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I :入门级别：(选一本即可)《经济学原理》曼昆《经济学》萨缪尔森《经济学》斯特格利茨II :经济数学入门：《数理经济学的基本方法》蒋中一( Alpha C. Chiang )III ：基础级别：《微观经济学》平狄克/ 鲁宾费尔德(Pindyck / Rubinfeld ) 《微观经济学》周惠中《微观经济学：现代观点》哈尔.R.范里安(Hal R. Varian)《宏观经济学》曼昆( Mankiw,N.G.)《宏观经济学》多恩布什( Dominick Salvatore )《全球视角的宏观经济学》杰弗里萨克斯(Jeffrey D. Sachs)《国际经济学》萨尔瓦多( Dominick Salvatore )《国际经济学》克鲁格曼( Paul R. Krugman)《国际金融与开放经济的宏观经济学》Giancarlo Gandolfo 《金融学》博迪/莫顿 ( Zvi Bodie / Robert C.Merton ) 《投资学》博迪(Zvi Bodie)《财政学》罗森( Harvey S.Rosen)《货币金融学》米什金 (Frederic S.Mishkin)《货币理论与政策》Carl E. Walsh《金融经济学原理》LeRoy / WernerIV :经济数学基础：《微积分教程——计算机代数方法》I. Anshel / D.Goldfeld 《数学分析原理》Walter Rudin《线性代数及其应用》David C. Lay《概率论基础教程》Ross 《经济学中的分析方法》高山晟( Akira Takayama) 《数理金融初步》RossV :提高级别:V-I ：计量经济学：1、中文名：《计量经济学》林文夫（理论计量经济学）英文名：Econometricsby Fumio Hayashi2、中文名：《计量经济学分析》格林（应用计量经济学）英文名：EconometricAnalysis by Greene3、中文名：《横截面与面板数据的计量经济学分析》伍德里奇英文名：Econometric Analysis of Cross Section and Panel Data by WooldridgeV-II ：微观经济学：1、中文名：《高级微观经济理论》杰里/ 瑞尼（入门）英文名：AdvancedMicroeconomic Theory by Geoffrey A. Jehle / Philip J. Reny 简称（JR）2、中文名：《微观经济学高级教程》范里安（基础）英文名：Microeconomics Analysis by Hal R. Varian3、中文名：《微观经济学》安德鲁.马斯-科莱尔等（高微最顶尖教材）英文名：Microeconomic Theoryby Andreu Mas-Colell Michael D. Whinston Jerry R.Green 简称（MWG ）V-III ：宏观经济学：1、中文名：《高级宏观经济学》戴维.罗默（高宏入门教材）英文名：AdvancedMacroeconomics by David Romer2、中文名：《动态宏观经济理论》萨金特（高宏基础教材）英文名：DynamicMacroeconomic Theoryby Thomas J. Sargent3、中文名：《递归宏观经济理论》萨金特（动态进阶）英文名：Recursive Macroeconomic Theory by Lars Ljungqvist, Thomas J.Sargent4、中文名：《经济动态的递归方法》卢卡斯（高宏最顶尖教材）英文名：Recursive method in economics dynamics by Robert E. LucasV-IV ：博弈论：1、中文名：《博弈入门》奥斯本英文名：An Introduction to Game Theoryby Martin J.Osborne2、中文名：《博弈论基础》吉本斯英文名：A Primer in Game Theory by RobertGibbons3、英文名：Game Theory for Applied Economists by Robert Gibbons4、中文名：《策略与博弈--理论及实践》普拉伊特K•杜塔英文名：Strategiesand Game: Theory and Practiceby Prajit K. Dutta5、英文名：Bargaining and Marketsby Martin J. Osborne / Ariel Rubinstein6、中文名：《博弈论教程》奥斯本英文名：A Course in Game Theoryby Martin J.Osborne / Ariel Rubinstein7、中文名：《博弈论》梯若尔（博弈论最顶尖教材）英文名：Game Theoryby Drew Fudenberg Jean TiroleVI ：经济数学提高：1、《高等微积分》Lynn H.Loomis / Shlomo Stermberg2、《实分析与复分析》Rudin3、《分析学》Elliott H. Lieb / Michael Loss4、《复分析》Ahlfors5、《泛函分析》Rudin6、《拓扑学》James R.Munkres7、《金融数学》Stampfli8、《时间序列的小波方法》Percival9、《数理统计与数据分析》Rice10、《随机过程导论》Kao11、《应用回归分析和其他多元方法》Kleinbaum12、《预测与时间序列》Bowerman13、《多元数据分析》Lattin14、《微分方程与边界值问题》Zill15、《数学建模》Giordano16、《离散数学及其应用》Rosen17、《组合数学教程》Van Lint18、《逼近论教程》Cheney19、《概率论及其在投资、保险、工程中的应用》Bean20、《概率论及其应用》威廉.费勒21、《基础偏微分方程》David Bleecker / George Csordas22、《时间序列分析》汉密尔顿。
《博弈论与纳什均衡理论》姓名张贺祺学号 2010010404 专业政治经济学指导老师张秉云摘要博弈论是研究决策主体的行为发生直接相互作用时候的决策以及这种决策的均衡问题，具有斗争或竞争性质现象的数学理论和方法，也是运筹学的一个重要学科。
博弈论考虑游戏中的个体的预测行为和实际行为，并研究它们的优化策略。
纳什均衡指的是这样一种战略组合，这种策略组合由所有参与人最优策略组成。
即在给定别人策略的情况下，没有人有足够理由打破这种均衡。
纳什均衡，从实质上说，是一种非合作博弈状态。
关键字：博弈论；纳什均衡；合作博弈；非合作博弈目录摘要 (2)关键字 (2)一、引言 (4)二、博弈论与纳什均衡的主要内容 (4)（一）博弈论的主要思想 (4)（二）博弈论的分类 (5)三、经典案例 (7)（一）博弈论的经典案例 (7)（二）纳什均衡经典案例 (7)四、博弈论和纳什均衡的重要影响 (8)（一）博弈论的重要影响 (8)（二）纳什均衡的重要影响 (8)参考文献 (9)博弈论与纳什均衡理论一、引言近代对于博弈论的研究，开始于策墨咯（Zermelo），波雷尔（Borel）及冯·诺伊曼（von Neumann）。
1928年，冯·诺依曼证明了博弈论的基本原理，从而宣告了博弈论的正式诞生。
1944年，冯·诺依曼和摩根斯坦共著的划时代巨著《博弈论与经济行为》将二人博弈推广到n人博弈结构并将博弈论系统的应用于经济领域，从而奠定了这一学科的基础和理论体系。
1950～1951年，约翰·福布斯·纳什（John Forbes Nash Jr）利用不动点定理证明了均衡点的存在，为博弈论的一般化奠定了坚实的基础。
纳什的开创性论文《n人博弈的均衡点》（1950），《非合作博弈》（1951）等等，给出了纳什均衡的概念和均衡存在定理。
此外，塞尔顿、哈桑尼的研究也对博弈论发展起到推动作用。
今天博弈论已发展成一门较完善的学科。
英语语言文学专业(学科代码：050201)英语语言文学英语语言理论与应用方向必读书目：(1) Brown, G. & Yule, G. 1983. Discourse Analysis. CUP.（话语分析，外研社￥27.90）代订购 (2) Chomsky, N. 1957. Syntactic Structures. Mouton, The Hague.，胶印本￥5.00(3) Ellis, R. 1994. The Study of Second Language Acquisition. Oxford: Oxford University Press（第二语言习得研究，上外，￥49.00），胶印本￥35.00/套，2册.(4) Haiman, John. 1985. Natural Syntax. CUP ，胶印本10.00(5) Halliday, M.A.K. An Introduction to Functional Grammar[M]. London: Edward Arnold Ltd.,1994. Reprinted by （外语教学与研究出版社，2000，￥41.91），胶印本￥30.00 (6) Hurford James R & Heasley Brendan. 1983. Semantics: A Course book. Cambridge: CUP. 复印本￥16.00(7) Lakoff, G. & M. Johnson. 1999. Philosophy in the Flesh --- The Embodied Mind胶印本￥15.0 (8) Levinson. S. 1983. Pragmatics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press（语用学，外研社￥38.90），代订购.(9) Jennifer,Hornsby &…,2021,Reading Philosophy of Language,Blackw ell Publishing.胶印本￥20.00(10)Radford A. 1988/2000. Transformational Grammar: A First Course,Foreign LanguageTeaching and Research Press/Cambridge University Press.(转换生成语法，外研社，￥56.90) 胶印本￥30.00参考书目：（1）Bal, M., 1985. Narratology. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.（2）Bell, J. (1999/2021) Doing Your Research Project: A Guide for First-time researchers inEducation and Social Science. Open University Press/外教社.（3）Carter, R. & Simpson, P. (eds.), 1989. Language, Discourse and Literature : An IntroductoryReader in Discourse Stylistics. London: Unwin Uyman.（4）Chomsky, N. 1965. Aspects of the Theory of Syntax. MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass. （5）Chomsky, N. 1975. The Logical Structure of Linguistic Theory. Plenum, New York. （6）Chomsky, N. 1981. Lectures on Government and Binding. Foris, Dordrecht.（7）Chomsky, N. 1986. Knowledge of Language: Its Nature, Origin and Use, Praeger, New York. （8）Cobley, P., 2001. Narrative. London and New York: Routledge. （9）Cook, G. 1989. Discourse. OUP. ★（10）Cook, V. 1993. Linguistics and Second Language Acquisition. London: The MacmillanPress Ltd.（11）Coulmas, F. (ed.). The Handbook of Sociolinguistics. Foreign Language Teaching andResearch Press, 2001.（12）Fauconnier, Gile & Mark Turner. 2002. The Way We Think --- Conceptual Blending and theMind’s Hidden Complexities. New York: Basic Books..