Unofficial translation by Jones Day 工商行政管理机关 制止

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Corpus Linguistics and Translation StudiesImplications and ApplicationsMona BakerCobuild, BirminghamAbstractThe rise of corpus linguistics has serious implications for any discipline in which language plays a major role. This paper explores the impact that the availability of corpora is likely to have on the study of translation as an empirical phenomenon. It argues that the techniques and methodology developed in the field of corpus linguistics will have a direct impact on the emerging discipline of translation studies, particularly with respect to its theoretical and descriptive branches. The nature of this impact is discussed in some detail and brief reference is made to some of the applications of corpus techniques in the applied branch of the discipline.0.IntroductionA great deal of our experience of and knowledge about other cultures is mediated through various forms of translation, including written translations, sub-titling, dubbing, and various types of interpreting activities. The most obvious case in point is perhaps literature. Most of us know writers such as Ibsen, Dostoyevsky and Borges only through translated versions of their works. But our reliance on translation does not stop here. Our understanding of political issues, of art, and of various other areas which are central to our lives is no less dependent on translation than our understanding of world literature.Given that translated texts play such an important role in shaping our experience of life and our view of the world, it is difficult to understand why translation has traditionally been viewed as a second-rate activity, not worthy of serious academic enquiry, and why translated texts have been regarded as no more than second-hand and distorted versions of …real‟ text s. If they are to be studied at all, these second-hand texts are traditionally analysed with the (233) sole purpose of proving that they inevitably fall short of reproducing all the glory of the original. A striking proof of the low status accorded to translated texts comes from the young but by now well-established field of corpus linguistics. A recent survey commissioned by the Network of European Reference Corpora, an EEC-funded project, shows that many corpus builders in Europe specifically exclude translated text from their corpora.1 Thisis presumably done on the grounds that translated texts are not representative and that they might distort our view of the …real‟ language under investigation. It is perhaps justifiable to exclude translated texts which are produced by non-native speakers of the language in question, but what justification can there be for excluding translations produced by native speakers, other than that translated texts per se are thought to be somehow inferior or contrived? Biased as it may be, this traditional view of translation implies, in itself, an acknowledgement of the fact that translational behavior is different from other types of linguistic behavior, quite irrespective of the translator‟s mastery of the target language.The starting point of this paper is that translated texts record genuine communicative events and as such are neither inferior nor superior to other communicative events in any language. They are however different, and the nature of this difference needs to be explored and recorded. Moreover, translation should be taken seriously by related disciplines such as linguistics, literary theory and cultural and communication studies, not least because these disciplines can benefit from the results of research carried out in the field of translation. At the same time, as a phenomenon which pervades almost every aspect of our lives and shapes our understanding of the world, the study of translation can hardly be relegated to the periphery of other disciplines and sub-disciplines, those listed above being no exception. What is needed is an academic discipline which takes the phenomenon of translation as its main object of study. For many scholars, this discipline now exists. Some refer to it as the …science of translation‟, other as …translatology‟, but the most common term used today is …translation studies‟.Eco (1976:7) distinguishes between a discipline and a field of study. The first has “its own method and a precise object” (my emphasis). The second has “a repertoi re of interests that is not as yet completely unified”. It could be argued that translation studies is still largely a “field of study” in Eco‟s terms. The vast majority of research carried out in this, shall we say emerging discipline, is still concerned exclusively with the relationship between specific source and target texts, rather than with the nature of translated text as such. This relationship is generally investigated using notions such as equivalence, (234) correspondence, and shifts of translation, which betray a preoccupation with practical issues such as the training of translators. More important, the central role that these notions assume in the literature points to a general failure on the part of the theoretical branch of the discipline to define its object of study and to account for it. Instead of exploring features of translated texts