The Unreasonable Effectiveness of Mathematics in the Natural Sciences
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Title: Navigating the Challenges ofMathematical Problems: Strategies andRationalesMathematics, often perceived as a discipline full of complex challenges, can indeed be intimidating to many students. However, with the right strategies and an understanding of the underlying reasons, these problems can be tackled effectively. In this article, we delve into the various suggestions for approaching mathematical难题 and the rationales behind them.**1. Understand the Basics**The foundation of any mathematical concept is crucial. Ensure you have a solid grasp of the fundamentals. If you encounter a problem that seems overwhelming, break it down into smaller, more manageable parts. For instance, in algebra, starting with the basics of variables, equations, and operations can help build a strong foundation for more complex equations.**2. Practice Regularly**Regular practice is key to improving mathematicalskills. Solve problems regularly, starting with those that are easier and gradually moving on to more challenging ones. This helps in building confidence and familiarizing oneself with various problem-solving techniques.**3. Visualize Concepts**Mathematics is often abstract, but visualizing concepts can make them easier to understand. For instance, when dealing with geometry, drawing diagrams can help visualize shapes and angles, making it easier to solve related problems.**4. Seek Help When Needed**Don't be afraid to ask for help when stuck on a problem. Seek guidance from teachers, classmates, or online resources. Discussing problems with others often leads to new insights and understanding.**5. Embrace Failures**Failures are an integral part of learning. When you encounter a problem you can't solve, don't give up. Instead,use it as an opportunity to learn and improve. Analyze where you went wrong and try again.**中文内容:****攻克数学难题:策略与理由**数学,这门充满复杂挑战的学科,往往让许多学生望而生畏。
Learning mathematics is an essential part of education that not only sharpens analytical skills but also fosters logical thinking and problemsolving abilities.Heres a detailed essay on the importance of studying mathematics and how it can be approached effectively.Title:The Significance of Mathematics in EducationIntroduction:Mathematics is often referred to as the language of the universe.It is a subject that transcends cultural and linguistic barriers,providing a universal framework for understanding the world around us.From counting to complex calculations,math is an integral part of our daily lives.Importance of Mathematics:1.Foundation for Other Subjects:Mathematics is a fundamental building block for other sciences such as physics,chemistry,and engineering.It provides the necessary tools to analyze and interpret data,making it indispensable for scientific inquiry.2.Critical Thinking:Studying math helps develop critical thinking skills.It encourages students to approach problems systematically and logically,breaking them down into manageable parts.3.ProblemSolving Abilities:Mathematical problems often have multiple solutions, which teaches students to think creatively and find the most efficient method to solve a problem.4.RealWorld Applications:Mathematics is not confined to the classroom.It is used in everyday life,from managing finances to understanding statistical data in various fields such as economics,medicine,and social sciences.Approaches to Learning Mathematics:1.Understanding Concepts:Rather than memorizing formulas,it is crucial to understand the underlying concepts.This approach helps in applying mathematical principles to new and unfamiliar problems.2.Practice:Mathematics is a subject that requires consistent practice.Regular exercises and problemsolving can significantly improve ones ability to tackle complex problems.e of Technology:Utilizing technology such as calculators,computer software,and online resources can enhance the learning experience.They can provide visual representations of mathematical concepts and offer interactive ways to solve problems.4.Group Work:Collaborative learning can be beneficial in mathematics.Discussing problems with peers can lead to new insights and a deeper understanding of the subject.Challenges in Learning Mathematics:1.Perception of Difficulty:Many students find mathematics challenging and may develop a fear of the subject.Overcoming this fear is essential for embracing the subject fully.ck of RealWorld Connection:Sometimes,the abstract nature of mathematics can make it difficult for students to see its relevance.Connecting mathematical concepts to realworld applications can help bridge this gap.Conclusion:In conclusion,mathematics is a subject of immense importance that offers a wealth of benefits to students.It not only equips them with analytical and problemsolving skills but also prepares them for various professional fields.By adopting effective learning strategies and recognizing the relevance of mathematics in everyday life,students can overcome challenges and excel in this fascinating subject.。
2.12.比:ratio 比例:proportion 利率:interest rate 速率:speed 除:divide 除法:division 商:quotient 同类量:like quantity 项:term 线段:line segment 角:angle 长度:length 宽:width高度:height 维数:dimension 单位:unit 分数:fraction 百分数:percentage3.(1)一条线段和一个角的比没有意义,他们不是相同类型的量.(2)比较式通过说明一个量是另一个量的多少倍做出的,并且这两个量必须依据相同的单位.(5)为了解一个方程,我们必须移项,直到未知项独自处在方程的一边,这样就可以使它等于另一边的某量.4.(1)Measuring the length of a desk, is actually comparing the length of the desk to that of a ruler.(3)Ratio is different from the measurement, it has no units. The ratio of the length and the width of the same book does not vary when the measurement unit changes.(5)60 percent of students in a school are female students, which mean that 60 students out of every 100 students are female students.2.22.初等几何:elementary geometry 三角学:trigonometry 余弦定理:Law of cosines 勾股定理/毕达哥拉斯定理:Gou-Gu theorem/Pythagoras theorem 角:angle 锐角:acute angle 直角:right angle 同终边的角:conterminal angles 仰角:angle of elevation 俯角:angle of depression 全等:congruence 夹角:included angle 三角形:triangle 三角函数:trigonometric function直角边:leg 斜边:hypotenuse 对边:opposite side 临边:adjacent side 始边:initial side 解三角形:solve a triangle 互相依赖:mutually dependent 表示成:be denoted as 定义为:be defined as3.(1)Trigonometric function of the acute angle shows the mutually dependent relations between each sides and acute angle of the right triangle.(3)If two sides and the included angle of an oblique triangle areknown, then the unknown sides and angles can be found by using the law of cosines.(5)Knowing the length of two sides and the measure of the included angle can determine the shape and size of the triangle. In other words, the two triangles made by these data are congruent.4.(1)如果一个角的顶点在一个笛卡尔坐标系的原点并且它的始边沿着x轴正方向,这个角被称为处于标准位置.(3)仰角和俯角是以一条以水平线为参考位置来测量的,如果正被观测的物体在观测者的上方,那么由水平线和视线所形成的角叫做仰角.如果正被观测的物体在观测者的下方,那么由水平线和视线所形成的的角叫做俯角.(5)如果我们知道一个三角形的两条边的长度和对着其中一条边的角度,我们如何解这个三角形呢?这个问题有一点困难来回答,因为所给的信息可能确定两个三角形,一个三角形或者一个也确定不了.2.32.素数:prime 合数:composite 质因数:prime factor/prime divisor 公倍数:common multiple 正素因子: positive prime divisor 除法算式:division equation 最大公因数:greatest common divisor(G.C.D) 最小公倍数: lowest common multiple(L.C.M) 整除:divide by 整除性:divisibility 过程:process 证明:proof 分类:classification 剩余:remainder辗转相除法:Euclidean algorithm 有限集:finite set 无限的:infinitely 可数的countable 终止:terminate 与矛盾:contrary to3.(1)We need to study by which integers an integer is divisible, that is , what factor it has. Specially, it is sometime required that an integer is expressed as the product of its prime factors.