（13）Fillmore, Charles. 1982. Frames Semantics. In Linguistic Society of Korea (ed.).Linguistics in the Morning Calm. Seoul: Hanshin. 111―138.（14）Garman, M. Psycholinguistics. Beijing University Press(4.), 2002.（15）Halliday, M. A. K. & R. Hasan. Cohesion in English[M]. London: Longman, 1976.Reprinted by 外语教学与研究出版社（2001）.（16）Halliday, M. A. K. and Christian M. I. M. Matthiessen. Construing Experience ThroughthMeaning: A Language-based Approach to Cognition. London/New York: Continuum, 1999.（17）Halliday, M.A.K. Language as Social Semiotic: the Social Interpretation of Language andMeaning. London: Edward Arnold, 1978. Reprinted by 外语教学与研究出版社（2001）.（18）Herman，David (ed.), 2021. Narrative Theory and the Cognitive Sciences. StanfordUniversity: Publications of the Center for the Study of Language and Information.（19）Jackendoff, R. S. 1983. Semantics and Cognition. Cambridge, MA.：MIT Press. （20）Jorgensen, M. & Philips, L. 2002. Discourse Analysis as Theory and Method. SagePublications.（21）Kennedy, G. 1998. An Introduction to Corpus Linguistics. London: Longman. （22）Langacker, R, W. 1987，1991. Foundations of Cognitive Grammar vol. I:Theoretical Prerequisites；vol. II: Descriptive Application. Stanford, California：Stanford University Press.（23）Larsen-Freeman, D & Long, M. 1991. An Introduction to Second Language AcquisitionResearch. (Chinese Edition) Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.（24）Leech, G. & Short, M., 1982. Style in Fiction: A Linguistic Introduction to English FictionalProse. Longman Group.（25）Nunan, D. (1992/2002) Research Methods in Language Learning .CUP/外教社.（26）Ooi, Bincent B. Y. 1998. Computer Corpus Lexicography. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UniversityPress.（27）Ortony, Andrew(ed.). 1979. Metaphor and Thought, CPU.（28）Prince, Gerald, 1982. Narratology: The Form and Functioning of Narrative. Berlin? NewYork ? Amsterdam: Mouton Publishers.（29）Radford A. 1997/2000. Syntax：A Minimalist Introduction. Foreign Language Teaching andRimmon-Kenan, S., 1983, 2002. Narrative Fiction. Routledge.（30）Searle, J. 1969/2001. Speech Acts: An Essay in the Philosophy of Language[M]. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press; 北京:外语教学与研究出版社（31）Sperber, D. & D. Wilson. 1986/2001. Relevance: Communication and Cognition[M].Oxford: Basil Blackwell; 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社& Blackwell Publishers Ltd.（32）Stubbs, Michael. 2001. Words and Phrases: Corpus Studies of Lexical Semantics. Oxford:Blackwell Publishers.（33）Svensén, Bo. 1993. Practical Lexicography: Principles and Methods of Dictionary-Making.John Sykes and Kerstin Schofield. Oxford: Oxford Universitiy Press.（34）Sweetser, Eve E. 1990. From Etymology to Pragmatics ---Metaphorical and CulturalAspects of Semantic Structure. CUP.（35）Taylor, John. 2002. Cognitive Grammar. OUP.（36）Taylor，John. 1989. Linguistic Categorization --- Prototypes in Linguistic Theory. OUP.(1995年第二版，2021年第三版)（37）Traugott, E. C. & B. Heine. 1991. Approaches to Grammaticalization. Amsterdam：John Benjamins.（38）Verschueren. J. 2000. Understanding Pragmatics[M]. Foreign Language Teaching andResearch Press and Edward Arnold (Publishers) Ltd.（39）申丹，1998.《叙述学与小说文体学研究》.北京大学出版社.，￥20.00 （40）严辰松. (2000) 定量型社会科学研究方法. 西安交大出版社.翻译理论与实践方向必读书目：1、Bassnett, Susan and Andre Lefevere, ed. 1990. Translation, History and Culture. London:Cassell.上外，￥12.00（祝朝伟）/ 胶印本7.00 2、Gentzler, Edwin. 2001. Contemporary Translation Theories. Second Revised Edition.Multilingual Matters.上外，￥14.00（廖七一）/ 代订购 3、Harish Trivedi, ed. 1996. Post-colonial Translation: Theory and Practice. London and NewYork: Routledge.（费小平）/ 胶印本￥10.00 4、Hermans, Theo. 1999. Translation in Systems: Descriptive and Systemic ApproachExplained. St. Jerome Publishing.，上外，￥12.00（廖七一）/ 胶印本，￥6.00 5、Hickey, Leo, ed. 1998. The Pragmatics of Translation. MultilingualMatters Ltd.（侯国金）上外，￥14.50 / 胶印本，￥10.00 6、Jones, Roderick. 1998. Conference Interpreting Explained. Manchester: St. JeromePublishing.（李芳琴） / 胶印本，￥10.007、Lefevere, Andre. Translation, Rewriting and the Manipulation ofLiterary Fame. Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2021.￥11.00（祝朝伟）/ 胶印本，￥8.008、Simon，Sherry. 1996. Gender in Translation. London and New York:Routledge.（费小平）/复印本，￥6.009、陈福康，《中国译学理论史稿》，上海外语教育出版社，2002，￥23.00（杨全红）/代订购 10、谢天振：《译介学》，上海：上海外语教育出版社，1999年￥18.00（杨全红）/代订购推荐书目：Alvarez, Roman and M. Carmen-Africa Vidal, ed. 1996. Translation, Power, Subversion.Multilingual Matters Ltd.Baker, Mona, ed. 1998. Routledge Encyclopedia of Translation Studies.London and NewYork: Routledge.Bassnett-Mcguire Susan. 1980. Translation Studies. London and New York: Routledge.Bassnett, Susan and Andre Lefevere. 1998. Constructing Culture: Essays on LiteraryTranslation. Multilingual Matters Ltd.Bassnett, Susan and Harish Trivedi, eds. 1999. Post-colonial TranslationTheory and Practice.London and New York: Routledge.Bell, Roger. 1991. Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice. London and New York:Longman.Catford, J.C. 1965. A Linguistic Theory of Translation. London: Oxford University Press. 胶印本，￥5.00Chesterman, Andrew. 1997. Memes of Translation: The Spread of Ideas in Translation Theory.Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company.Davis, Kathleen. 2001. Deconstruction and Translation. Manchester and Northampton: St.Jerome Publishing.Flotow, Luise von. 1997. Translation and Gender: Translating in the Era of Feminism. St.Jerome Publishing.感谢您的阅读，祝您生活愉快。