as our object of study, we are still trying either to justify them or dismiss them by reference to their originals.It is my belief that the time is now ripe for a major redefinition of the scope and aims of translation studies, and that we are about to witness a turning point in the history of the discipline. I would like to argue that this turning point will come as a direct consequence of access to large corpora of both original and translated texts, and of the development of specific methods and tools for interrogating such corpora inways which are appropriate to the needs of translation scholars. Large corpora will provide theorists of translation with a unique opportunity to observe the object of their study and to explore what it is that makes it different from other objects of study, such as language in general or indeed any other kind of cultural interaction. It will also allow us to explore, on a larger scale than was ever possible before, the principles that govern translational behavior and the constraints under which it operates. Therein lie the two goals of any theoretical enquiry: to define its object of study and to account for it.Section 1 below offers an overview of the emerging discipline of translation studies and explains why translation scholars are now in a position to use the insights gained from corpus linguistics, and some of the techniques developed by it, to take translation across t he threshold of …field of study‟ and into the realm of fully-fledged disciplines.1.Translation studies: the state of the art1.1Central issues: the status of the source text and the notion of equivalenceUntil very recently, two assumptions dominated all discussions of translation and were never questioned in the literature. The first is that of the primacy of the source text, entailing a requirement for accuracy and faithfulness on the part of the translator. The second is a consequence of the first and is embodied in the notion of equivalence which has been the central concern of all discourse on translation since time immemorial. Translations should strive to be as equivalent to their originals as possible, with equivalence being understood, (235) mainly as a semantic or formal category. The implied aim of all studies on translation was never to establish what translation itself is, as a phenomenon, but rather to determine what an ideal translation, as an instance, should strive to be in order to minimise its inevitable distortion of the message, the spirit, and the elegance of the original.The essentialist question of how equivalence per se might be established in the course of translation has gradually been tempered by experience and by an explosion in the amount and range of texts which have come to be translated in a variety of ways on a regular basis. Hence, we now have a massive amount of literature which attempts to classify the notion of equivalence in a multitude of ways, and the question is no longer how equivalence might be achieved but, increasingly, what kind of equivalence can be achieved and in what contexts. This in itself is a noticeable improvement on the traditionally static view of equivalence, but it still assumes theprimacy of the source text and it still implies that a translation is merely a text striving to meet the standards of another text.1.2Developments which support a move towards corpus-based researchThe attempt to extend and classify the notion of equivalence has brought with it a need to explore not only the source text as the modal to be adhered to but also the target language, and the specific target language text type, in order to give meaning to such categories as stylistic equivalence and functional equivalence. If the idea is not simply to reproduce the formal structures of the source text but also to give some thought, and sometimes priority, to how similar meanings and functions are typically expressed in the target language, then the need to study authentic instances of similar discourse in the two languages becomes obvious.There have been other developments which have played a more direct role in preparing the ground for corpus work. One such development is the decline of what we might call the semantic view of the relationship between source and target texts. For a long time, discourse on translation was dominated by the idea that meaning, or messages, exist as such and can, indeed should, be transferred from source to target texts in much the same way as one might transfer wine from one glass to another. The traditional dichotomy of translating word-for-word or sense-for-sense is a product of this view of meaning. At about the same time that the notion of equivalence began to be reassessed, or perhaps a little earlier, new ideas began to develop about the nature of meaning in translation. Firth (1968:91) was among the first to sug(236)gest that, difficult though as it may appear, an approach which connects structures and systems of language to structures and systems in the context of situation (as opposed to structures and systems of thought) is more manageable and “more easily related to problems of translation”. Similarly, Haas (1986:104) stresses that, in practice, correspondence in meaning amounts to co rrespondence in use and asserts that “unless