix:-lymeaning: functionalstem type:added to adjectivesexamples: freely.“adverbial form of‘free’ ”quickly, “adverbial form of 'quick'”.(3) suffix:-eemeaning:the person receiving the actionstem type: added to verbsexamples: employee,“one who works in a company”interviewee, “one who is interviewed ”3.Think of three morpheme prefixes, give their meaning, and specify the typesof stem they may be prefixed to. Give at least two examples of each.Model: a-prefix: a-meaning: “without; not ”stem type: added to adjectivesexamples: asymmetric,“lacking symmetry ” asexual, “without sex or sex organs ”答： (1) prefix:dis-meaning:showing an oppositestem type: added to verbs or nounsexamples : disapprove,“do not approve ”dishonesty, “lack of honesty ”.(2) prefix:anti-meaning:against, opposed tostem type: added to nouns or adjectivesexamples :antinuclear,“opposing the use of atomic weapons and power”antisocial,“opposed or harmful to the laws and customs of an organized community.”(3) prefix:counter-meaning:the opposite ofstem type: added to nouns or adjectives.examples:counterproductive,“prod ucing results opposite to thoseintended ”(sth.) ”counteract, “act against and reduce the force or effect of4. The italicized part in each of the following sentences is an inflectional morpheme. Study each inflectional morpheme carefully and point out its grammatical meaning.Sue moves in high-society circles in London.A traffic warden asked John to move his car.The club has moved to Friday, February 22nd.The branches of the trees are moving back and forth.答： (1) the third person singular(2)the past tense(3)the present perfect(4)the present progressive5.Determine whether the words in each of the following groups are related toone another by processes of inflection or derivation.a) go, goes, going, goneb) discover, discovery, discoverer, discoverable, discoverabilityc) inventor, inventor’s, inventors, inventors’d)democracy, democrat, democratic, democratize答：( 略)6.The following sentences contain both derivational and inflectional affixes.Underline all of the derivational affixes and circle the inflectional affixes.a) The farmer ’s cows escaped.b)It was raining.c)Those socks are inexpensive.d)Jim needs the newer copy.e)The strongest rower continued.f)She quickly closed the book.g)The alphabetization went well.答：( 略)Chapter 4 Syntax1. What is syntax?Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined toform sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.2. What is phrase structure rule?The grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements . specifiers, heads, and complements) that make up a phrase is called a phrasestructure rule.The phrase structural rule for NP, VP, AP, and PP can be written as follows:NP→ (Det) N (PP) ...VP→ (Qual) V (NP) ...AP→ (Deg) A (PP) ...PP→ (Deg) P (NP) ...We can formulate a single general phrasal structural rule in which Xstands for the head N, V, A or P.The XP rule: XP→ (specifier)X (complement)3. What is category? How to determine a word's category?Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the sameor similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.To determine a word's category, three criteria are usually employed, namelymeaning, inflection and distribution.若详尽回答，则要加上：Word categories often bear some relationship with its meaning. The meanings associated with nouns and verbs can be elaborated in various ways. The property orattribute of the entities denoted by nouns can be elaborated by adjectives. Forexample, when we say that pretty lady, we are attributing the property‘pretty’to the lady designated by the noun. Similarly,the properties and attributes of the actions, sensations and states designated by verbs can typically be denoted byadverbs. For example, in Jenny left quietly the adverb quietly indicates the manner of Jenny's leaving.The second criterion to determine a word's category is inflection. Words ofdifferent categories take different inflections. Such nouns as boy and desk take the plural affix -s. Verbs such as work and help take past tense affix -ed and progressive affix - ing . And adjectives like quiet and clever take comparative affix - er and superlative affix - est . Although inflection is very helpful in determininga word's category, it does not always suffice. Some words do not take inflections.For example, nouns like moisture , fog , do not usually take plural suffix -s and adjectives like frequent , intelligent do not take comparative and superlativeaffixes - er and - est .The last and more reliable criterion of determining a word's category is its distribution. That is what type of elements can co-occur with a certain word. Forexample, nouns can typically appear with a determiner like the girl and a card, verbs with an auxiliary such as should stay and will go, and adjectives with a degree word such as very cool and too bright.A word's distributional facts together with information about its meaning and inflectional capabilities help identify its syntactic category.4. What is coordinate structure and what properties does it have?The structure formed by joining two or more elements of the same type withthe help of a conjunction is called coordinate structures.It has (或写Conjunction exhibits) four important properties:1) There is no limit on the number of coordinated categories that can appear priorto the conjunction.2)A category at any level (a head or an entire XP) can be coordinated.3)Coordinated categories must be of the same type.4)The category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category typeof the elements being conjoined.5.What elements does a phrase contain and what role does each element play?A phrase usually contains the following elements: head, specifier andcomplement. Sometimes it also contains another kind of element termed modifier.The role each element can play:Head:Head is the word around which a phrase is formed.Specifier:Specifier has both special semantic and syntactic roles. Semantically, ithelps to makemore precise the meaning of the head. Syntactically, it typically marks aphrase boundary.Complement:Complementsare themselves phrases and provide information about entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head.Modifier:Modifiers specify optionally expressible properties of the heads.6. What is deep structure and what is surface structure?There are two levels of syntactic structure. The first, formed by the XP rulein accordance with the head's subcategorization properties, is called deep structure (or D-structure). The second, corresponding to the final syntactic form of thesentence which results from appropriate transformations, is called surface structure (or S-structure ).（以下几题只作初步的的成分区分，未画树形图,仅供参照）7.Indicate the category of each word in the following sentences.a) The old lady got off the bus carefully.Det A N V P Det N Advb) The car suddenly crashed onto the river bank.Det N Adv V P Det Nc) The blinding snowstorm might delay the opening of the schools.Det A N Aux V Det N P Det Nd)This cloth feels quite soft.Det N V Deg A8. The following phrases include a head, a complement, and a specifier.Drawthe appropriate tree structure for each.a) rich in mineralsXP(AP) → head (rich) A +complement (in minerals) PPb) often read detective storiesXP(VP) → specifier (often) Qual + head (read) V + complement (detective stories) NPc) the argument against the proposalsXP(NP) → specifier (the) Det +head (argument) N +complement (against the proposals) PPd) already above the windowXP(VP) → specifier (already) Deg +head (above) P +complement (the window)NPd) The apple might hit the man.S → NP(The apple) + Infl (might) +VP(hit the man)e) He often reads detective stories.S → NP(He) + VP(often reads detective stories)9.The following sentences contain modifiers of various types. For each sentence,first identify the modifier(s), then draw the tree structures.（斜体的为名词的修饰语，划底线的为动词的修饰语）extreme caution.a) A crippled passenger landed the airplane withmoon hung in the sky.c) The man examined his car carefully yesterday.d) A woodenhut near the lake collapsed in the storm.10. The following sentences all contain conjoined categories. Draw a treestructure for each of the sentences.（划底线的为并列的范围）a)Jim has washed the dirty shirts and pants.b)Helen put on her clothes and went out.c)Mary is fond of literature but tired of statistics.11. The following sentences all contain embedded clauses that function ascomplements of a verb, an adjective, a preposition or a noun. Draw a tree structure foreach sentence.a)You know that I hate war.b)Gerry believes the fact that Anna flunked the English exam.c)Chris was happy that his father bought him a Rolls-Royce.d)The children argued over whether bats had wings.12.Each of the following sentences contains a relative clause. Draw thedeep structure and the surface structure trees for each of these sentences.a)The essay that he wrote was excellent.b)Herbert bought a house that she lovedc)The girl whom he adores majors in linguistics.13. The derivations of the following sentences involve the inversion transformation. Give the deep structure and the surface structure of each of these sentences.（斜体的为深层构造，一般字体的为表层构造）a) Would you come tomorrow?you would come tomorrowb) What did Helen bring to the party?Helen brought what to the partyc) Who broke the window?who broke the windowChapter 5 Semantics1. What are the major views concerning the study of meaning?答： (1) The naming theory proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato. Accordingto this theory, the linguistic forms or symbols, in other words, the words used ina language are simply labels of the objects they stand for. So words are just names or labels for things.(2)The conceptualist view has been held by some philosophers and linguists from ancient times. This view holds that there is no direct link between a linguisticform and what it refers to (i. e., between language and the real world); rather,in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation ofconcepts in the mind.(3) The contextualist view held that meaning should be studied in terms ofsituation, use, context––elements closely linked with language behaviour. The representative of this approach was . Firth, famous British linguist.。