AP® Computer Science A Sample Syllabus 3 Syllabus 1172779v1AP® Computer Science A Sample Syllabus 3 Syllabus 1172779v1 Course OverviewAP® Computer Science A is both a course for potential computer science majors anda foundation course for students planning to study in other technical fields such asengineering, physics, chemistry, and geology. The course emphasizes programmingmethodology, procedural abstraction, and in-depth study of algorithms, data structures,and data abstractions, as well as a structured lab component comprised of a minimumof 20 hours of hands-on lab experiences integrated throughout the course. [CR6]Instruction includes preparation for the AP Computer Science A Exam. In teachingthis course, my reward comes when students can apply the programming tools theyhave learned to real-life examples on their own. Computer science is more than justprogramming. Students should leave my class with a clear understanding of Java and theability to adapt to any new programming language that they are taught in college. I wantthem to have the confidence to tackle any problem-solving obstacles they encounter.Major TextsBergin, Joseph et al. Karel J Robot: A Gentle Introduction to the Art of Object-OrientedProgramming in Java. Redwood City, Calif.: Dreamsongs Press, 2005./~bergin/KarelJava2ed/Karel%2B%2BJavaEdition.htmlHorstmann, Cay. Big Java. Hoboken, N.J.: Wiley, 2012.Lambert, Ken, and Martin Osborne. Fundamentals of Java: AP Computer Science Essentials.Boston: Course Technology, 2010.Course PlannerThe resources list includes the following text references: Karel J. Robot (KJR), Big Java(BJ), and Fundamentals of Java (FJ).Unit 1 (Weeks 0-3)Karel J. Robot(Introduces objects and inheritance)Topics:• Objects• Classes• Looping• ConditionalsObjectives:• Write and use simple classes with Karel J. Robot• Learn the basics of conditionals and loopingAssessments:[CR1]• Program-specific tasks for Karel• Create a SmartRobot Class to teach Karel more commands: turnRight(), CR1— The course teaches students to design and implement computer-based solutions to problems.CR6— The course includes a structured lab component comprised of a minimum of 20 hours of hands-on lab experiences.AP® Computer Science A Sample Syllabus 3 Syllabus 1172779v1 turnAround(), climbStair()• Clear a field of beepers (using loops)• Redistribute a field of beepers (using loops and conditionals)• Run a hurdle race:o Same height and equally spaced;o Same height and unequally spaced; ando Different heights and unequally spaced.Unit 2 (Week 4)Java BasicsTopics:• Computer basics• Java basics• Using the compiler• Input and outputObjectives:• Understand terminology: CPU, system and application software, primary andsecondary memory, LAN, WAN, hard disk, CD-ROM• Understand computer ethics such as acceptable use policies, copyright, intellectualproperty, freeware, shareware, downloading music• Understand how all the different parts of the computer work together• Understand terminology: compiler, IDE, JVM• Edit, compile, and run a simple program in Java• Understand the different compile time errors, runtime errors, and logic errors• Use BufferedReader for input• Use output with System.out using print and println and formatoutput to look niceAssessments: [CR1]• Labs: Triangle, rectangle, square; area; and perimeter program• Get input for the registrar’s office program• Label the parts of the computerStrategies:• To discuss computer ethics, begin by looking at the school’s acceptable use policy, then go to the Web and look at the ACM’s code of ethics. Students will write a small paper in favor of or against something related to computer ethics, such as making copies of a copyrighted program and giving it away for free. [CR7]• Assign a lot of small programs that illustrate different types of input and output—make sure students have used every type of input and displayed it in different ways. Unit 3 (Week 5)CR1— The course teaches students to design and implement computer-based solutions to problems.CR7— The course teaches students to recognizethe ethical and social implications of computer use.AP® Computer Science A Sample Syllabus 3 Syllabus 1172779v1 Defining Variables, Arithmetic ExpressionsTopics:• Using and understanding variables• Comments• Arithmetic expressions in Java programs• Representing numbers in different basesObjectives:• Understand terminology: comments, variables, constants, reserved words, literals• Declare and initialize variables and constants in Java• Understand mathematical expressions in Java and their precedence• Understand how to change bases of numbers• Use casting to make their data more accurate• Understand limitations of finite representations of numbers such as the range ofintegers, real, and float• Use the assignment operator correctlyAssessments: [CR1]• Labs:o Paycheck program; have employee information entered and calculate payo Modify the paycheck program to also include any overtime hours in the calculationsStrategies:• Students need practice with how the different types, double and int, relate when they are used in mathematical operations• Present a lot of small program examples in which they have to find the errorsUnit 4 (Weeks 6-7)Introduction to Classes and OOPTopic:• Creating and using classesObjectives:• Understand terminology: constructor, accessor, mutator, instance variable, encapsulation, information hiding, procedural abstraction• Understand the difference between public and private access in a class• Use and comprehend the DecimalFormat class and the Random class• Write classes from scratch, choosing appropriate data representation• Understand how to declare a method and declare parameters in that method• Understand the use of preconditions, postconditions and assertions when designing methods• Understand the difference between OOP