we can succeed in thus explaining translation, the mystery of bare and neutral fact will continue to haunt us”. Two expressions are equivalent in meaning if and only if “there is a correspondence between their uses” (ibid). The importance of this change in orientation, from a conceptual to a situational perspective and from meaning to usage, is that it supports the push towards descriptive studies in general and corpus-based studies in particular. Conceptual and semantic studies (in the traditional sense) can be based on introspection. Studies which take the context into consideration, and even more so, studies which attempt to investigate usage, are, by definition, only feasible if access is available to real data, and, in the case of usage, to substantial amounts of it.Apart from the decline of the semantic view of translation, another, and very exciting, development has been the emergence of approaches which undermine both the status of the source text vis-à-vis the translated text and the value of the very notion of equivalence, particularly if seen as a static relationship between the source and target texts. The move away from source texts and equivalence is instrumental in preparing the ground for corpus work because it enables the discipline to shed its longstanding obsession with the idea of studying individual instances in isolation (one translation compared to one source text at a time) and creates a requirement which can find fulfillment in corpus work, namely the study of large numbers of texts of the same type. This is precisely where corpus work comes into its own.1.2.1 New perspectives: polysystem theoryIn the late seventies, Even-Zohar, a Tel-Aviv scholar, began to develop a theory of literature as a polyststem, that is as a hierarchical and dynamic conglomerate of system rather than a disparate and static collection of texts. A given literary polysystem is seen as part of a larger cultural polysystem, itself consisting of various polysystems besides literature, for example politics and religion. These polysystems are structured differently in different cultures.Polysystem theory has far-reaching implications for the status of translated literature in general and for the status of the source text vis-à-vis the target text in particular. First, the theory assumes a high level of inter-dependence among the various systems and sub-systems which underlie a (237) given polysystem, as well as among the polysystems of literature in various cultures. This means that, for instance, “literature for children would not be considered a phenomenon sui generis, but related to literature for adults” and, similarly, “translated literature would not be disconnected from original literature” (Even-Zohar 1979:13). As a consequence, the status of translated literature is elevated to the point where it becomes worthy of investigation as a system in its own right, interacting with its co-systems and with the literary polysystems of other cultures. By recognising translated literature as a system in its own right, polysystemists shifted the attention away from individual literary translations as the object of literary studies to the study of a large body of translated literature in order to establish its systemic features.Second, one of the main properties of the polysystem is that there is constant struggle among its various strata, with individual elements and systems either being driven from the centre to the periphery or pushing their way towards the centre and possibly occupying it for a period of time (ibid:14). This constant state of flux suggests that no literary system or sub-system is restricted to the periphery by virtue of any inherent limitations on its value. Thus, the approach stresses that translated literature may, and sometimes does, occupy a central position in the polysystem and is therefore capable of providing canonised models for the whole polysystem. Moreover,given that polysystem theory recognises that intra- and inter-relations exist within both systems and polysystems, leading to various types of interference and transfer of elements, models, canons, and so on, it becomes obvious that “semiliterary texts, translated literature, children‟s literature—all those strata neglected in current literary studies—are indispensable objects of study for an adequate understanding of how and why transfers occur within systems as well as among them” (ibid:25). And finally, polysystemists reject the popular view of translation as a derivative activity and stress ins tead that literary translation is “a creatively controlled process of acculturation in that translators can take an original text and adapt it to a certain dominant poetics or ideology in the receiving culture” (Heylen 1993:21)This view of literature as a conglomerate of systems, as well as the growing interest in transfer and interference across systems, has gradually undermined the status of the source text in translation studies. Since the early eighties, Toury, another Tel-Aviv scholar, has been stressing that a translation belongs to one textual system only, namely the target system, and the source text has gradually been assuming the role of a stimulus or source of information rather than the starting point for analysis. Questions