(3)The number 1 is neither a prime nor a composite number;A composite number in addition to being divisible by 1 and itself, can also be divisible by some prime number.(5)The number of the primes bounded above by any given finite integer N can be found by using the method of the sieve Eratosthenes.4.(1)数论中一个重要的问题是哥德巴赫猜想,它是关于偶数作为两个奇素数和的表示.(3)一个数,形如2p-1的素数被称为梅森素数.求出5个这样的数.(5)任意给定的整数m和素数p,p的仅有的正因子是p和1,因此仅有的可能的p和m的正公因子是p和1.因此,我们有结论:如果p是一个素数,m是任意整数,那么p整除m,要么(p,m)=1.2.42.集:set 子集:subset 真子集:proper subset 全集:universe 补集:complement 抽象集:abstract set 并集:union 交集:intersection 元素:element/member 组成:comprise/constitute包含:contain 术语:terminology 概念:concept 上有界:bounded above 上界:upper bound 最小的上界:least upper bound 完备性公理:completeness axiom3.(1)Set theory has become one of the common theoretical foundation and the important tools in many branches of mathematics.(3)Set S itself is the improper subset of S; if set T is a subset of S but not S, then T is called a proper subset of S.(5)The subset T of set S can often be denoted by {x}, that is, T consists of those elements x for which P(x) holds.(7)This example makes the following question become clear, that is, why may two straight lines in the space neither intersect nor parallel.4.(1)设N是所有自然数的集合,如果S是所有偶数的集合,那么它在N中的补集是所有奇数的集合.(3)一个非空集合S称为由上界的,如果存在一个数c具有属性:x<=c对于所有S中的x.这样一个数字c被称为S的上界.(5)从任意两个对象x和y,我们可以形成序列(x,y),它被称为一个有序对,除非x=y,否则它当然不同于(y,x).如果S和T是任意集合,我们用S*T表示所有有序对(x,y),其中x术语S,y属于T.在R.笛卡尔展示了如何通过实轴和它自己的笛卡尔积来描述平面的点之后,集合S*T被称为S和T的笛卡尔积.2.52.竖直线:vertical line 水平线:horizontal line 数对:pairs of numbers 有序对:ordered pairs 纵坐标:ordinate 横坐标:abscissas 一一对应:one-to-one 对应点:corresponding points圆锥曲线:conic sections 非空图形:non vacuous graph 直立圆锥:right circular cone 定值角:constant angle 母线:generating line 双曲线:hyperbola 抛物线:parabola 椭圆:ellipse退化的:degenerate 非退化的:nondegenerate任意的:arbitrarily 相容的:consistent 在几何上:geometrically 二次方程:quadratic equation 判别式:discriminant 行列式:determinant3.(1)In the planar rectangular coordinate system, one can set up aone-to-one correspondence between points and ordered pairs of numbers and also a one-to-one correspondence between conic sections and quadratic equation.(3)The symbol can be used to denote the set of ordered pairs(x,y)such that the ordinate is equal to the cube of the abscissa.(5)According to the values of the discriminate,the non-degenerate graph of Equation (iii) maybe known to be a parabola, a hyperbolaor an ellipse.4.(1)在例1,我们既用了图形,也用了代数的代入法解一个方程组(其中一个方程式二次的,另一个是线性的)。
证明数学最重要英语作文Mathematics is undoubtedly one of the most fundamental and essential disciplines in the world. It is a universal language that transcends cultural and linguistic boundaries, serving as a foundation for numerous fields of study and human endeavors. In this essay, I will present a compelling argument that mathematics is the most important subject, with its far-reaching implications and profound impact on our daily lives, scientific advancements, and the overall progress of humanity.At the core of mathematics lies the study of patterns, quantities, and relationships. This systematic exploration of the quantitative aspects of our world has enabled us to make sense of the universe, from the smallest subatomic particles to the grandest celestial bodies. Mathematics provides the tools and frameworks to understand and describe the natural world, allowing us to make accurate predictions, solve complex problems, and uncover the underlying principles that govern our reality.One of the most significant contributions of mathematics is its role in the advancement of science and technology. The language of mathematics is the foundation upon which scientific theories andmodels are built. From the laws of physics to the algorithms that power our digital devices, mathematics is the essential tool that enables us to understand and manipulate the physical world. Without the rigor and precision of mathematical reasoning, our scientific understanding would be severely limited, and the technological marvels that have transformed our lives would not exist.Moreover, mathematics is not confined to the realms of science and technology; it permeates every aspect of our daily lives. From managing personal finances and budgeting to navigating transportation systems and optimizing logistics, mathematics plays a crucial role in the efficient functioning of our society. The ability to analyze data, interpret patterns, and make informed decisions is essential for individuals and organizations alike, and this ability is rooted in the principles of mathematics.Beyond its practical applications, mathematics also holds immense value in the realm of education and intellectual development. The study of mathematics trains the mind to think logically, reason critically, and approach problems methodically. These skills are not only valuable in academic pursuits but also in the broader context of life, as they equip individuals with the tools to navigate complex challenges, make well-informed decisions, and adapt to an ever-changing world.Furthermore, the beauty and elegance of mathematical concepts have long been celebrated by mathematicians, philosophers, and artists alike. The intricate patterns, symmetries, and relationships discovered in the realm of mathematics have inspired awe and wonder, leading to the creation of breathtaking works of art, architecture, and design. This aesthetic appreciation of mathematics underscores its importance as a fundamental aspect of human culture and creativity.In conclusion, the case for mathematics as the most important subject is compelling and multifaceted. From its foundational role in the advancement of science and technology to its practical applications in our daily lives, the pervasive influence of mathematics is undeniable. Moreover, the intellectual and creative value of mathematics further solidifies its status as a discipline of paramount significance. As we continue to navigate the complexities of the modern world, the importance of mathematics will only continue to grow, serving as a crucial tool for understanding, shaping, and advancing our collective future.。
When it comes to learning mathematics,there are several key strategies and approaches that can be employed to enhance understanding and proficiency in this subject.Here are some steps and tips to consider when writing an essay on learning mathematics:1.Introduction to Mathematics:Begin your essay by introducing the importance of mathematics in our daily lives and its applications in various fields such as science, engineering,economics,and more.2.Importance of a Strong Foundation:Emphasize the significance of a solid foundation in basic arithmetic before moving on to more complex concepts.This includes understanding numbers,operations,and simple algebra.3.Developing ProblemSolving Skills:Discuss how learning mathematics is not just about memorizing formulas but also about developing analytical and problemsolving skills. Provide examples of how these skills can be applied in reallife situations.4.The Role of Practice:Highlight the importance of consistent practice in mastering mathematical concepts.Explain how practice helps in reinforcing learning and improving speed and accuracy in solving problems.5.Understanding the Conceptual Approach:Stress the importance of understanding the why behind mathematical operations rather than just the how.This conceptual understanding helps in retaining information and applying it to new problems.6.Utilizing Technology:Mention