语言学教程复习题与答案（胡壮麟版）1语言学教程复习题与答案(胡壮麟版第一章)Chapter I Introduction I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1. Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2. Linguistics studies particular language, not languages in general.3. A scientific study of language is based on what the linguist thinks.4. In the study of linguistics, hypotheses formed should be based on language facts andchecked against the observed facts.5. General linguistics is generally the study of language as a whole.6. General linguistics, which relates itself to the research of other areas, studies the basicconcepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study. 7.7. Phonetics is different from phonology in that the latter studies the combinations of thesounds to convey meaning in communication.8. Morphology studies how words can be formed to produce meaningful sentences.9. The study of the ways in which morphemes can be combined to form words is calledmorphology.10. Syntax is different from morphology in that the former not only studies the morphemes, butalso the combination of morphemes into words and words into sentences.11. The study of meaning in language is known as semantics.12. Both semantics and pragmatics study meanings.13. Pragmatics is different from semantics in that pragmatics studies meaning not in isolation,but in context.14. Social changes can often bring about language changes.15. Sociolinguistics is the study of language in relation to society.16. Modern linguistics is mostly prescriptive, but sometimes descriptive.17. Modern linguistics is different from traditional grammar.18. A diachronic study of language is the description of language at some point in time.19. Modern linguistics regards the written language as primary, not the written language.20. The distinction between competence and performance was proposed by F.de Saussure.II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:21. Chomsky defines “competence”as the ideal user’s k__________ of the rules of his language./doc/4318071260.html,ngue refers to the a__________ linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community while the parole is the concrete use of the conventions and application of the rules.23.D_________ is one of the design features of human language which refers to the pheno广告网址n that language consists of two levels: a lower level of meaningless individualsounds and a higher level of meaningful units.24. Language is a system of a_________ vocal symbols used for human communication.25. The discipline that studies the rules governing the formation of words into permissible sentences in languages is called s________.26. Human capacity for language has a g ____ basis, but the details of language have to be taught and learned.27. P ____ refers to the realization of langue in actual use.28. Findings in linguistic studies can often be applied to the settlement of some practical problems. The study of such applications is generally known as a________ linguistics.29. Language is p___________ in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. In other words, they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences which they have never heard before.30. Linguistics is generally defined as the s ____ study of language.III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement.31. If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be ______________.A. prescriptiveB. analyticC. descriptiveD. linguistic 32.Which of the following is not a design feature of human language?A. ArbitrarinessB. DisplacementC. DualityD. Meaningfulness33. Modern linguistics regards the written language as ____________.A. primaryB. correctC. secondaryD. stable34. In modern linguistics, speech is regarded as more basic than writing, because ___________. A. in linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writingB. speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.C. speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongueD. All of the above35. A historical study of language is a ____ study of language.A. synchronicB. diachronicC. prescriptiveD. comparative36.Saussure took a (n)__________ view of language, while Chomsky looks at language from a ________ point of view.A. sociological…psychologicalB. psychological…sociologicalC. applied…pragmaticD.semantic and linguistic37. According to F. de Saussure, ____ refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.A. paroleB. performanceC. langueD. Language38. Language is said to be arbitrary because there is no logical connection between _________ and meanings.A. senseB. soundsC. objectsD. ideas39. Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. This feature is called_________,A. displacementB. dualityC. flexibilityD. cultural transmission40. The details of any language system is passed on from one generation to the next through ____ , rather than by instinct.A. learningB. teachingC. booksD. both A and BIV. Define the following terms:41. Linguistics 42. Phonology 43. Syntax 44. Pragmatics 45. Psycholinguistics 46. Language 47. Phonetics 48. Morphology 49.Semantics 50. Sociolinguistics 51. Applied Linguistics 52.Arbitrariness 53 Productivity 54. Displacement 55.Duality 56. Design Features 57. Competence 58 Performance 59. Langue 60 ParoleV. Answer the following questions as comprehensively aspossible. Give examples for illustration if necessary:61. Language is generally defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Explain it in detail.62. What are the design features of human language? Illustrate them with examples.63. How is modern linguistics different from traditional grammar?64. How do you understand the distinction between a synchronic study and a diachronic study?65. Why does modern linguistics regard the spoken form of language as primary, not the written?66. What are the major distinctions between langue and parole?67. How do you understand competence and performance ?68. Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole seems similar to Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance. What do you think are their major differences?69. Do you think human language is entirely arbitrary? Why?I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:l.T 2.F 3.F 4.T 5.T 6.F 7.T 8.F 9.T 10.F 11.T 12.T 13.T 14.T 15.T16.F 17.T 18.F 19.F 20.FII. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given: 21. knowledg e 22. abstract 23. Duality 24. arbitrary 25. syntax 26.genetic 27. Parole 28. applied 29. productiv e 30. scientific (or systematic)III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the state ment. 3l.C 32.D 33.C 34.D 35.B 36.A 37.C 38.B 39.A 40.DIV. Define the following terms: 41. Linguistics: Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. 42. Phonology: The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology. 43. Syntax: The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax. 44.Pragmatics: The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics.45. Psycholinguistics: The study of language with reference to the workings of mind is called psycholinguistics. 46. Language: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 47. Phonetics: The study of sounds which are used in linguistic communication is called phonetics. 48. Morphology: The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words is called morphology. 49. Semantics: The study of meaning in language is called semantics.50. Sociolinguistics: The study of language with reference to society is called sociolinguistics.51. Applied linguistics: In a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages. In a broad sense, it refers to the application of linguistic findings to the solution of practical problems such as the recovery of speech ability. 52. Arbitrariness: It is one of the design features of language. It means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds 53. Productivity: Language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the con-struction and interpretation of new signals by its users.54. Displacement: Displacement means that language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real orimagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker 55. Duality: The duality nature of language means that language is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds and the other of meanings. 56. Design features: Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication57. Competence: Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user's knowledge of the rules of his language,58. Performance: performance is the actual realization of the knowl-edge of the rules in linguistic communication.59. langue : Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech co mmunity; Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to follow; Langue is relatively stable, it does not change frequently 60. Parole: Parole refers to the realization of la ngue in actual use; parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules; par ole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.V. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give examples for illustration if nec essary:61. Language is generally defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communicati on. Explain it in detail.First of all, language is a system, because elements of language are combined according to rules. Secondly, language is arbitrary because there is no intrinsic connection between fo rm and meaning, or between the sign and what it stands for. Different languages have different words for the same object in the world. This fact is a good illustration of the arbitrary natureof language. T his also explains the symbolic nature of language: words are just symbols; they are associated with o bjects, actions, ideas, etc. by convention . Thirdly, language is vocal because the primary medium is s ound for all languages, no matter how well - developed their writing systems are. The term "human" in the definition indicates that language is possessed by human beings only and is very different fro m the communication systems of other living creatures. The term "communication" means that language makes it possible for its users to talk to each other and fulfill their communicative needs.62. What are the design features of human language? Illustrate them with examples. 1) Arbitrarines s As mentioned earlier, the arbitrary property of language means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. For instance, there is no necessary relationship between the word elep hant and the animal it symbolizes. In addition, different sounds are used to refer to the same object i n different languages, and even within the same language, the same sound does not refer to the same thing. However, language is not entirelyarbitrary. There are words which are created in the imitation of sounds by sounds, such as crash, bang in English. Besides, some compound words are also not enti rely arbitrary. But the non-arbitrary words are quite limited in number. The arbitrary nature of language makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions. 2) Productivity Languag e is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. This is why they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences, including sentences that they have never said or heard before.They can send messages which no one else has ever sent before. Productivity is unique to human language. Most animal communication sys tems appear to be highly restricted with respect to the number of different signals that their users can send and receive. 3) Duality The duality nature of language means that language is a system, whic h consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds and the other of meanings. At the lo wer or the basic level, there is the structure of sounds, which are meaningless, discrete, individual so unds. But the sounds of language can be combined according to rules into units of meaning such as morphemes and words, which, at the higher level, can be arranged into sentences. This duality of stru cture or double articulation of language enables its users to talk about anything within their knowledge. No animal communication system has duality or even comes near to possessing it. 4) Displacemen t Displacement means that language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, langua ge can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. Animal call s are mainly uttered in response to immediate changes of situation. 5) Cultural transmission Human beings were born with the ability to acquire language, but the details of any language are not genetica lly transmitted or passed down by instinct. They have to be taught and learned, but animal call system s are genetically transmitted.63. How is modern linguistics different from traditional grammar? Traditional gram-mar isprescriptive; it is based on "high "(religious, literary) written language. It sets grammatical rules a nd imposes the rules onlanguage users. But Modern linguistics is descriptive; It collects authentic, and mainly spoken language data and then it studies and describes the data in an objective and scientific way.64. How do you understand the distinction between a synchronic study and a diachronicstudy? The description of a language at some point in time is a Synchronic study; the descriptio n of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. A synchronic study of language describes a language as it is at some particular point in time, while a diachronic study of langua ge is the study of the historical development of language over a period of time.65. Why does modern linguistics regard the spoken form of language as primary, not thewritten? First, the spoken form is prior to the writ-ten form and most writing systems are derived from the spoken form of language. Second, the spoken form plays a greater role than writing interms of the amount of information conveyed and it serves a wider range of purposes Finally, the spoken form is the medium through which we acquire our mother tongue.66. What are the major distinctions between langue and parole? The distinction between langue, and parole was made by the famous linguist Ferdinand de Saussure early this century. Lan gue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to follow while parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules. Langue is abstract; it is not the language people actually use, but parole is concrete; it refers to the naturally occurring language events. Langue is relatively stable; it does not change frequently; while parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situ ation.67. How do you understand competence and performance? American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s proposed the distinction between competence and performance. Chomsky defi nes competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language. This internalized set of rules enables the language user to produce and understand an infinitely large number of senten ces and recognize sentences that are ungrammatical and ambiguous. According to Chomsky, perfor mance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. Although the speake r’s knowledge of his mother tongue is perfect, his performances may have mistakes because of s ocial and psychological factors such as stress, embarrassment, etc.. Chomsky believes that what li nguists should study is the competence, which is systematic, not the performance, which is too h aphazard.68. Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole seems similar to Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance. What do you think are their major differences? Altho ugh Saussure’s distinction and Chomsky’s are very similar, they differ at least in that Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a mater of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of vies and to him, competence is a property of the mind of each individual.69. Do you think human language is entirely arbitrary? Why? Language is arbitrary in nature, it is not entirely arbitrary, because there are a limited number of words whose connections b etween forms and meanings can be logically explained to a certain extent, for example, the onoma topoeia, words which are coined on the basis of imitation of sounds by sounds such as bang, cra sh,etc.. Take compounds for another example. The two elements “photo”and “copy”in “phot ocopy”are non-motivated, but the compound is not arbitrary.语言学教程复习题与答案(胡壮麟版第二章)Chapter 2：PhonologyI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1. Voicing is a phonological feature that distinguishes meaning in both Chinese and English.2. If two phonetically similar sounds occur in the same environments and they distinguish meaning, they are said to be in complementary distribution.3. A phone is a phonetic unit that distinguishes meaning.4. English is a tone language while Chinese is not.5. In linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing.6. In everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.7. Articulatory phonetics tries to describe the physical properties of the stream of sounds which a speaker issues with the help of a machine called spectrograph.8. The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important areas: the throat, the mouth and the chest.9. Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called voicing.10. English consonants can be classified in terms of place of articulation and the partof the tongue that is raised the highest.11. According to the manner of articulation, some of the types into which the consonants can be classified are stops, fricatives, bilabial and alveolar.12. Vowel sounds can be differentiated by a number of factors: the position of tonguein the mouth, the openness of the mouth, the shape of the lips, and the length of the vowels. 