development and top-down development CR1— The course teaches students to design and implement computer-based solutions to problems.AP® Computer Science A Sample Syllabus 3 Syllabus 1172779v1 Assessments: [CR1]• Labs: Purse class and StampMachine classStrategies:• Give students classes to complete, in which they are given a description and they must choose appropriate representation for that classUnit 5 (Weeks 8-12)Conditionals and LoopingTopics:• if, if-else, while, forObjectives:• Understand terminology: control statements, counter, infinite loop, iteration, nested loops, logical operators, truth tables• Construct syntactically correct loops and conditional statements• Understand the different errors that may occur with loops and employ helpful debugging techniques such as hand-tracing and extra print statements to figure out errors• Use logical operators to make programs more robust• Construct truth tables• Be able to calculate statement execution counts, e.g., how many times did the loop execute?Assessments: [CR1][CR5]• Labs:o Approximate PI using Leibniz’s methodo Base Conversion: Convert from baseo 10 to base 2o Guess My Number gameo Euclidean algorithm programo Perimeter and area of rectangles using all combinations of certain rangeStrategies:• Students need practice writing different types of loops and conditionalsUnit 6 (Weeks 13-14)The String ClassTopic: [CR5]• String class CR1— The course teaches students to design and implement computer-based solutions to problems.CR5— The course teaches students to use elements of the standard Java library from the AP Java subsetin Appendix A of the AP Computer Science A Course Description.AP® Computer Science A Sample Syllabus 3 Syllabus 1172779v1 Objectives:• Instantiate String objects• Understand that Strings are immutable• Use appropriate String methods to solve problemsAssessments:Lab: Magpie[CR1]Strategies:• Work several examples using the substring methodUnit 7 (Weeks 15-17)Array ListTopic: [CR2b][CR5]• Using ArrayList classObjective:• Use the ArrayList methodsAssessments: [CR1]• WordList (2004 AP Computer Science A Exam, Free-Response Question 1, AP Central®)Strategies:• Stress the difference between add and set• Draw pictures of the ArrayList after add, set, and remove have been performedUnit 8 (Week 18)ArraysTopics: [CR2b]• Declaring and initializing arrays• Manipulating arrays with loops• Creating parallel arraysObjectives:• Understand terminology: array, element, index, logical size, physical size, parallel arrays• Declare one-dimensional arrays in Java CR2b— The course teaches students to use commonly-used data structures.CR5— The course teaches students to use elements of the standard Java library from the AP Java subsetin Appendix A of the AP Computer Science A Course Description.CR1— The course teaches students to design and implement computer-based solutions to problems.AP® Computer Science A Sample Syllabus 3 Syllabus 1172779v1• Use initializer lists when declaring arrays• Manipulate arrays using loops and array indices• Use the physical and logical size of an array together to guarantee they do not gobeyond the bounds of their array by identifying the boundary cases and using testdata to verify results• Understand how parallel arrays can be useful when processing certain types of data• Work with arrays of primitive data types as well as arrays of objects whileunderstanding the difference between the two types of data• Understand when to choose an array to represent data instead of an ArrayList[CR3]Assessments:• Lab:o For one-dimensional arrays, read in numbers and place each one in an even,odd, and/or negative list [CR1]Strategies:• Students need practice manipulating loops that work with arrays• Students also need to be reminded about the indexing of arrays beginning at zero Unit 9 (Week 19)Two-dimensional ArraysTopics:• Using 2-D arrays• Introduction to inheritance and interfaces• Class diagramsObjectives:• Understanding that 2-D arrays are stored as arrays of arrays• Understand the meaning of row-major order• Traversing all and part of a two-dimensional arrays• Using nested loops to manipulate objects in a two-dimensional array Assessments:• Lab: [CR1]o Picture and Picture lab activities 1-9o Picture lab extensions: steganography and chromakeyStrategies:• Focus on the order in which Java stores the elements of a two-dimensional array in the computer’s memory.• Learn how to write code that corresponds to a class diagram and learn how to draw a class diagram that describes code.CR1— The course teaches students to design and implement computer-based solutions to problems.CR3— The course teaches students to select appropriate algorithms and data structures to solve problems.AP® Computer Science A Sample Syllabus 3 Syllabus 1172779v1 Unit 10 (Weeks 20-21)Searching and Sorting ArraysTopic: [CR2a]• Bubble, Selection, Insertion sorts• Sequential and Binary searchesObjectives:• Write a method for searching an array• Perform insertions and deletions at given positions in arrays• Trace through sorting and searching algorithms and understand time constraints ofeach [CR3]• Understand the algorithms behind each of the following searching and sorting techniques: bubble, selection, and insertion sorts; sequential search and binarysearch• Understand the time efficiency of each sort and search and when it is desirable to use each one [CR3]• Identify reusable components from existing code using classes and class libraries • Given different scenarios, students should be able to choose the most appropriate sort or search [CR3]Assessments:• Lab:o Students make their own “utility” class that includes