the role of technology in making the learning process more interactive and accessible.Discuss various tools such as online tutorials, educational apps,and software that can aid in learning mathematics.7.Overcoming Challenges:Address common challenges that students face while learning mathematics,such as fear of failure,lack of confidence,or difficulty in understanding abstract concepts.Offer suggestions on how to overcome these obstacles.8.The Importance of Patience and Perseverance:Explain that learning mathematics requires patience and perseverance.Its a subject that often involves trial and error,and its important to not get discouraged by initial difficulties.9.Seeking Help and Collaboration:Encourage students to seek help from teachers,peers, or tutors when they encounter difficulties.Discuss the benefits of collaborative learning and how it can enhance understanding.10.RealWorld Applications:Provide examples of how mathematical concepts are applied in various professions and everyday scenarios.This can help students see the relevance and practicality of what they are learning.11.Conclusion:Conclude your essay by summarizing the key points and reiterating the importance of a wellrounded approach to learning mathematics.Encourage a positive attitude towards the subject and the belief that anyone can improve their mathematical skills with the right mindset and effort.Remember to use clear and concise language,provide relevant examples,and maintain a logical flow of ideas throughout your essay.This will help your readers understand the complexities and beauty of mathematics,and inspire them to approach the subject with enthusiasm and curiosity.。
Core accomplishment of mathematics discipline: mathematical abstraction, logical reasoning, mathematical modeling, intuitive imagination, mathematical operation, data analysis. Mathematical Abstraction Mathematical Abstraction refers to the thinking process of getting rid of all physical attributes of things to obtain mathematical research objects. It mainly includes: abstracting mathematical concepts and relationships between concepts from the relationship between quantity and quantity, graph and graph, abstracting general rules and structures from the specific background of things, and characterizing them with mathematical symbols or mathematical terms. Mathematical abstraction is the basic idea of mathematics and an important basis for forming rational thinking. It reflects the essential characteristics of mathematics and runs through the process of the generation, development and application of mathematics. Mathematical abstraction makes mathematics a highly generalized, accurate, general, orderly and multi-level system. In the process of the formation of the core quality of mathematical abstraction, we can accumulate experience from concrete to abstract activities. Students can better understand mathematical concepts, propositions, methods and systems, understand, understand and grasp the mathematical essence of things through abstraction and generalization, gradually develop the habit of thinking about generalproblems, and actively use mathematical abstract thinking methods to solve problems in the study of other disciplines.Logical reasoning logical reasoning refers to the thinking process of deducing a proposition from some facts and propositions according to logical rules. It mainly includes two types: one is the reasoning from special to general, and the reasoning forms mainly include induction and analogy; One is from general to special reasoning, which mainly takes the form of deduction. Logical reasoning is an important way to get mathematical conclusions and build mathematical systems, a basic guarantee of mathematical rigor, and a basic thinking quality for people to communicate in mathematical activities. In the process of forming the core quality of logical reasoning, students can find problems and put forward propositions; Be able to master the basic form of reasoning and express the process of argument; Be able to understand the relationship between mathematical knowledge and construct a knowledge framework; To form the thinking quality of having arguments, being organized and logical, and to enhance the mathematical communication ability.Mathematical modeling Mathematical modeling is the process of mathematical abstraction of real problems, expression of problems in mathematical language, and construction of models withmathematical knowledge and methods to solve problems. It mainly includes: finding problems, posing problems, analyzing problems, constructing models, solving conclusions, verifying results and improving models in the actual situation from the mathematical perspective, and finally solving practical problems. Mathematical model is an important form of mathematical application, which builds a bridge between mathematics and the outside world. Mathematical modeling is the basic means of applying mathematics to solve practical problems, and it is also the driving force to promote the development of mathematics. In the process of forming the core quality of mathematical modeling, accumulate the experience of solving practical problems with mathematics. Students can find and put forward problems in the actual situation; Be able to establish mathematical models for problems; Be able to use mathematical knowledge to solve the model, and try to verify and improve the model based on the real background; It can enhance the application ability and innovation awareness.Intuitive imagination Intuitive imagination refers to the process of perceiving the form and change of things with geometric intuition and spatial imagination, and understanding and solving mathematical problems with graphics. It mainly includes: understanding the position relationship, shape change and movementlaw of things with the help of space; Using graphics to describe and analyze mathematical problems; Establishing the relation between form and number; Build an intuitive model of mathematical problems and explore ideas for solving problems. Intuitive imagination is an important means to discover and propose mathematical problems, analyze and solve mathematical problems, and is the thinking basis for exploring and forming argumentation ideas, conducting logical reasoning, and constructing abstract structures. In the process of forming the core quality of intuitive imagination, students can further develop their geometric intuition and spatial imagination ability, enhance their awareness of using graphics and spatial imagination to think about problems, improve their ability to combine numbers with shapes, perceive the essence of things, and cultivate innovative thinking.Mathematical operation Mathematical operation refers to the process of solving mathematical problems according to operation rules on the basis of clear operation objects. It mainly includes: understanding operation objects, mastering operation rules, exploring operation direction, selecting operation methods, designing operation programs, obtaining operation results, etc. Mathematical operation is the basic form of mathematical activities, is also a form of deductive reasoning, is an important means to getmathematical results. Mathematical operation is the basis of computer problem solving. In the process of forming the core quality of mathematical operation, students can further develop their mathematical operation ability; It can effectively solve practical problems by means of calculation methods; Be able to promote the development of mathematical thinking through calculation, and develop the habit of thinking in a programmed way; Form the scientific spirit of meticulous, rigorous and realistic.Data analysis Data analysis refers to the process of obtaining relevant data from research objects, using statistical methods to analyze and infer useful information in data, and forming knowledge. It mainly includes: collecting data, sorting out data, extracting information, building models to analyze and infer information, and obtaining conclusions. Data analysis is the main method of mathematical application in the age of big data, which has gone deep into all aspects of modern social life and scientific research. In the process of forming the core quality of data analysis, students can improve the ability of data processing, enhance the awareness of expressing real problems based on data, develop the habit of thinking about problems through data, and accumulate experience of exploring the nature, relevance and law of things relying on data.。