13. According to the shape of the lips, vowels can be classified into close vowels, sem i-close vowels, semi-open vowels and open vowels.14. Any sound produced by a human being is a phoneme.15. Phones are the sounds that can distinguish meaning.16. Phonology is concerned with how the sounds can be classified into different categories.17. A basic way to determine the phonemes of a language is to see if substituting onesound for another results in a change of meaning.18. When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segmentwhich occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a phonemic contra st.19. The rules governing the phonological patterning are language specific.20. Distinctive features of sound segments can be found running over a sequence oftwo or more phonemic segments.II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:21. A ____ refers to a strong puff of air stream in the production of speech sounds.22. A ____ phonetics describes the way our speech organs work to produce the speech sounds and how they differ.23. The four sounds /p/,/b/,/m/ and /w/ have one feature in common, i.e, they are all b_______ sounds.24. Of all the speech organs, the t ____ is the most flexible, and is responsible for varieties of articulation than any other.25. English consonants can be classified in terms of manner of articulation or in termsof p____ of articulation.26. When the obstruction created by the speech organs is total or complete, the speech sound produced with the obstruction audibly released and the air passing out again is called a s________.27. S_________ features are the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments. They include stress, tone, intonation, etc.28. The rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are calleds ____ rules.29. The transcription of speech sounds with letter-symbols only is called broad transcription while the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics is called n_________ tra nscription.30. When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the wordin isolation, they are collectively known as i_________.31. P______ is a discipline which studies the system of sounds of a particular language and how sounds are combined into meaningful units to effect linguistic communication.32. The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important cavities: the pharyngeal cavity, the o_______ cavity and the nasal cavity.33. T____ are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords and which can distinguish meaning just likephonemes.34. Depending on the context in which stress is considered, there are two kinds of stress: word stress and s_________ stressIII. There are four choices following each of the statements below. Mark the choice that can best com plete the statement.35. Of all the speech organs, the _______ is/ are the most flexible. A. mouth B. lipsC. tongueD. vocal cords36. The sounds produced without the vocal cords vibrating are ____ sounds. A. voiceless B. voiced C. vowel D. consonantal37. __________ is a voiced alveolar stop.A. /z/B. /d/C. /k/D./b/38. The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying”a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones ____________. A. identical B. same C. exactly alike D. similar39. Since /p/ and /b/ are phonetically similar, occur in the same environments and theycan distinguish meaning, they are said to be ___________.A. in phonemic contrastB. in complementary distributionC. the allophonesD. minimal pair40. The sound /f/ is _________________. A. voiced palatal affricate B. voiced alveolar stopC. voiceless velar fricativeD. voiceless labiodental fricative41. A ____ vowel is one that is produced with the front part of the tongue maintainingthe highest position. A. back B. central C. front D. middle42. Distinctive features can be found running over a sequence of two or more phonemic segments. The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called ____________. A. phonetic components B. immediate constituents C. suprasegmental features D. sem antic features43. A(n) ___________ is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit, a collection of distinctive phonetic features. A. phone B. sound C. allophone D. phoneme44. The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the ____ of that phoneme. A. phones B. sounds C. phonemes D. allophone sIV. Define the terms below:45. phonology 46. phoneme 47.allophone 48. international phonetic alphabet 49. intonation 50. phonetics 51. auditory phonetics52. acoustic phonetics 53. phone 54.phonemic contrast 55. tone 56. minimal pairV. Answer the following questions as comprehensively aspossible. Give ex-amples for illustration if ne cessary:57. Of the two media of language, why do you think speech is more basic than writing?58. What are the criteria that a linguist uses in classifying vowels?59. What are the major differences between phonology and phonetics?60. Illustrate with examples how suprasegmental features can affect meaning.61. In what way can we determine whether a phone is a phoneme or not?I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:l.T 2.F 3.F 4.F 5.T 6.T 7.F 8.F 9.T 10.F 11.F 12.T 13.F 14.F 15.F 16. F 17. T 18. F 19. T 20. TII. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the let ter given:21. Aspiration 22.Articulatory 23. bilabial 24. tongue 25. place 26. stop 27. Suprasegmental 28. sequ ential 29. narrow 30. intonation 31. Phonology 32. oral 33. Tone 34. sentence III. There are four choices following each of the statements below. Mark the ch oice that can best complete the statement:35.C 36.A 37.B 38.D 39.A 40.D 41.C 42.C 43.D 44.DIV. Define the terms below:45.phonology: Phonology studies the system of sounds of a particular language; it aims to discover h ow speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.46. phoneme: The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme;it is a unit of distinctive value. But it is an abstract unit. To be exact, a phoneme is not a sound; it is a collection of distinctive phonetic features.47. allophone: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.48. international phonetic alphabet: It is a standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription.49. intonation: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation.50.51. phonetics: Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; itis concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world' s languages52. auditory phonetics: It studies the speech sounds from the hearer's point of view. It studies how the sounds are perceived by the hear-er.53. acoustic phonetics: It studies the speech sounds by looking at the sound waves. It studies the physical means by which speech sounds are transmitted through the air from one per son to another.54. phone : Phones can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a language. A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. It does not necessarily distinguish meaning.55. phonemic contrast: Phonemic contrast refers to the relation between two phonemes.If two phonemes can occur in the same environment and distinguish meaning, they are in phone mic contrast.56. tone: T ones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.57. minimal pair: When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a mi nimal pair.V. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give ex-amples for illustration if ne cessary:58. Of the two media of language, why do you think speech is more basic than writing?1) In linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. 2) In everyday communication, speech plays agreater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed. 3) Speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, and writing is learned and taught l ater at school.59. What are the criteria that a linguist uses in classifying vowels?1) Vowels may be distinguished as front, central and back in terms of the position of the。

语言学教程复习题与答案(胡壮麟版第一章)Chapter I Introduction I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1. Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2. Linguistics studies particular language, not languages in general.3. A scientific study of language is based on what the linguist thinks.4. In the study of linguistics, hypotheses formed should be based on languagefacts and checked against the observed facts.5. General linguistics is generally the study of language as a whole.6. General linguistics, which relates itself to the research of other areas, studiesthe basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study. 7.7. Phonetics is different from phonology in that the latter studies thecombinations of the sounds to convey meaning in communication.8. Morphology studies how words can be formed to produce meaningfulsentences.9. The study of the ways in which morphemes can be combined to form words iscalled morphology.10. Syntax is different from morphology in that the former not only studies themorphemes, but also the combination of morphemes into words and words into sentences.11. The study of meaning in language is known as semantics.12. Both semantics and pragmatics study meanings.13. Pragmatics is different from semantics in that pragmatics studies meaning notin isolation, but in context.14. Social changes can often bring about language changes.15. Sociolinguistics is the study of language in relation to society.16. Modern linguistics is mostly prescriptive, but sometimes descriptive.17. Modern linguistics is different from traditional grammar.18. A diachronic study of language is the description of language at some point intime.19. Modern linguistics regards the written language as primary, not the writtenlanguage.20. The distinction between competence and performance was proposed by F.deSaussure.II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:21. Chomsky defines “competence”as the ideal user’s k__________ of the rules of his language.ngue refers to the a__________ linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community while the parole is the concrete use of the conventions and application of the rules.23.D_________ is one of the design features of human language which refers to thepheno广告网址n that language consists of two levels: a lower level of meaningless individual sounds and a higher level of meaningful units.24. Language is a system