all of these sorts and searches [CR1]Strategies:• Students need practice tracing through sorts and searches and determining the runtime of each• Students also do well with a worksheet that addresses the efficiency of each of the strategies they have learned, efficiency for a sorted versus unsorted list, and “best,”“worst,” and “average” efficiencyUnit 11 (Weeks 22-24)Elevens LabTopics:• Game design and development• Experimenting with a large program• Using classes• Modifying classes• InheritanceObjectives:CR3— The course teaches students to select appropriate algorithms and data structures to solve problems.CR1— The course teaches students to design and implement computer-based solutions to problems.CR2a— The course teaches students to use and implement commonly used algorithms.AP® Computer Science A Sample Syllabus 3 Syllabus 1172779v1• Design a class that models a deck of cards• Analyze and discuss the efficiency of shuffling algorithms [CR3]• Extend an abstract Board classAssessments:• Lab: ElevensStrategies:• Be familiar with all the classes and interfaces discussed• Focus on the how the classes are related to one another and the reasons forpreferring one algorithm over another [CR3][CR4]Unit 12 (Weeks 25-27)More on Classes, Inheritance, InterfacesTopics:• Classes• Inheritance• Abstract classes• InterfacesObjectives:• Demonstrate inheritance by extending a class• Understand polymorphism and know when it is appropriate to override methods in asuper class• Create and extend an abstract class• Create and extend a class given class specifications with the relationships among theclasses described• Implement an interfaceAssessments: [CR1]• Create an abstract Shape class• Pet Parade (2004 AP Computer Science A Exam: Free-Response Question 2, on AP Central)Strategies: [CR4]• Draw pictures of the inheritance hierarchyUnit 13 (Weeks 28-29)Topic:• Inheritance CR1— The course teaches students to design and implement computer-based solutions to problems.CR4— The course teaches students to code fluently in an object-oriented paradigm using the programming language Java.CR3— The course teaches students to select appropriate algorithms and data structures to solve problems.AP® Computer Science A Sample Syllabus 3 Syllabus 1172779v1 Objective:• Use inheritance to extend the Critter class by making new types of EmployeesAssessments:• Exercises from the textStrategies:• Have fun with this chapter• Allow the students to be creative after working through the exercises and analysis• Create different kinds Employees[CR4]Unit 14 (Weeks 30-31)Recursion (and Merge Sort)Topics:• Recursion• Merge Sort [CR2a]Objectives:• Create a recursive method to solve a problem• Understand the difference between recursive and iterative solutions to a problem [CR3]• Understand and use the Merge Sort• Understand how to calculate the informal runtime of merge sort and compare it’s running time to the other sorts already learned [CR3]Assessments: [CR1]• Factorial program• Rewrite loop programs with recursionStrategies:• Ask, “What is returned by this method?”Unit 15 (Weeks 32-36)ReviewTopics:• Review AP Computer Science A topicsObjective:• Prepare for the AP Computer Science A Exam by reviewing material and taking practice exams CR3— The course teaches students to select appropriate algorithms and data structures to solve problems.CR1— The course teaches students to design and implement computer-based solutions to problems.CR2a— The course teaches students to use and implement commonly used algorithms.CR4— The course teaches students to code fluently in an object-oriented paradigm using the programming language Java.AP® Computer Science A Sample Syllabus 3 Syllabus 1172779v1 Assessments:• Practice examsTeaching StrategiesI strive to create a learning environment that is comfortable for all students. Thosewho have never touched a computer should be as at ease in my class as those who havetaught themselves how to program. I aim to foster critical thinking, a lifelong skill, and Iaccomplish this by giving challenging, yet not impossible, assignments. When new topicsare introduced, I use a hands-on approach of having students see and run examples.While the novices ask questions, more experienced students can make changes to theexamples and experiment with different outcomes.Experienced programmers help the novices in a mentoring program after school. Thispromotes student leadership and propels in-class learning.10。
论弗罗斯特《摘苹果之后》中的死亡隐喻发布时间：2022-07-21T08:53:03.876Z 来源：《时代教育》2022年5期作者：刘沛婷[导读] 乔治·莱考夫和马克?约翰逊于《我们赖以生存的隐喻》一书中指出隐喻不仅仅是一种修辞手法，更是一种思维方式刘沛婷湖南师范大学，湖南长沙 410006摘要：乔治·莱考夫和马克?约翰逊于《我们赖以生存的隐喻》一书中指出隐喻不仅仅是一种修辞手法，更是一种思维方式，在人们的日常语言和活动中无所不在。
诗歌是高度隐喻化的体裁，本文就将以弗罗斯特的短诗——《摘苹果之后》为例，通过挖掘诗歌中的结构隐喻、方位隐喻和本体隐喻，深刻剖析弗罗斯特的死亡观建构，为该诗的解读提供新的维度，也有助于丰富该理论的应用范畴。
关键词:《摘苹果之后》；结构隐喻；方位隐喻；本体隐喻；死亡On death metaphors in Frost’s “After Apple-Picking”Peiting LiuHunan Normal University, Hunan Changsha 410006Abstract: George Lakoff and Mark Johnson put forward in their book Metaphors We Live By that metaphor is not only a figure of speech but a way of thinking, pervasive in everyday language and action. Since poetry is highly metaphorical, this thesis is to explore how Robert Lee Frost construct his insight of death through structural metaphors, orientational metaphors as well as ontological metaphors in his short poem “After Apple-Picking”, with the hope to provide a new dimension for the interpretation of the poem and to expand the application scope of the theory. Key words: “After Apple-Picking”; structural metaphors; orientational metaphors; ontological metaphors; death 1.IntroductionLakoff and Johnson in their monograph Metaphors We Live Вy, point out that metaphor not only can be understood from the figurative perspective, but is the thinking way.