我的梦想是当数学老师作文英文带翻译My Dream of Becoming a Math TeacherEver since I was a little girl, I have had a special love for mathematics. To me, numbers and formulas are not just abstract concepts;they are the building blocks of the universe, encoding the secrets of the natural world. As I grew older, my appreciation for the subject deepened, and I realized that I wanted to share this passion with others. My dream is to become a math teacher.Becoming a math teacher is not just about imparting knowledge; it is about igniting curiosity and fostering a love for learning. I envision myself standing in front of a classroom, filled with eager students who are ready to explore the mysteries of mathematics. I want to be the guide who leads them through the maze of complex equations,helping them to understand not just the answers, but the logic and beauty behind them.As a math teacher, I would strive to create an inclusive and supportive learning environment where every student feels valued and motivated. I believe that every child has the potential to excel in mathematics, and it is my mission to help them realize their full potential. I would encourage them to think critically, to question assumptions, and to seek out solutions independently.Moreover, I see myself as a role model and mentor to my students. I want them to see not just a teacher, but someone who is passionate about their subject, someone who is willing to go the extra mile to help them understand.I hope to instill in them a sense of perseverance and resilience,knowing that with hard work and dedication,they can overcome any challenge.Ultimately, my dream of becoming a math teacher is about making a difference in the lives of others. I want to contribute to the next generation of mathematicians, scientists, and thinkers who will shape the future of our world. I believe that by investing in the education of young minds, we invest in the future of our society.My dream is not just mine; it is a shared vision that I hope to realize with my students. Together, we will explore the wonders of mathematics and discover the joy of learning.我的梦想是成为数学老师从小时候起,我就对数学有着特别的热爱。
辽宁省大连市滨城高中联盟2024-2025学年高三上学期10月月考英语试卷一、听力选择题1.Where are the speakers most probably?A.On the train.B.In a restaurant.C.In a bookstore.2.What are the speakers probably going to do?A.Buy a coat.B.Take a trip.C.Attend a party.3.How much should the man pay?A.$1.B.$3.C.$4.4.What does the man think of the movie?A.Disappointing.B.Exciting.C.Interesting.5.What are the speakers talking about?A.Advantages of online books.B.Their favorite books.C.The future of books.听下面一段较长对话,回答以下小题。
6.What is the man most probably?A.A host.B.A teacher.C.An exchange student. 7.What once bothered the man?A.The way people say goodbye.B.The way people send invitations.C.The way people start a conservation.听下面一段较长对话,回答以下小题。
8.What happened to the woman most probably?A.She got hurt while skiing.B.She got hurt by lifting heavy things.C.She was hit while taking some tests.9.Where does the conversation probably take place?A.In the doctor’s office.B.In the ski field.C.In the drugstore.听下面一段较长对话,回答以下小题。
克服数学困难的英语作文Overcoming Mathematical DifficultiesMathematics is a subject that many students struggle with, and it can be a significant challenge for those who find it particularly difficult. However, with the right mindset and strategies, it is possible to overcome these difficulties and succeed in mathematics. In this essay, we will explore some of the strategies and techniques that can be used to conquer mathematical challenges.One of the primary reasons why students struggle with mathematics is a lack of fundamental understanding. Mathematics is a subject that builds upon itself, with each new concept building on the previous ones. If a student has gaps in their knowledge or understanding of basic mathematical principles, it can be incredibly difficult for them to progress to more advanced topics. To address this issue, it is important for students to take the time to thoroughly understand the foundational concepts before moving on to more complex material.Another common obstacle that students face when it comes to mathematics is a lack of confidence. Many students have a mentalblock when it comes to mathematics, believing that they are simply not "good at it." This negative mindset can be a self-fulfilling prophecy, as it can lead to students giving up or not putting in the necessary effort to succeed. To overcome this, it is important for students to develop a growth mindset, where they believe that their abilities can be developed through hard work and dedication.One effective strategy for overcoming mathematical difficulties is to break down problems into smaller, more manageable steps. Mathematics often involves complex problems that can seem overwhelming, but by breaking them down into smaller, more manageable parts, students can tackle them one step at a time. This can help to build confidence and reduce the sense of being overwhelmed.Another important strategy is to practice regularly. Mathematics is a skill-based subject, and like any skill, it requires consistent practice to improve. Students should set aside time each day to practice mathematical problems, whether it's through homework, practice problems, or online resources. This consistent practice can help to solidify the concepts and build fluency in problem-solving.In addition to regular practice, it is also important for students to seek out additional support and resources when they are struggling. This can include working with a tutor, attending extra help sessions,or using online resources such as educational videos or interactive simulations. By accessing these additional resources, students can gain a deeper understanding of the material and receive the support they need to overcome their difficulties.Another key strategy for overcoming mathematical difficulties is to develop strong study habits and organizational skills. Mathematics often requires a significant amount of note-taking, problem-solving, and review, and it is important for students to have a system in place to keep track of their work and stay organized. This can include using a dedicated notebook for mathematics, creating checklists or schedules to stay on top of assignments and practice, and using mnemonic devices or other memory aids to help retain important concepts.Finally, it is important for students to maintain a positive attitude and persevere in the face of challenges. Mathematics can be a difficult subject, and it is common for students to encounter setbacks or struggles along the way. However, by staying focused, persistent, and open-minded, students can overcome these challenges and ultimately succeed in mathematics.In conclusion, overcoming mathematical difficulties requires a combination of strategies and techniques. By developing a strong foundation in mathematical concepts, building confidence and agrowth mindset, breaking down problems into smaller steps, practicing regularly, seeking out additional support, developing strong study habits and organizational skills, and maintaining a positive attitude, students can overcome the challenges of mathematics and achieve success in this important subject.。