of a_________ vocal symbols used for human communication.25. The discipline that studies the rules governing the formation of words into permissible sentences in languages is called s________.26. Human capacity for language has a g ____ basis, but the details of language have to be taught and learned.27. P ____ refers to the realization of langue in actual use.28. Findings in linguistic studies can often be applied to the settlement of some practical problems. The study of such applications is generally known as a________ linguistics.29. Language is p___________ in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. In other words, they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences which they have never heard before.30. Linguistics is generally defined as the s ____ study of language.III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement.31. If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be ______________.A. prescriptiveB. analyticC. descriptiveD. linguistic32.Which of the following is not a design feature of human language?A. ArbitrarinessB. DisplacementC. DualityD. Meaningfulness33. Modern linguistics regards the written language as ____________.A. primaryB. correctC. secondaryD. stable34. In modern linguistics, speech is regarded as more basic than writing, because ___________. A. in linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writingB. speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.C. speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongueD. All of the above35. A historical study of language is a ____ study of language.A. synchronicB. diachronicC. prescriptiveD. comparative36.Saussure took a (n)__________ view of language, while Chomsky looks at language from a ________ point of view.A. sociological…psychologicalB. psychological…sociologicalC. applied…pragmaticD.semantic and linguistic37. According to F. de Saussure, ____ refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.A. paroleB. performanceC. langueD. Language38. Language is said to be arbitrary because there is no logical connection between _________ and meanings.A. senseB. soundsC. objectsD. ideas39. Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. This feature is called_________,A. displacementB. dualityC. flexibilityD. cultural transmission40. The details of any language system is passed on from one generation to the next through ____ , rather than by instinct.A. learningB. teachingC. booksD. both A and BIV. Define the following terms:41. Linguistics 42. Phonology 43. Syntax 44. Pragmatics 45. Psycholinguistics 46. Language 47. Phonetics 48. Morphology 49.Semantics 50. Sociolinguistics 51. Applied Linguistics 52.Arbitrariness 53 Productivity 54. Displacement 55.Duality 56. Design Features 57. Competence 58 Performance 59. Langue 60 ParoleV. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give examples for illustration if necessary:61. Language is generally defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Explain it in detail.62. What are the design features of human language? Illustrate them with examples.63. How is modern linguistics different from traditional grammar?64. How do you understand the distinction between a synchronic study and a diachronic study?65. Why does modern linguistics regard the spoken form of language as primary, not the written?66. What are the major distinctions between langue and parole?67. How do you understand competence and performance ?68. Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole seems similar to Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance. What do you think are their major differences?69. Do you think human language is entirely arbitrary? Why?I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:l.T 2.F 3.F 4.T 5.T 6.F 7.T 8.F 9.T 10.F 11.T 12.T 13.T 14.T 15. T 16.F 17.T 18.F 19.F 20.FII. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the le tter given: 21. knowledge 22. abstract 23. Duality 24. arbitrary 25. syntax 26.genetic 27. Parole 28. applied 29. productive 30. scientific (or systematic)III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement. 3l.C 32.D 33.C 34.D 35.B 36.A 37.C 38.B 39.A 40.DIV. Define the following terms: 41. Linguistics: Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. 42. Phonology: The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology. 43. Syntax: The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax. 44.Pragmatics: The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics. 45. Psycholinguistics: The study of language with reference to the workings of mind is called psycholinguistics. 46. Language: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.47. Phonetics: The study of sounds which are used in linguistic communication is called phonetics. 48. Morphology: The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words is called morphology. 49. Semantics: The study of meaning in language is called semantics. 50. Sociolinguistics: The study of language with reference to society is called sociolinguistics.51. Applied linguistics: In a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages. In a broad sense, it refers to the application of linguistic findings to the solution of practical problems such as the recovery of speech ability. 52. Arbitrariness: It is one of the design features of language. It means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds 53. Productivity: Language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the con-struction and interpretation of new signals by its users. 54. Displacement: Displacement means that language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker55. Duality: The duality nature of language means that language is a system, whichconsists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds and the other of meanings. 56. Design features: Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication 57. Competence: Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user's knowledge of the rules of his language, 58. Performance: performance is the actual realization of the knowl-edge of the rules in linguistic communication.59. langue : Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community; Langue is the set of conventions and rule s which language users all have to follow; Langue is relatively stable, it does not change frequently 60. Parole: Parole refers to the realization of lang ue in actual use; parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the appli cation of the rules; parole varies from person to person, and from situation t o situation.V. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give exam ples for illustration if necessary:61. Language is generally defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Explain it in detail.First of all, language is a sys tem, because elements of language are combined according to rules. Secondl y, language is arbitrary because there is no intrinsic connection between form and meaning, or between the sign and what it stands for. Different language s have different words for the same object in the world. This fact is a good i llustration of the arbitrary nature of language. This also explains the symbolic nature of language: words are just symbols; they are associated with object s, actions, ideas, etc. by convention . Thirdly, language is vocal because the primary medium is sound for all languages, no matter how well - developed t heir writing systems are. The term "human" in the definition indicates that l anguage is possessed by human beings only and is very different from the c ommunication systems of other living creatures. The term "communication" m eans that language makes it possible for its users to talk to each other and fulfill their communicative needs.62. What are the design features of human language? Illustrate them with ex amples. 1) Arbitrariness As mentioned earlier, the arbitrary property of langu age means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. For instance, there is no necessary relationship between the word elephant and the animal it symbolizes. In addition, different sounds are used to refer t o the same object in different languages, and even within the same language, the same sound does not refer to the same thing. However, language is not entirelyarbitrary. There are words which are created in the imitation of sound s by sounds, such as crash, bang in English. Besides, some compound word s are also not entirely arbitrary. But the non-arbitrary words are quite limited in number. The arbitrary nature of language makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions. 2) Productivity Language is prod uctive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. This is why they can produce and understand a n infinitely large number of sentences, including sentences that they have ne ver said or heard before. They can send messages which no one else has ev er sent before. Productivity is unique to human language. Most animal comm unication systems appear to be highly restricted with respect to the number of different signals that their users can send and receive. 3) Duality The du ality nature of language means that language is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds and the other of meaning s. At the lower or the basic level, there is the structure of sounds, which are meaningless, discrete, individual sounds. But the sounds of language can be combined according to rules into units of meaning such as morphemes and words, which, at the higher level, can be arranged into sentences. This duality of structure or double articulation of language enables its users to talk abou t anything within their knowledge. No animal communication system has duali ty or even comes near to possessing it. 4) Displacement Displacement mea ns that language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away p laces. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed fro m the immediate situations of the speaker. Animal calls are mainly uttered in response to immediate changes of situation. 5) Cultural transmission Huma n beings were born with the ability to acquire language, but the details of an y language are not genetically transmitted or passed down by instinct. They have to be taught and learned, but animal call systems are genetically transmi tted.63. How is modern linguistics different from traditional grammar? Traditional gram-mar is prescriptive; it is based on "high "(religious, literary) writte n language. It sets grammatical rules and imposes the rules on language users. But Modern linguistics is descriptive; It collects authentic, and mai nly spoken language data and then it studies and describes the data in a n objective and scientific way.64. How do you understand the distinction between a synchronic study anda diachronic study? The description of a language at some point in timeis a Synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes throu gh time is a diachronic study. A synchronic study of language describesa language as it is at some particular point in time, while a diachronic study of language is the study of the historical development of language o ver a period of time.65. Why does modern linguistics regard the spoken form of language as primary, not the written? First, the spoken form is prior to the writ-ten for m and most writing systems are derived from the spoken form of langua ge. Second, the spoken form plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed and it serves a wider range of purp oses Finally, the spoken form is the medium through which we acquire o ur mother tongue.66. What are the major distinctions between langue and parole? The distinction between langue, and parole was made by the famous linguist Ferdinand de Saussure early this century. Langue refers to the abstract linguisticsystem shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole ref ers to the realization of langue in actual use. Langue is the set of conve ntions and rules which language users all have to follow while parole is t he concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules. Lang ue is abstract; it is not the language people actually use, but parole is c oncrete; it refers to the naturally occurring language events. Langue is rel atively stable; it does not change frequently; while parole varies from per son to person, and from situation to situation.67. How do you understand competence and performance? American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s proposed the distinction between comp etence and performance. Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language. This internalized set of rules e nables the language user to produce and understand an infinitely large n umber of sentences and recognize sentences that are ungrammatical and ambiguous. According to Chomsky, performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. Although the speaker’s knowledge of his mother tongue is perfect, his performances may have mista kes because of social and psychological factors such as stress, embarras sment, etc.. Chomsky believes that what linguists should study is the co mpetence, which is systematic, not the performance, which is too haphaz ard.68. Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole seems similar to Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance. What do you thi nk are their major differences? Although Saussure’s distinction and Cho msky’s are very similar, they differ at least in that Saussure took a soci ological view of language and his notion of langue is a mater of social c onventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of vies and to him, competence is a property of the mind of each individual.69. Do you think human language is entirely arbitrary? Why? Language isarbitrary in nature, it is not entirely arbitrary, because there are a limited number of words whose connections between forms and meanings can be logically explained to a certain extent, for example, the onomatopoeia,words which are coined on the basis of imitation of sounds by sounds s uch as bang, crash,etc.. Take compounds for another example. The two el ements “photo”and “copy”in “photocopy”are non-motivated, but t he compound is not arbitrary.语言学教程复习题与答案(胡壮麟版第二章)Chapter 2：PhonologyI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1. Voicing is a phonological feature that distinguishes meaning in both Chinese and English.2. If two phonetically similar sounds occur in the same environments and they distinguish meaning, they are said to be in complementary distribution.3. A phone is a phonetic unit that distinguishes meaning.4. English is a tone language while Chinese is not.5. In linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing.6. In everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.7. Articulatory phonetics tries to describe the physical properties of thestream of sounds which a speaker issues with the help of a machinecalled spectrograph.8. The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important areas: the throat, the mouth and the chest.9. Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called voicing.10. English consonants can be classified in terms of place of articulationand the part of the tongue that is raised the highest.11. According to the manner of articulation, some of the types into whichthe consonants can be classified are stops, fricatives, bilabial and alv eolar.12. Vowel sounds can be differentiated by a number of factors: the position of tongue in the mouth, the openness of the mouth, the shape of the lips, and the length of the vowels.13. According to the shape of the lips, vowels can be classified into close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels and open vowels.14. Any sound produced by a human being is a phoneme.15. Phones are the sounds that can distinguish meaning.16. Phonology is concerned with how the sounds can be classified into different categories.17. A basic way to determine the phonemes of a language is to see if substituting one sound for another results in a change of meaning. 18. When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a phonemic contrast.19. The rules governing the phonological patterning are language specific.20. Distinctive features of sound segments can be found running over asequence of two or more phonemic segments.II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with t he letter given:21. A ____ refers to a strong puff of air stream in the production of speech sounds.22. A ____ phonetics describes the way our speech organs work to produce the speech sounds and how they differ.23. The four sounds /p/,/b/,/m/ and /w/ have one feature in common, i.e, they are all b_______ sounds.24. Of all the speech organs, the t ____ is the most flexible, and is responsible for varieties of articulation than any other.25. English consonants can be classified in terms of manner of articulation or in terms of p____ of articulation.26. When the obstruction created by the speech organs is total or complete, the speech sound produced with the obstruction audibly released a nd the air passing out again is called a s________. <![endif]>27. S_________ features are the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments. They include stress, tone, intonation, etc.28. The rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called s ____ rules.29. The transcription of speech sounds with letter-symbols only is calledbroad transcription while the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics is called n_________ transcription.30. When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as i_________.31. P______ is a discipline which studies the system of sounds of a particular language and how sounds are combined into meaningful units t o effect linguistic communication.32. The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important cavities: the pharyngeal cavity, the o_______ cavity and the na sal cavity.33. T____ are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates ofvibration of the vocal cords and which can distinguish meaning just li ke phonemes. <![endif]>34. Depending on the context in which stress is considered, there are twokinds of stress: word stress and s_________ stressIII. There are four choices following each of the statements below. Mark t he choice that can best complete the statement.35. Of all the speech organs, the _______ is/ are the most flexible. A. mouth B. lips C. tongue D. vocal cords36. The sounds produced without the vocal cords vibrating are ____ sounds. A. voiceless B. voiced C. vowel D. consonantal37. __________ is a voiced alveolar stop.A. /z/B. /d/C. /k/D./b/38. The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying”a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones ____________. A. identical B. same C. exactly alike D. similar39. Since /p/ and /b/ are phonetically similar, occur in the same environments and they can distinguish meaning, they are said to be _________ __.A. in phonemic contrastB. in complementary distributionC. the allophonesD. minimal pair40. The sound /f/ is _________________. A. voiced palatal affricateB. voiced alveolar stopC. voiceless velar fricativeD. voiceless labiodental fricative41. A ____ vowel is one that is produced with the front part of the tongue maintaining the highest position. A. back B. central C. front D. middle42. Distinctive features can be found running over a sequence of two ormore phonemic segments. The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called ____________. A. phonetic components B. immediate constituents C. suprasegmental features D. se mantic features43. A(n) ___________ is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstractunit, a collection of distinctive phonetic features. A. phone B. so und C. allophone D. phoneme44. The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the ____ of that phoneme. A. phones B. sounds C. phonemes D. allophones <![endif]>IV. Define the terms below:45. phonology 46. phoneme 47.allophone 48. international phonetic alphabet 49. intonation 50. phonetics 51. auditory phonetics52. acoustic phonetics 53. phone 54. phonemic contrast 55. tone 56. minimal pairV. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give ex-amples for illustration if necessary:57. Of the two media of language, why do you think speech is more basic than writing?58. What are the criteria that a linguist uses in classifying vowels?59. What are the major differences between phonology and phonetics?60. Illustrate with examples how suprasegmental features can affect meaning.61. In what way can we determine whether a phone is a phoneme or not?I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:l.T 2.F 3.F 4.F 5.T 6.T 7.F 8.F 9.T 10.F 11.F 12.T 13.F 14.F 15.F 16. F 17. T 18. F 19. T 20. TII. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begin s with the letter given:21. Aspiration 22.Articulatory 23. bilabial 24. tongue 25. place 26. stop 27. Suprasegmental 28. sequential 29. narrow 30. intonation 31. P honology 32. oral 33. Tone 34. sentenceIII. There are four choices following each of the statements below.Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:35.C 36.A 37.B 38.D 39.A 40.D 41.C 42.C 43.D 44.DIV. Define the terms below:45.phonology: Phonology studies the system of sounds of a particular lan guage; it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patter ns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic com munication.46. phoneme: The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme; it is a unitof distinctive value. But it is an abstract unit. To be exact, a phoneme is not a sound; it is a collection of distinctive phonetic features.47. allophone: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.48. international phonetic alphabet: It is a standardized and internationallyaccepted system of phonetic transcription.49. intonation: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as i ntonation.50.51. phonetics: Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world' s languages52. auditory phonetics: It studies the speech sounds from the hearer's point of view. It studies how the sounds are perceived by the hear-er.53. acoustic phonetics: It studies the speech sounds by looking at the sound waves. It studies the physical means by which speech sounds a re transmitted through the air from one person to another.54. phone : Phones can be simply defined as the speech sounds we usewhen speaking a language. A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. It does not necessarily distinguish meaning.55. phonemic contrast: Phonemic contrast refers to the relation between two phonemes. If two phonemes can occur in the same environment a nd distinguish meaning, they are in phonemic contrast.56. tone: Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.57. minimal pair: When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the stri ngs, the two words are said to form a minimal pair.V. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give ex-amples for illustration if necessary:58. Of the two media of language, why do you think speech is more basic than writing? 1) In linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing.2) In everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed. 3) Speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, and writing is learned and taught later at school.59. What are the criteria that a linguist uses in classifying vowels?。

第一章：语言学导论参考答案I.1~5 B A C C C 6~10 B A C A CII.11~15 F F T F F 16~20 F F F F FIII.21. verbal 22. productivity / creativity 23. metalingual function 24. yo-he-ho25. scientific 26. descriptive 27. speech 28. diachronic linguistic29. langue 30. competenceIV.31. Design feature: It refers to the defining properties of human language that tell the differencebetween human language and any system of animal communication.32. Displacement: It means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events andconcepts, which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication.33. Competence: It is an essential part of performance. It is the speaker’s kn owledge of his or herlanguage; that is, of its sound structure, its words, and its grammatical rules. Competence is, in a way, an encyclopedia of language. Moreover, the knowledge involved in competence is generally unconscious.A transformational-generative grammar is a model of competence.34. Synchronic linguistics: It refers to the study of a language at a given point in time. The timestudied may be either the present or a particular point in the past; synchronic analyses can also be made of dead languages, such as Latin. Synchronic linguistics is contrasted with diachronic linguistics, the study of a language over a period of time.V.35. Duality makes our language productive. A large number of different units can be formed out of asmall number of elements – for instance, tens of thousands of words out of a small set of sounds,around 48 in the case of the English language. And out of the huge number of words, there can be astronomical number of possible sentences and phrases, which in turn can combine to formunlimited number of texts. Most animal communication systems do not have this design feature of human language.If language has no such design feature, then it will be like animal communicational system which will be highly limited. It cannot produce a very large number of sound combinations, e.g. words,which are distinct in meaning.36. It is difficult to define language, as it is such a general term that covers too many things. Thus,definitions for it all have their own special emphasis, and are not totally free from limitations.VI.37. It should be guided by the four principles of science: exhaustiveness, consistency, economy andobjectivity and follow the scientific procedure: form hypothesis – collect data – check against theobservable facts – come to a conclusion.第二章：语音参考答案I1~5 A C D A A 6~10 D B A B BII.11~15 T T T F F 16~20 T T T F FIII.21. voiced, voiceless, voiced 22. friction 23. tongue 24. height25. obstruction 26. minimal pairs 27. diphthongs 28. Co-articulation29. Phonemes 30. air streamIV.31. Sound assimilation: Speech sounds seldom occur in isolation. In connected speech, under the influenceof their neighbors, are replaced by other sounds. Sometimes two neighboring sounds influence each other and are replaced by a third sound which is different from both original sounds. This process iscalled sound assimilation.32. Suprasegmental feature: The phonetic features that occur above the level of the segments are calledsuprasegmental features; these are the phonological properties of such units as the syllable, the word, and the sentence. The main suprasegmental ones includes stress, intonation, and tone.33. Complementary distribution: The different allophones of the same phoneme never occur in the samephonetic context. When two or more allophones of one phoneme never occur in the same linguistic environment they are said to be in complementary distribution.34. Distinctive features: It refers to the features that can distinguish one phoneme from another. If we cangroup the phonemes into two categories: one with this feature and the other without, this feature is called a distinctive feature.V.35. Acoustic phonetics deals with the transmission of speech sounds through the air. When a speech soundis produced it causes minor air disturbances (sound waves). V arious instruments are used to measure the characteristics of these sound waves.36. When the vocal cords are spread apart, the air from the lungs passes between them unimpeded. Soundsproduced in this way are described as voiceless; consonants [p, s, t] are produced in this way. But when the vocal cords are drawn together, the air from the lungs repeatedly pushes them apart as it passes through, creating a vibration effect. Sounds produced in this way are described as voiced. [b, z, d] are voiced consonants.VI. 37.Omit.