[1] Ungerer and Schmid hold that conceptual metaphor, as a cognitive instrument, is not just a stylistically dramatic way of expressing thoughts by means of literary language, but a way of thinking.[2] K?vecses has put that conceptual metaphor is defined as understanding one conceptual domain in terms of another conceptual domain.[3] On the basis of the cognitive approach to the understanding of conceptual metaphor, it can be divided into structural metaphor, orientational metaphor and ontological metaphor. The development of conceptual metaphor theory has brought advance to Linguistics, Anthology, Literature and so on.Robert Lee Frost commands an important place in any list of outstanding poets in the twentieth century. His poem “After Apple-picking” is written in the first person. The speaker is an orchard worker who has picked apples long and hard but is now on the verge of being overwhelmed by fatigue and the depth of the experience. On the edge of falling sleep, he remembers not only the ripe apples successfully picked but also those that fell and were considered damaged and had to be sent to the cider mill. He knows that his sleep will be troubled by the failures more than by the successes. He is not sure about the nature of the sleep he is about to drop into—whether it will be ordinary sleep, more like a hibernation, or more like death.The entire poem is a kind of extended metaphor, in which the activity of harvesting apples represents people’ life and the speaker’s falling asleep suggests human death.As a classical literary work, the study of this poem mostly focuses on its rhythm and writing devices. The analysis of multiple themes and symbols has always been the research hotspot of literature works. Li Yingxue discussed the fuzziness of the meaning of poetry from the perspective of deconstruction, and there are many scholars who explore metaphors in Frost’s other poems.[4] Few people applied it to analyze “After Apple-Picking”. Therefore, this paper is to discuss how Frost structures his thoughts on death metaphorically by describing a laborer’s picking apples. The first three chapters of this thesis illustrate Frost’s views of death through the construction of structural metaphors, orientational metaphors and ontological metaphors in “After Apple-Picking” respectively. At last it is followed by a logical conclusion of this thesis.2.Structural MetaphorsIn structural metaphor, one greatly structured and explicitly delineated concept is applied to structure another. As Lakoff and Johnson point out that one domain of conceptual metaphor is metaphorically structured in light of another. Structural metaphor allows its source domain to offer a comparatively rich knowledge structure for the target domain, that is to say, the cognitive function of structural metaphor is to enable audiences to understand the target domain by the structure of the source domain. The poem “After Apple-Picking” include two key conceptual metaphors: DEATH IS SLEEP and PEOPLE ARE PLANTS.2.1 DEATH IS SLEEPFrost chooses a laborer who is overtired with apple-picking and falls asleep to reflect his insight of death. Hence the poem can be understood as a mapping from a source domain (sleep) to a target domain (death). The mapping is tightly structured. There are ontological correspondences. The dead correspond to those who have a sound sleep. The retrospection before death corresponds to the unconscious state near sleep. The darkness corresponds to the night. The cease of life corresponds to the stillness and motionlessness of sleep. As Lakoff puts it, “people use a concrete source domain to describe an abstract target domain.”[5] Death is an abstract concept, which can be understood vividly through the concept of sleep. The word “sleep”has been repeated five times. “Winter sleep” suggests the emotion of being decayed, forlorn and silent triggered by death because winter, in the metaphoric meanings, has strong associations with death.[6] Another euphemistic expression of death is “long sleep”, which is indicative of its permanence. “Human sleep” is the most evident reflection of conceptualization of death as sleep, showing that human death is what Frost has discussed. In the light of sleep, Frost’s “After Apple-Picking” is no longer a lyrical poem of a worker’s experience on the orchard farm and fatigue aftera day’s labor, but a profound thought on life and death through an extended conceptual metaphor of death as sleep.2.2 PEOPLE ARE PLANTSBoth man and tree are living beings that go through birth and wither, and the achievements of man are kin to the fruits of plants. “Apples I didn’t pick upon some bough” correspond to those unfilled dreams while apples that “struck the earth/ No matter if not bruised or spilled with stubble”correspond to people’s failed pursuits. The scent of apples refers to delight and satisfaction brought by success. In Frost’s poem, the act of apple-picking is a metaphor for the fruits the speaker has achieved in life.