The Unreasonable Effectiveness of Mathematics in the Natural Sciencesby Eugene Wigner1“Mathematics,rightly viewed,possesses not only truth,but supreme beauty,abeauty cold and austere,like that of sculpture,without appeal to any part of ourweaker nature,without the gorgeous trappings of painting or music,yet sublimelypure,and capable of a stern perfection such as only the greatest art can show.Thetrue spirit of delight,the exaltation,the sense of being more than Man,which is thetouchstone of the highest excellence,is to be found in mathematics as surely as inpoetry.”Bertrand Russell,Study of Mathematics There is a story about two friends,who were classmates in high school,talking about their jobs.One of them became a statistician and was working on population trends.He showed a reprint to his former classmate.The reprint started,as usual,with the Gaussian distribution and the statistician explained to his former classmate the meaning of the symbols for the actual population,for the average population,and so on.His classmate was a bit incredulous and was not quite sure whether the statistician was pulling his leg.“How can you know that?”was his query.“And what is this symbol here?”“Oh,”said the statistician,“this is pi.”“What is that?”“The ratio of the circumference of the circle to its diameter.”“Well,now you are pushing your joke too far,”said the classmate,“surely the population has nothing to do with the circumference of the circle.”Naturally,we are inclined to smile about the simplicity of the classmate’s approach.Nevertheless,when I heard this story,I had to admit to an eerie feeling because,surely,the reaction of the classmate betrayed only plain common sense.I was even more confused when,not many days later,someone came to me and expressed his bewilderment2with the fact that we make a rather narrow selection when choosing the data on which we test our theories.“How do we know that,if we made a theory which focuses its attention on phenomena we disregard and disregards some of the phenomena now commanding our attention,that we could not build another theory which has little in common with the present one but which,nevertheless,explains just as many phenomena as the present theory?”It has to be admitted that we have no definite evidence that there is no such theory.The preceding two stories illustrate the two main points which are the subjects of the present discourse.Thefirst point is that mathematical concepts turn up in entirely unexpected con-nections.Moreover,they often permit an unexpectedly close and accurate description of the phenomena in these connections.Secondly,just because of this circumstance,and because we do not understand the reasons of their usefulness,we cannot know whether a theory formulated in terms of mathematical concepts is uniquely appropriate.We are in a position similar to that of a man who was provided with a bunch of keys and who,having to open several doors in suc-cession,always hit on the right key on thefirst or second trial.He became skeptical concerning the uniqueness of the coordination between keys and doors.Most of what will be said on these questions will not be new;it has probably occurred to most scientists in one form or another.My principal aim is to illuminate it from several sides.The first point is that the enormous usefulness of mathematics in the natural sciences is something bordering on the mysterious and that there is no rational explanation for it.Second,it is just this uncanny usefulness of mathematical concepts that raises the question of the uniqueness of our 1Eugene Wigner,“The Unreasonable Effectiveness of Mathematics in the Natural Sciences,”in Communica-tions in Pure and Applied Mathematics,vol.13,No.I(February1960).New York:John Wiley&Sons,Inc. Copyright1960by John Wiley&Sons,Inc.2The remark to be quoted was made by F.Werner when he was a student in Princeton.physical theories.In order to establish thefirst point,that mathematics plays an unreasonably important role in physics,it will be useful to say a few words on the question,“What is mathematics?”,then,“What is physics?”,then,how mathematics enters physical theories,and last,why the success of mathematics in its role in physics appears so baffling.Much less will be said on the second point:the uniqueness of the theories of physics.A proper answer to this question would require elaborate experimental and theoretical work which has not been undertaken to date.What is Mathematics?Somebody once said that philosophy is the misuse of a terminology which was invented just for this purpose.3In the same vein,I would say that mathematics is the science of skillful operations with concepts and rules invented just for this purpose.The principal emphasis is on the invention of concepts.Mathematics would soon run out of interesting theorems if these had to be formulated in terms of the concepts which already appear in the axioms.Furthermore, whereas it is unquestionably true that the concepts of elementary mathematics and particularly elementary geometry were formulated to describe entities which are directly suggested by the actual world,the same does not seem to be true of the more advanced concepts,in particular the concepts which play such an important role in physics.Thus,the rules for operations with pairs of numbers are obviously designed to give the same results as the operations with fractions which wefirst learned without reference to“pairs of numbers.”The rules for the operations with sequences,that is,with irrational numbers,still belong to the category of rules which were determined so as to reproduce rules for the operations with quantities which were already known to us.Most more advanced mathematical concepts,such as complex numbers, algebras,linear operators,Borel sets,and this list could be continued almost indefinitely,were so devised that they are apt subjects on which the mathematician can demonstrate his ingenuity and sense of formal beauty.In fact,the definition of these concepts,with a realization that interesting and ingenious considerations could be applied to them,is thefirst demonstration of the ingeniousness of the mathematician who defines them.The depth of thought which goes into the formulation of the mathematical concepts is later justified by the skill with which these concepts are used.The great mathematician fully,almost ruthlessly,exploits the domain of permissible reasoning and skirts the impermissible.That his recklessness does not lead him into a morass of contradictions is a miracle in itself:certainly it is hard to believe that our reasoning power was brought,by Darwin’s process of natural selection,to the perfection which it seems to possess.However,this is not our present subject.The principal point