regarding how a translated text came into being or what type of relationship it has with a given (238) source text are becoming secondary to its classification as part of the target textual system. As Toury puts it in a more recent publication (1958:19):It is clear that, from the standpoint of the source text and source system, translations have hardly any significance at all, even if everybody in the source culture …knows‟ of their factual existence… Not only have they left the source system behind, but they are in no position to affect its linguistic and textual rules and norms, its textual history, or the source text as such. On the other hand, they may well influence the recipient culture and language, if only because every translation is initially perceived as a target language utterance.It is worth noting that similar, though not quite so radical, assessments of the status of the source text have also emerged among groups of scholars not specifically concerned with literary translation. For example, Vermeer (1983:90)2suggests that the function of the translated text is determined by the interests and expectations of its recipients and not by the function of the source text. The SL text is a source of information and, like other sources of information, it may be exploited in a variety of ways to meet the expectations of an envisaged audience.1.2.2 From equivalence to normsFrom the late seventies onwards, the source-oriented notion of equivalence has been gradually replaced by notions which clearly take the target system and culture as a starting point. Some of these notions have evolved within theories designed to account for translation within a commercial environment. They include, for example, Vermeer‟s notion of coherence, defined as the agreement of a text wit h its situation (Vermeer 1983), and Sager‟s definition of equivalence as a function of the specifications that accompany a request for translation (Sager 1993). The most important, however, has been the notion of norms, introduced by Toury (1978, 1980).Toury has developed a tripartite model in which norms represent an intermediate level between competence and performance. If we think of competence as an inventory of all the options that are available to translators in a given context, and performance as the subset of options which are actually selected by translators from this inventory, then norms are a further subset of these options. They are options which are regularly taken up by translators at a given time and in a given socio-cultural situation. In this sense, the notion of norms is very similar to that of typicality, a notion which has emerged from recent work on corpus-based lexicography and which contrasts sharply with the standard, absolute dualisms in linguistics; competence and performance, (239) language and parole.Norms, then, are a category of descriptive analysis. They can be identified only by reference to a corpus of source and target texts, the scrutiny of which would allow us to record strategies of translation which are repeatedly opted for, in preference to other available strategies, in a given culture or textual system. The concept of norms tips the balance not only in favour of the target text (as opposed to the traditional obsession with the source text), but, more important, it assumes that the primary object of analysis in translation studies is not an individual translation but a coherent corpus of translated texts. Norms do not emerge from a source text or a body of source texts. Equally, they do not emerge from the target system nor from a general collection of target texts. They are a product of a tradition of translating in specific ways, a tradition which can only be observed and elaborated through the analysis of a representative body of translated texts in a given language or culture. They can therefore be seen not just as a descriptive category but also as providing a functional, socio-historical basis for the structure of the discipline (Lambert 1985:34).1.2.3 The rise of descriptive translation studiesSince the seventies, several scholars have begun to express dissatisfaction with the heavy reliance on introspective methods in translation studies. Holms (1988:101) makes the point most clearly:Many of the weaknesses and naiveties of contemporary translation theories are a result of the fact that the theories were, by and large, developed deductively, without recourse to actual translated texts-in-function, or at best to a very restricted corpus introduced for illustration rather than for verification or falsification.Newman (1980:64) similarly suggests that the way out of the dilemma posed by the notions of equivalence and translatability is to look at actual instances of translation and to determine, on the basis of those instances, “the link of generalities that might from the basis of a theory of competence or systematic description”. It is however Toury who has done more to elaborate the concept of descriptive translation studies than anyone else in the discipline.For Toury, it is vital for translation studies to develop a descriptive branch if it is ever to become an autonomous discipline. Without this, translators will continue to rely on other disciplines such as linguistics to provide