第三章：词汇参考答案I1~5 A A C B B 6~10 B C A D BII. 11~15 F T F T T 16~20 F T F F FIII.21. initialism, acronym 22. v ocabulary 23. solid, hyphenated, open 24. morpheme25. close, open 26. back-formation 27. conversion 28. morpheme29. derivative, compound 30. affix, bound rootIV.31. Blending: It is a process of word-formation in which a new word is formed by combining themeanings and sounds of two words, one of which is not in its full form or both of which are not in their full forms, like newscast (news + broadcast), brunch (breakfast + lunch)32. Allomorph: It is any of the variant forms of a morpheme as conditioned by position or adjoiningsounds.33. Close-class word: It is a word whose membership is fixed or limited. Pronouns, prepositions,conjunctions, articles, etc. are all closed-class words.34. Morphological rule: It is the rule that governs which affix can be added to what type of base to forma new word, e.g. –ly can be added to a noun to form an adjective.VI .37. (1) c (2) a (3) e (4) d (5) b第四章：句法参考答案I1~5 D C D D D 6~10 A D D B AII.11~15 T T T T F 16~20 F T F T TIII.21. simple 22. sentence 23. subject 24. predicate25. complex 26. embedded 27. open 28. Adjacency29. Parameters 30. CaseIV.31. Syntax: Syntax refers to the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in alanguage, or simply, the study of the formation of sentences.32. IC analysis: Immediate constituent analysis, IC analysis for short, refers to the analysis of a sentence interms of its immediate constituents – word groups (phrases), which are in turn analyzed into theimmediate constituents of their own, and the process goes on until the ultimate sake of convenience. 33. Hierarchical structure: It is the sentence structure that groups words into structural constituents andshows the syntactic category of each structural constituent, such as NP, VP and PP.34. Trace theory: After the movement of an element in a sentence there will be a trace left in the originalposition. This is the notion trace in T-G grammar. It’s suggested that if we have the notion trace, all the necessary information for semantic interpretation may come from the surface structure. E.g. Thepassive Dams are built by beavers. differs from the active Beavers built dams. in implying that all dams are built by beavers. If we add a trace element represented by the letter t after built in the passive as Dams are built t by beavers, then the deep structure information that the word dams was originally the object of built is also captured by the surface structure. Trace theory proves to be not only theoretically significant but also empirically valid.V.35.An endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent, or approachingequivalence, to one of its constituents, which serves as the center, or head, of the whole. A typicalexample is the three small children with children as its head. The exocentric construction, opposite to the first type, is defined negatively as a construction whose distribution is not functionally equivalent to any of its constituents. Prepositional phrasal like on the shelf are typical examples of this type.36.(1) more | beautiful flowers(2) more beautiful | flowers第五章：意义参考答案I1~5 A B D D B 6~10 C A C D AII. 11~15 F F T F T 16~20 T F T T TIII.21. Semantics 22. direct 23. Reference 24. synonyms 25.homophones26. Relational27. Componential 28. selectional29. argument 30. namingIV.31. Entailment: It is basically a semantic relation (or logical implication), and it can be clarified withthe following sentences:a. T om divorced Jane.b. Jane was T om’s wife.In terms of truth value, the following relationships exist between these two sentences: when A is true,B must be also true; when B is false, A must also be false. When B is true, A may be true or false.Therefore we can say A entails B.32. Proposition: It is the result of the abstraction of sentences, which are descriptions of states of affairs andwhich some writers see as a basic element of sentence meaning. For example, the two sentences“Caesar invaded Gaul” and “Gaul was invaded by Caesar” hold the same proposition.33. Compositional analysis: It defines the meaning of a lexical element in terms of semantic components, orsemantic features. For example, the meaning of the word boy may be analyzed into three components: HUMAN, YOUNG and MALE. Similarly girl may be analyzed into HUMAN, YOUNG andFEMALE.34. Reference: It is what a linguistic form refers to in the real world; it is a matter of the relationshipbetween the form and the reality.V.35. Hyponymy, metonymy or part-whole relationship36. (Omit.)VI.37. (1) The (a) words and (b) words are male.The (a) words are human, while the (b) words are non-human.(2) The (a) words and (b) words are inanimate.The (a) words are instrumental, while the (b) words are edible.(3) The (a) words and (b) words are worldly or conceptual.The (a) words are material, while the (b) words are spiritual.第七章：语言、文化和社会参考答案I1~5 B C A A C 6~10 D A C A DII. 11~15 F T F F F 16~20 T F T F FIII.21. community 22. variety23. dialectal 24.planning25.sociolects26. Stylistic27. official 28. superposed29. vernacular 30. inflectionalIV.31. Lingua franca: A lingua franca is a variety of language that serves as a common speech for socialcontact among groups of people who speaks different native languages or dialects.32. Regional dialect: Regional dialect, also social or class dialect, is a speech variety spoken by themembers of a particular group or stratum of a speech community.33. Register: Register, also situational dialect, refers to the language variety appropriate for use in particularspeech situations on which degrees of formality depends.34. Sociolinguistics: Defined in its broadest way, sociolinguistics, a subdiscipline of linguistics, is the studyof language in relation to society. It is concerned with language variation, language use, the impact of extra-linguistic factors on language use, etc.V. 35. American English is not superior to African English. As different branches of English, African English and American English are equal. Similar as they are, they are influenced by their respective cultural context and thus form respective systems of pronunciation, words and even grammar.36. In China, Chinese has a more strict and complex relationship system. So in Chinese there are a lot morekinship words than in English.VI.37. (Omit.)第八章：语言的使用参考答案I1~5 D B C B A 6~10 C B C A DII. 11~15 F T T F F 16~20 F F F T TIII.21. context 22. utterance 23. abstract 24. Constatives 25. Performatives26. locutionary 27. illocutionary 28. commissive 29. expressive 30. quantityIV.31. Conversational implicature: In our daily life, speakers and listeners involved in conversation aregenerally cooperating with each other. In other words, when people are talking with each other, they must try to converse smoothly and successfully. In accepting speak ers’ presuppositions, listenershave to assume that a speaker is not trying to mislead them. This sense of cooperation is simply one in which people having a conversation are not normally assumed to be trying to confuse, trick, or withhold relevant information from one another. However, in real communication, the intention of the speaker is often not the literal meaning of what he or she says. The real intention implied in the words is called conversational implicature.32. Performative: In speech act theory an utterance which performs an act, such as W atch out (= a warning).33. Locutionary act: A locutionary act is the saying of something which is meaningful and can beunderstood.34. Horn’s Q-principle: (1) Make your contribution sufficient (cf. quantity); (2) Say as much as you can(given R).V.35. Pragmatics is the study of the use of language in communication, particularly the relationshipsbetween sentences and the contexts and situations in which they are used. Pragmatics includes the study of(1) How the interpretation and use of utterances depends on knowledge of the real world;(2) How speakers use and understand speech acts;(3) How the structure of sentences is influenced by the relationship between the speaker and thehearer.Pragmatics is sometimes contrasted with semantics, which deals with meaning without reference to the users and communicative functions of sentences.36.Y es, B is cooperative. On the face of it, B’s statement is not an answer to A’s question. B doesn’t say“when.” However, A will immediately interpret the statement as meaning “I don’t know” or “I am not sure.” Just assume that B is being “relevant” and “informative.” Given that B’s answer contains relevant information, A can work out that “an accident further up the road” conventionally involves “traffic jam,” and “traffic jam” preludes “bus coming.” Thus, B’s answer is not simply a statement of “when the bus comes”; it contains an implicature concerning “when the bus comes.”VI.37.It occurs before and / or after a word, a phrase or even a longer utterance or a text. The context oftenhelps in understanding the particular meaning of the word, phrase, etc.The context may also be the broader social situation in which a linguistic item is used.(1) a. A mild criticism of someone who should have cleaned the room.b. In a language class where a student made a mistake, for he intended to say “tidy.”c. The room was wanted for a meeting.(2) a. A mild way to express disagreement with someone w ho has complimented on a lady’sappearance.b. A regret that the customer had not taken the dress.c. That she wore a red shirt was not in agreement with the custom on the occasion.第十二章：现代语言学理论与流派参考答案I1~5 B A C A A 6~10 A B D C CII. 11~15 F F T T F 16~20 F T T T FIII.21. synchronic 22. phonetics23. J. R. Firth 24. systemic25. sociologically26. distribution27. Bloomfieldian 28. Descriptivism29. innateness 30. hypothesis-makerIV.31. FSP: It stands for Functional Sentence Perspective. It is a theory of linguistic analysis which refers to ananalysis of utterances (or texts) in terms of the information they contain.32. Cohesion: The Cohesion shows whether a certain tagmeme is dominating other tagmemes or isdominated by others.33. LAD: LAD, that is Language Acquisition Device, is posited by Chomsky in the 1960s as a deviceeffectively present in the minds of children by which a grammar of their native language is constructed.34. Case Grammar: It is an approach that stresses the relationship of elements in a sentence. It is a type ofgenerative grammar developed by C. J. Fillmore in the late 1960s.V. VI. Omit.。