which will have to be recalled later is that the mathematician could formulate only a handful of interesting theorems without defining concepts beyond those contained in the axioms and that the concepts outside those contained in the axioms are defined with a view of permitting ingenious logical operations which appeal to our aesthetic sense both as operations and also in their results of great generality and simplicity.4The complex numbers provide a particularly striking example for the foregoing. Certainly,nothing in our experience suggests the introduction of these quantities.Indeed,if a mathematician is asked to justify his interest in complex numbers,he will point,with some indignation,to the many beautiful theorems in the theory of equations,of power series,and of analytic functions in general,which owe their origin to the introduction of complex numbers. The mathematician is not willing to give up his interest in these most beautiful accomplishments 3This statement is quoted here from W.Dubislav’s Die Philosophie der Mathematik in der Gegenwart(Berlin: Junker and Dunnhaupt Verlag,1932),p.1.4M.Polanyi,in his Personal Knowledge(Chicago:University of Chicago Press,1958),says:“All these difficulties are but consequences of our refusal to see that mathematics cannot be defined without acknowledging its most obvious feature:namely,that it is interesting”(p188).of his genius.5What is Physics?The physicist is interested in discovering the laws of inanimate nature.In order to understand this statement,it is necessary to analyze the concept,“law of nature.”The world around us is of baffling complexity and the most obvious fact about it is that we cannot predict the future. Although the joke attributes only to the optimist the view that the future is uncertain,the optimist is right in this case:the future is unpredictable.It is,as Schrodinger has remarked,a miracle that in spite of the baffling complexity of the world,certain regularities in the events could be discovered.One such regularity,discovered by Galileo,is that two rocks,dropped at the same time from the same height,reach the ground at the same time.The laws of nature are concerned with such regularities.Galileo’s regularity is a prototype of a large class of regularities.It is a surprising regularity for three reasons.Thefirst reason that it is surprising is that it is true not only in Pisa,and in Galileo’s time, it is true everywhere on the Earth,was always true,and will always be true.This property of the regularity is a recognized invariance property and,as I had occasion to point out some time ago,without invariance principles similar to those implied in the preceding generalization of Galileo’s observation,physics would not be possible.The second surprising feature is that the regularity which we are discussing is independent of so many conditions which could have an effect on it.It is valid no matter whether it rains or not,whether the experiment is carried out in a room or from the Leaning Tower,no matter whether the person who drops the rocks is a man or a woman.It is valid even if the two rocks are dropped,simultaneously and from the same height,by two different people.There are,obviously,innumerable other conditions which are all immaterial from the point of view of the validity of Galileo’s regularity.The irrelevancy of so many circumstances which could play a role in the phenomenon observed has also been called an invariance.However,this invariance is of a different character from the preceding one since it cannot be formulated as a general principle.The exploration of the conditions which do,and which do not,influence a phenomenon is part of the early experimental exploration of afield.It is the skill and ingenuity of the experimenter which show him phenomena which depend on a relatively narrow set of relatively easily realizable and reproducible conditions.6 In the present case,Galileo’s restriction of his observations to relatively heavy bodies was the most important step in this regard.Again,it is true that if there were no phenomena which are independent of all but a manageably small set of conditions,physics would be impossible. The preceding two points,though highly significant from the point of view of the philosopher, are not the ones which surprised Galileo most,nor do they contain a specific law of nature.The law of nature is contained in the statement that the length of time which it takes for a heavy object to fall from a given height is independent of the size,material,and shape of the body which drops.In the framework of Newton’s second“law,”this amounts to the statement that the gravitational force which acts on the falling body is proportional to its mass but independent of the size,material,and shape of the body which falls.The preceding discussion is intended to remind us,first,that it is not at all natural that“laws of nature”exist,much less that man is able to discover them.7The present writer had occasion, 5The reader may be interested,in this connection,in Hilbert’s rather testy remarks about intuitionism which “seeks to break up and to disfigure mathematics,”Abh.Math.Sem.,Univ.Hamburg,157(1922),or Gesammelte Werke(Berlin:Springer,1935),p.188.6See,in this connection,the graphic essay of M.Deutsch,Daedalus87,86(1958).A.Shimony has called my attention to a similar passage in C.S.Peirce’s Essays in the Philosophy of Science(New York:The Liberal Arts Press,1957),p.237.7E.Schrodinger,in his What Is Life?(Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,1945),p.31,says that this second miracle may well be beyond human understanding.some time ago,to call attention to the succession of layers of“laws of nature,”each layer containing more general and more encompassing laws than the previous one and its discovery constituting a deeper penetration into the structure of the universe than the layers recognized before.However,the point which is most significant in the present context is that all these laws of nature contain,in even their remotest consequences,only a small part of our knowledge of the inanimate world.All the laws of nature are conditional statements which permit a prediction of some future events on the basis of the knowledge of the present,except that some aspects of the present state of the world,in practice the overwhelming majority of the determinants of the present state of the world,are irrelevant from the point of view of the prediction.The irrelevancy is meant in the sense of the second point in the discussion of Galileo’s theorem.8 As regards the present state of the world,such as the existence of the earth on which we live and on which Galileo’s experiments were performed,the existence of the sun and of all our surroundings,the laws of nature are entirely silent.It is in consonance with this,first,that the laws of nature can be used to predict future events only under exceptional circumstances when all the relevant determinants of the present state of the world are known.It is also in consonance with this that the construction of machines,the functioning of which he can foresee,constitutes the most spectacular accomplishment of the physicist.In these machines,the physicist creates a situation in which all the relevant coordinates are known so that the behavior of the machine can be predicted.Radars and nuclear reactors are examples of such machines.The principal purpose of the preceding discussion is to point out that the laws of nature are all conditional statements and they relate only to