[7] It is universally acknowledged that success is what people desire and is something enjoyable. However, the speaker is overtired of the great harvest and wished to rest, which illustrates that the speaker has been bored with worldly sense of accomplishment and hopes to simple have a dream and a “long sleep”. Due to the sweet smell of the apple, the narrator actually falls asleep after fatigue and he enters into “long sleep”(death) with a sense of emptiness resulted from the excessive fruits he has gathered. The speaker’s experience reveals the poet’s meditation on life that it is futile people achieve a great deal of success but eventually own nothing after death. Therefore, the poet don’t ponder on human sleep for no reason but he penetrates the meaninglessness of long tough life struggles.The two root metaphors are carefully chosen to reflect Frost’s philosophy on death. This also confirms the cognitive value of metaphor, that is, vehicles(such as sleep) are usually well known to readers, and their features and structures will be mapped to relatively unfamiliar things when they interact with tenor (such as death) to help readers understand the characteristics and structures of ontology. The characteristics of sleep are mapped to the characteristics of death. Frost’ poem “After Apple-Picking” is not only a pastoral work of rural world in orchard farm but also a thought-provoking poem on death. The end of labor leaves the speaker with a sense of completion and fulfillment yet finds him blocked from success by winter’s approach and physical weariness. The futility that what people achieved as a result resembles fallen apples of no worth leads to fatigue and wish to seek relief in sleep, that is death. Therefore, this seemingly idyllic poem is in fact the ultimate exploration of human destiny through the metaphors of death as sleep and people as plants.3.Orientational MetaphorsOrientational metaphors do not structure one concept in terms of another but instead organize a whole system of concepts with respect to one another.[1] Most of them have to do with spatial orientation: up-down, in-out, front-back, on-off, deep-shallow, central-peripheral. These spatial orientations arise from the fact that we have bodies of the sort we have and that they function as they do in our physical environment. As Lakoff points out that CONSCIOUS IS UP; UNCONSCIOUS IS DOWN. HEALTH SND LIFE ARE UP; SICKNESS AND DEATH ARE DOWN. This poem employs spatial antagonism to construct death metaphor. “The Apple-Picking” involves a development from consciousness to unconsciousness. At the very beginning, the farmer is sober enough on the long two-pointed ladder sticking toward heaven. The spacial position is rather high. After the speaker has been done with apple-picking, rest is badly needed after the arduous labour. He is drowsed off and no longer in his conscious state. Frost adopts simple past tense from line8 to line17, serving as a beginning of the speaker’s dream. In the half unconsciousness of the farmer, the autumn evening bursting with the aroma of the apples has for a moment changed into a winter morning with hoary glass. In farmer’s dream, things “melted”, “fall and break”, which suggests a downward trend. Finally both woodchuck and the farmer fall asleep on the ground. The perspective of the whole poem shifts from heaven to earth, that is from top to bottom, revealing the opposition of space. A pane of glass divides the world into two parts: reality and dream. The transition from reality to dream is the manifestation of change of the speaker’s consciousness. The higher position represents reality and consciousness while the lower dream and unconsciousnessWhat’s more, the positional contrast reveals the opposition of life and death. In the first line of “After Apple-Picking”, the ladder occupies a central position in the whole picture of the poem, acting as a bridge between heaven and earth, life and death. The imagery of heaven and apples evokes the garden of Eden. The act of ascending the ladder symbolized a re-approach to heaven and eternal life while the movement down the ladder symbolizes the descent from heaven to earth, also from life to death[4]. According to Bible, picking apples is considered as corruption and degradation. As baskets of apples fall down and are spiked, they become worthless. This is true of human beings. After the farmer has finished apple-picking, fatigue and emptiness has wrapped him. His vigorous life reaches a pause, which actually means the farmer’s death. Most of fundamental concepts are organized in terms of one or more spatialization metaphors. In Frost’s “After Apple-Picking”, the poet shows the transition from consciousness to unconsciousness as well as from life to death in virtue of the binary opposition of space. The physical basis of such division is that humans sleep and die lying down and stand up when they are awaken. Therefore, the antagonism of life and death is constructed through the opposition of up and down positions, which contributes to the further construction of the root metaphors.4.Ontological MetaphorsOntological metaphor helps us understand those abstract entities through conceptualizing them as these entities and substances which are related to human’s experience. As Lakoff and Johnson point out: “our experience of physical objects and substances provides a further basis for understanding.” Ontological metaphor could be classified into three types, which are entity and substance metaphor, container metaphor and personification.Firstly, an invisible abstract concept, in entity and substance metaphor, is considered as a visible concrete object. Human being expresses abstract concepts as these entities and substances which are related to human’s experience. Death is an abstract concept, which can be understood thanks to another common concept—sleep. The dark and bleak state of death is implied by night in winter. The poet also tries to clarify the hibernation of hamsters and the long sleep of human beings: one is short seasonal rest and the other is an eternal stop of motion. In this way, the characteristics of