them with theoretical frameworks and the means to test their hypotheses. Descriptive Translation Studies, or DTS for short, is not reducible to a collection of case studies or comparative analysis of source and target texts. It is (240) that branch of the discipline which must provide a sound methodology and explicit research procedures to enable the findings of individual descriptive studies to be expressed in terms of generalisations about translational behavior. Its agenda consists, primarily, of investigating what translation is “under any defined set of circumstances … and WHY it is realized the way it is” (Toury 1991a:186). One of its main objectives is to render the findings of individual studies intersubjective and to make the studies themselves “repeatable, either for the same or for another corpus” (Toury 1980:81).It is perhaps worth noting at this point that although the words corpus and corpora are beginning to figure prominently in the literature on translation, they do not refer to the same kind of corpora that we tend to talk about in linguistics. Corpora in translation studies have so far been very modest affairs. Their size is not generally expressed in terms of number of words but of number of texts, and they are searched manually. For example, Vanderauwera (1958) is a study of “50 or so novels” translated from Dutch into English in “roughly the period 1960-1980” (ibid:1-2). This is a very small corpus, and yet the experience of searching it manually leads Vanderauwera to suggest that “serious and systematic research into translated texts is a laborious and tiresome bu siness” (ibid:6). Toury himself seems torn between the need to set an ambitious program for DTS and the recognition that “the larger and/or more heterogeneous the corpus, the greater the difficulties one is likely to encounter while performing the process of extraction and generalization” (1980:66-7). In an earlier publication, Toury (1978:96) argues for a distributional study of norms based on statistical techniques but concludes that… as yet we are in no position to point to strict statistical methods for dealing with translational norms, or even to supply sampling rules for actual research (which, because of human limitations, has nearly always been applied to samples only, and will probably go on being carried out in much the same way).At this stage we must be content with our intuitions … and use them as keys for selecting a corpus and for hitting upon ideas.One of John Sinclair‟s major achievements for linguistics has been his success, through the collection of computerised corpora and the development of a relevant research methodology, in providing ways of overcoming our human limitations and minimizing our reliance on intuition. His work can provide solutions for precisely the kind of problems that translation scholars are still struggling with today. (241)2.Corpus work in translation studies: the potentialThere is no doubt that the availability of corpora and of corpus-driven methodology will soon provide valuable insights in the applied branch of translation studies, and that the impact of corpus-based research will be felt there long before it begins to trickle into the theoretical and descriptive branches of the discipline. Sinclair (1992:395) touches very briefly, and strictly from the point of view of linguist, on one obvious application:The new corpus resources are expected to have a profound effect on the translations of future. Attempts at machine translation have consistently demonstrated to linguists that they do not know enough about the languages concerned to effect an acceptable translation. In principle, the corpora can provide the information.In the above statement, which is one of the very few Sinclair has made on translation, the concern is merely with improving the performance of translators and of machine translation systems in terms of approximating to the structures and natural patterns of a given language or languages. This same concern underlies most of the expressions of interest in corpus studies which are beginning to take shape in the literature.3 It is of course a legitimate concern and one which will be shared widely by scholars within and outside translation studies, theorists and practitioners alike. I would, however, like to think that the …profound effect‟ which Sinclair refers to will not be understood merely in terms of knowing enough about the languages concernedto approximate to their patterns. After all, once we are in a position to describe and account for our object of study, namely translation, we might find that approximating to the patterns of the target language, or any language for that matter, is not necessarily as feasible as we seem to assume, and that it is not the only factor at play in shaping translational behavior. Several scholars, for example Toury (1991b:50) and Even-Zohar (1979:77) have already noted that the very activity of translating, the need to communicate in translated utterances, operates as a major constraint on translational behavior and gives rise to patterns which are specific to translated texts. Thus Even-Zohar (ibid) stre sses that “we can observe in translation patterns w hich are inexplicable in terms of any of the repertoires involved”, that