a very small part of our knowledge of the world. Thus,classical mechanics,which is the best known prototype of a physical theory,gives the second derivatives of the positional coordinates of all bodies,on the basis of the knowledge of the positions,etc.,of these bodies.It gives no information on the existence,the present positions, or velocities of these bodies.It should be mentioned,for the sake of accuracy,that we discovered about thirty years ago that even the conditional statements cannot be entirely precise:that the conditional statements are probability laws which enable us only to place intelligent bets on future properties of the inanimate world,based on the knowledge of the present state.They do not allow us to make categorical statements,not even categorical statements conditional on the present state of the world.The probabilistic nature of the“laws of nature”manifests itself in the case of machines also,and can be verified,at least in the case of nuclear reactors,if one runs them at very low power.However,the additional limitation of the scope of the laws of nature which follows from their probabilistic nature will play no role in the rest of the discussion. The Role of Mathematics in Physical TheoriesHaving refreshed our minds as to the essence of mathematics and physics,we should be in a better position to review the role of mathematics in physical theories.Naturally,we do use mathematics in everyday physics to evaluate the results of the laws of nature,to apply the conditional statements to the particular conditions which happen to prevail or happen to interest us.In order that this be possible,the laws of nature must already be formulated in mathematical language.However,the role of evaluating the consequences of already established theories is not the most important role of mathematics in physics.Mathematics,or,rather, applied mathematics,is not so much the master of the situation in this function:it is merely serving as a tool.Mathematics does play,however,also a more sovereign role in physics.This was already implied in the statement,made when discussing the role of applied mathematics,that the laws of nature 8The writer feels sure that it is unnecessary to mention that Galileo’s theorem,as given in the text,does not exhaust the content of Galileo’s observations in connection with the laws of freely falling bodies.must have been formulated in the language of mathematics to be an object for the use of applied mathematics.The statement that the laws of nature are written in the language of mathematics was properly made three hundred years ago;9it is now more true than ever before.In order to show the importance which mathematical concepts possess in the formulation of the laws of physics,let us recall,as an example,the axioms of quantum mechanics as formulated,explicitly, by the great physicist,Dirac.There are two basic concepts in quantum mechanics:states and observables.The states are vectors in Hilbert space,the observables self-adjoint operators on these vectors.The possible values of the observations are the characteristic values of the operators but we had better stop here lest we engage in a listing of the mathematical concepts developed in the theory of linear operators.It is true,of course,that physics chooses certain mathematical concepts for the formulation of the laws of nature,and surely only a fraction of all mathematical concepts is used in physics. It is true also that the concepts which were chosen were not selected arbitrarily from a listing of mathematical terms but were developed,in many if not most cases,independently by the physicist and recognized then as having been conceived before by the mathematician.It is not true,however,as is so often stated,that this had to happen because mathematics uses the simplest possible concepts and these were bound to occur in any formalism.As we saw before, the concepts of mathematics are not chosen for their conceptual simplicity,even sequences of pairs of numbers are far from being the simplest concepts,but for their amenability to clever manipulations and to striking,brilliant arguments.Let us not forget that the Hilbert space of quantum mechanics is the complex Hilbert space,with a Hermitean scalar product.Surely to the unpreoccupied mind,complex numbers are far from natural or simple and they cannot be suggested by physical observations.Furthermore,the use of complex numbers is in this case not a calculational trick of applied mathematics but comes close to being a necessity in the formulation of the laws of quantum mechanics.Finally,it now begins to appear that not only complex numbers but so-called analytic functions are destined to play a decisive role in the formulation of quantum theory.I am referring to the rapidly developing theory of dispersion relations.It is difficult to avoid the impression that a miracle confronts us here,quite comparable in its striking nature to the miracle that the human mind can string a thousand arguments together without getting itself into contradictions,or to the two miracles of the existence of laws of nature and of the human mind’s capacity to divine them.The observation which comes closest to an explanation for the mathematical concepts’cropping up in physics which I know is Einstein’s statement that the only physical theories which we are willing to accept are the beautiful ones. It stands to argue that the concepts of mathematics,which invite the exercise of so much wit, have the quality of beauty.However,Einstein’s observation can at best explain properties of theories which we are willing to believe and has no reference to the intrinsic accuracy of the theory.We shall,therefore,turn to this latter question.Is the Success of Physical Theories Truly Surprising?A possible explanation of the physicist’s use of mathematics to formulate his laws of nature is that he is a somewhat irresponsible person.As a result,when hefinds a connection between two quantities which resembles a connection well-known from mathematics,he will jump at the conclusion that the connection is that discussed in mathematics simply because he does not know of any other similar connection.It is not the intention of the present discussion to refute the charge that the physicist is a somewhat irresponsible person.Perhaps he is.However, it is important to point out that the mathematical formulation of the physicist’s often crude experience leads in an uncanny number of cases to an amazingly accurate description of a large 9It is attributed to Galileoclass of phenomena.This shows that the mathematical language has more to commend it than being the only language which we can speak;it shows that it is,in a very real sense,the correct language.Let us consider a few examples.Thefirst example is the oft-quoted one of planetary motion.The laws of falling bodies became rather well established as a result of experiments carried out principally in Italy.These exper-iments could not be very accurate in the sense in which we understand accuracy today partly because of the effect of air resistance and partly because of the impossibility,at that time,to measure short time intervals.Nevertheless,it is not surprising that,as a result of their stud-ies,the Italian natural scientists acquired a familiarity with the ways in which objects travel through the atmosphere.It was Newton who then brought the law of freely falling objects into relation with the motion of the moon,noted that the parabola of the thrown rock’s path on the earth