death are no longer vague. The first root metaphor of death as sleep receives deeper and more detailed illustrations. Similarly, human achievements becomes a measurable entity like apples in “ After Apple-Picking”. Through these well-known common things, the original abstract concept can be elucidated. The essence of metaphor lies in the comparison between two entities.Secondly, container metaphor is a kind of ontological metaphor in which an invisible abstract concept is regarded as a container which has a surface owning scope and range with an in-out orientation. In Frost’s poem, the farmer’s dream and sleep is a container, where he can see “magnified apples”, feel “the pressure of ladder-round”. The farmer’s falling into dreams shows the motion from one space to another space. The state of farmer can be classified into “in sleep” and “out of sleep”, which symbolize death and life respectively.Lastly, personification specifies the physical object as being a man, which can make people to comprehend these different physical objects in light of human characteristics, motivations and activities. In Frost’s poem, apple “struck the earth” and long sleep can “come on” are all personification. They are extensions of ontological metaphors and that they allow us to make sense of phenomena in the world on the basis of our own goals. It is carefully chosen to endow this poem a dynamic effect so that the theme of this poem can be effectively conveyed. All in all, the understanding of a poetic metaphor is a cognitive process.[8] Ontological metaphor makes us understand abstract concepts by use of concrete concepts. The poet uses sleep to explain death, making the abstract concept simplified and concrete. In the poem, the dream not only reflects the structural metaphor, but also reflects the container metaphor. It forms a contrast between “in dream” and “out of dream” so as to further strengthen the difference between life and death. Apple has bruises, and Death actively does come in. These anthropomorphic expressions embody the metaphorical nature of language and the symbolic nature of death. As a result, metaphor of death in this poem has been justified.5.ConclusionThe exploration of the relationship between Frost’s view of death and Lakoff’s cognitive metaphors will undoubtedly help readers to guard against deceptive surface meanings when interpreting and appreciating Frost’s poems, and to explore the profound life philosophy reflected in his poems through metaphorical thinking and active participation.Through dividing metaphors in Frost’s “After Apple-Picking” according to Lakoff’s classification, the way of constructing poem’s theme is evidently revealed. At the first glance, it seems to be a lyrical poem, but it actually a poem of death after further analysis. Frost implicitly depicts life actions as apple picking activities, apples are symbols of human achievements, and death is similar to long sleep, which are structural metaphors, through which the characteristics of abstract concept death can be easily understood. Moreover, the orientational metaphors constitute to the body of this poem. The up-down spatial position divides the farmer’s state into consciousness and unconsciousness, also a reflection of human’s state of life and death. The contrast between in-out categories reflects the whole poem’s structure: it shifts from reality to dream. Since the farmer’s dream is explained as a container, the state of dreaming metaphorically stands for death. Therefore the whole poem is based on structural metaphors of death is sleep and people are plants, which are illustrated with orientational metaphors and ontological metaphors.However, the thesis still has some limitations due to the author’s slim analysis. It can be better with more logical illustrations and evidences. But it is no doubt that the thesis provides a new perspective of discussing Frost’s poem. It expands the application scope of Lakoff’s conceptual metaphor and enriches its practice, and produces referential meaning to literature appreciation. References[1]Lakoff, G & M. Johnson. Metaphors We Live By[M]. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.1980.[2]Ungerer, F & H. J. Schmid. An Introduction to Cognitive Linguistics.[M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press. 2008.[3]K?vecses, Z. Metaphor: A practical introduction[M]. New York: Oxford University Press.2002.[4]李应雪. 一个解构批评的范本——析罗伯特·弗洛斯特诗歌《摘苹果之后》意义的模糊性[J]. 宁夏大学学报(人文社会科学版), 2007(04): 78-81.[5]Lakoff, G. The Invariance Hypothesis: is abstract reason based on image-schemas?[J]. Cognitive Linguistics, 1990(01): 39-47.[6]Huo, Lirong. Comments on “After Apple-Picking”[J]. Overseas English, 2012(01): 196-197.[7]赵志宇. 罗伯特·弗洛斯特的《摘罢苹果》[J]. 文学语言学研究, 2007(02):70-71.[8]胡壮麟. 诗性隐喻[J]. 山东外语教学, 2001(03): 3-8.。
博弈类型及其表述形式1 博弈的分类博弈模型一般分为合作博弈（cooperative game ）和非合作博弈（non- cooperative game ），如图1.1。
合作博弈是以单个参与者的可能行动集合为基本元素，而非合作博弈是以参与人群的可能联合行动集合为基本元素（Martin J.Osborne and Ariel Rubinstein ，2000，P2），也就是说，在合作博弈中，博弈中所有参与者都独立行动，不存在有约束力的合作、联合或联盟的关系，而在非合作博弈中，在一些参与者之间存在着有约束力的合作、联合或联盟的关系，并因为这种关系影响到博弈的结局。
合作博弈强调的是团体理性（collective rationality ）、效率、公正和公平；非合作博弈强调的是个人理性、个人最优决策，其结果可能是有效率的，也可能是低效率或无效率的（张维迎，1996，P5）。
20世纪50年代，合作博弈的研究达到鼎盛期，同时开始出现对非合作博弈的研究，此后，博弈论的研究主流逐步转向在非合作博弈领域。
有些人认为非合作博弈模型比合作博弈更“基本”，但有些人认为两者不相上下（Martin J.Osborne and Ariel Rubinstein ，2000，P2）。
合作博弈，有时也叫做联盟博弈（coalitional game ），一般根据有无转移支付而分为两类：可转移支付联盟博弈（coalitional game with transferable payoff ）和不可转移支付联盟博弈（coalitional game with non-transferable payoff ）。
可转移支付也叫有旁支付（side payment ），可转移支付联盟博弈假设博弈中各参与者都用相同的尺度来衡量他们的赢得，且各联盟的赢得可以按任意方式在联盟成员中分摊；否则，就是不可转移支付联盟博弈。
图1.1 博弈的分类非合作博弈的分类主要从两个角度进行划分。