and the circle of the moon’s path in the sky are particular cases of the same mathematical object of an ellipse,and postulated the universal law of gravitation on the basis of a single,and at that time very approximate,numerical coincidence.Philosophically,the law of gravitation as formulated by Newton was repugnant to his time and to himself.Empirically,it was based on very scanty observations.The mathematical language in which it was formulated contained the concept of a second derivative and those of us who have tried to draw an osculating circle to a curve know that the second derivative is not a very immediate concept.The law of gravity which Newton reluctantly established and which he could verify with an accuracy of about4% has proved to be accurate to less than a ten thousandth of a per cent and became so closely associated with the idea of absolute accuracy that only recently did physicists become again bold enough to inquire into the limitations of its accuracy.10Certainly,the example of Newton’s law,quoted over and over again,must be mentionedfirst as a monumental example of a law, formulated in terms which appear simple to the mathematician,which has proved accurate be-yond all reasonable expectations.Let us just recapitulate our thesis on this example:first,the law,particularly since a second derivative appears in it,is simple only to the mathematician, not to common sense or to non-mathematically-minded freshmen;second,it is a conditional law of very limited scope.It explains nothing about the earth which attracts Galileo’s rocks,or about the circular form of the moon’s orbit,or about the planets of the sun.The explanation of these initial conditions is left to the geologist and the astronomer,and they have a hard time with them.The second example is that of ordinary,elementary quantum mechanics.This originated when Max Born noticed that some rules of computation,given by Heisenberg,were formally identical with the rules of computation with matrices,established a long time before by mathematicians. Born,Jordan,and Heisenberg then proposed to replace by matrices the position and momentum variables of the equations of classical mechanics.They applied the rules of matrix mechanics to a few highly idealized problems and the results were quite satisfactory.However,there was,at that time,no rational evidence that their matrix mechanics would prove correct under more re-alistic conditions.Indeed,they say“if the mechanics as here proposed should already be correct in its essential traits.”As a matter of fact,thefirst application of their mechanics to a realistic problem,that of the hydrogen atom,was given several months later,by Pauli.This application gave results in agreement with experience.This was satisfactory but still understandable be-cause Heisenberg’s rules of calculation were abstracted from problems which included the old theory of the hydrogen atom.The miracle occurred only when matrix mechanics,or a math-ematically equivalent theory,was applied to problems for which Heisenberg’s calculating rules were meaningless.Heisenberg’s rules presupposed that the classical equations of motion had solutions with certain periodicity properties;and the equations of motion of the two electrons of the helium atom,or of the even greater number of electrons of heavier atoms,simply do not have 10See,for instance,R.H.Dicke,Am.Sci.,25(1959).these properties,so that Heisenberg’s rules cannot be applied to these cases.Nevertheless,the calculation of the lowest energy level of helium,as carried out a few months ago by Kinoshita at Cornell and by Bazley at the Bureau of Standards,agrees with the experimental data within the accuracy of the observations,which is one part in ten million.Surely in this case we“got something out”of the equations that we did not put in.The same is true of the qualitative characteristics of the“complex spectra,”that is,the spectra of heavier atoms.I wish to recall a conversation with Jordan,who told me,when the qualitative features of the spectra were derived,that a disagreement of the rules derived from quantum mechanical theory and the rules established by empirical research would have provided the last opportunity to make a change in the framework of matrix mechanics.In other words,Jordan felt that we would have been,at least temporarily,helpless had an unexpected disagreement occurred in the theory of the helium atom.This was,at that time,developed by Kellner and by Hilleraas.The mathematical formalism was too dear and unchangeable so that,had the miracle of helium which was mentioned before not occurred,a true crisis would have arisen. Surely,physics would have overcome that crisis in one way or another.It is true,on the other hand,that physics as we know it today would not be possible without a constant recurrence of miracles similar to the one of the helium atom,which is perhaps the most striking miracle that has occurred in the course of the development of elementary quantum mechanics,but by far not the only one.In fact,the number of analogous miracles is limited,in our view,only by our willingness to go after more similar ones.Quantum mechanics had,nevertheless,many almost equally striking successes which gave us thefirm conviction that it is,what we call,correct. The last example is that of quantum electrodynamics,or the theory of the Lamb shift.Whereas Newton’s theory of gravitation still had obvious connections with experience,experience entered the formulation of matrix mechanics only in the refined or sublimated form of Heisenberg’s prescriptions.The quantum theory of the Lamb shift,as conceived by Bethe and established by Schwinger,is a purely mathematical theory and the only direct contribution of experiment was to show the existence of a measurable effect.The agreement with calculation is better than one part in a thousand.The preceding three examples,which could be multiplied almost indefinitely,should illustrate the appropriateness and accuracy of the mathematical formulation of the laws of nature in terms of concepts chosen for their manipulability,the“laws of nature”being of almost fantas-tic accuracy but of strictly limited scope.I propose to refer to the observation which these examples illustrate as the empirical law of epistemology.Together with the laws of invariance of physical theories,it is an indispensable foundation of these theories.Without the laws of invariance the physical theories could have been given no foundation of fact;if the empirical law of epistemology were not correct,we would lack the encouragement and reassurance which are emotional necessities,without which the“laws of nature”could not have been successfully explored.Dr.R.G.Sachs,with whom I discussed the empirical law of epistemology,called it an article of faith of the theoretical physicist,and it is surely that.However,what he called our article of faith can be well supported by actual examples,many examples in addition to the three which have been mentioned.The Uniqueness of the Theories of PhysicsThe empirical nature of the preceding observation seems to me to be self-evident.It surely is not a“necessity of thought”and it should not be necessary,in order to prove this,to point to the fact that it applies only to a very small part of our knowledge of the inanimate world.It is absurd to believe that the existence of mathematically simple expressions for the second derivative of the position is self-evident,when no similar expressions for the position itself or for the velocity。