is patterns which are not the result of interference from the source or target language. Examples of these patterns are discussed as universal features of translation in section 2.1 below. The profound effect that corpora will have on translation studies, in my view, (242) will be a consequence of their enabling us to identify features of translated text which will help us understand what translation is and how it works. The practical question of how to improve our translations will find more reliable and realistic answers once the phenomenon of translation itself is explained in its own terms.Practical applications aside, what kind of queries can access to computerised corpora help us resolve in our effort to explicate the phenomenon of translation? Given that this question, to my knowledge, has not been addressed before, what follows has to be seem as a very tentative list of suggestions which can provide a starting-point for corpus-based investigations in the discipline but which do not, by any means, address the full potential of corpora in translation studies.2.1 Universal features of translationThe most important task that awaits the application of corpus techniques in translation studies, it seems to me, is the elucidation of the nature of translated text as a mediated communicative event. In order to do this, it will be necessary to develop tools that will enable us to identify universal features of translation, that is features which typically occur in translated text rather than original utterances and which are not the result of interference from specific linguistic systems.It might be useful at this point to give a few examples of the type of translation universals I have in mind. Based on small-scale studies and casual observation, a number of scholars have noted features which seem, intuitively, to be linked to the nature of the translation process itself rather than to the confrontation of specific linguistic systems. These include:。

国际公法英文名解汇总纲目版第一篇：国际公法英文名解汇总纲目版国际公法英文名解汇总纲目版第一章国际法导论 International law 国际法 Jus civile 市民法 Jus gentium 万民法Jus inter gentes = law of nations 万国法/万国公法Positive morality 实在道德 International comity 国际礼让Treaty on European Union = Treaty ofMaastricht 《欧洲联盟条约》/《马斯特里赫特条约》Naturalists 自然法学派Solidarists 社会连带法学派Normativists 规范法学派 Positivists 实在法学派Sources of law = sources du droit = fontes juris 法律渊源Monism 一元论 Dualism 二元论第二章国际法基本原则Jus cogens 强行法/强制法/绝对法Sovereignty 主权The Right of People to Self-determination 民族自决权第三章国际法主体Single State 单一国Federation 联邦Confederation 邦联 Protected State 被保护国Permanent Ueutralized State 永久中立国 Fundamental Right 基本权利Secondary Rights 派生权利Right of Independence 独立权Right of Equality平等权 Right of Self-preservation 自保权 Right of Jurisdiction 国家管辖权Territorial Jurisdiction 属地管辖权/属地优越权Personal Jurisdiction = nationalityjurisdiction = active personality principle 属人管辖权/国籍管辖/积极国籍管辖Protective Jurisdiction = passive personality principle 保护性管辖权/消极国籍管辖Universal Jurisdiction 普遍性管辖权Judicialimmunities 外国国家的司法豁免权Recognition 国际法上的承认Effective control 有效统治 Succession 国际法上的继承第四章国际法上的居民 Nationality 国籍 Inhabitant 居民Original nationality 原始国籍/出生国籍 Jus sanguinis 血统主义Jus soli 出生地主义Acquired nationality 因加入而取得国籍 Naturalization 入籍/归化 Release 放弃（国籍）Deprive 剥夺（国籍）Dual nationality 双重国籍Active conflicts 国籍的积极抵触Stateless person 无国籍人Passive conflicts 国籍的消极抵触 Alien 外国人Deportation 驱逐出境National treatment = doctrine of equality of treatment = NT 国民待遇/平等待遇原则International standard of treatment “文明世界”的“国际标准”/“最低标准”Most favorable national treatment = MFNT 最惠国待遇Differential treatment 差别待遇 Extradition 引渡Principle of Non-extradition of Political Offenders 政治犯不引渡原则Attentat clause = Assassination Clause 行刺条款/比利时行刺条款/暗杀条款Principle of identity 相同原则/罪名同一原则/双重犯罪原则Principle of speciality 罪行特定原则/罪名专用原则或专一原则Asylum 庇护Territorial asylum 领域庇护/域内庇护Extra-territorial asylum 域外庇护 Refugee 难民Nansen passport 南森护照Convention refugees 公约难民Mandate refugees 章程难民Principle of non-refoulement 不推回原则/禁止驱逐、送还原则Diplomatic protection 外交保护Doctrine of continuous nationality 国籍连续原则Exhaustion of local remedies 用尽国内救济原则Calvo clause 卡尔沃条款 Calvo doctrine 卡尔沃主义第五章国家法律责任International responsibility 国际法律责任/国Primary rules 确定合法、非法的行为规则/是非规则/首要规则Secondary rules 国际法律责任规则/一般法律责任规则/责任规则/次级规则Distress 危难Necessity 危急情况Restitution 恢复原状Reparation 广义赔偿Compensation 狭义赔偿/经济赔偿 Satisfaction 抵偿第六章领土法Land territory 领陆T erritory Waters 领水Air space 领空Subsoil beneath state territory 底土 Enclave 飞地 Ownership 所有权 Domination 统治权 Condominium 共管 Leased territory 租借International servitude 国际地役 Internal waters 内水 Internal rivers 内河Boundary rivers 界河Non-national rivers 多国河流International rivers 国际河流Inter-oceanic canals 通洋运河Occupation 先占/占领 Vacant land 无主地Effective occupation 有效占领 Prescription 时效 Accretion 添附Conquest 征服Plebiscite 全民投票/全民公决Self-determination of peoples 民族自决The exchange of territory 交换领土Reversionary rights 收复失地Boundaries of state territory 国家边界第七章国际海洋法The common heritage of mankind 人类共同继承财产The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea 《联合国海洋法公约》 Base line 基线Normal baseline 正常基线Straight baseline 直线基线Archipelagic baseline 群岛基线 Innocent passage 无害通过Contiguous zone 毗连区/邻接区/海上特别区Exclusive economic zone 专属经济区 Continental shelf 大陆架 High seas 公海Flag of convenience 方便旗 Right of visit 登临权/临检权 Right of hot pursuit 紧追权Straits used for international navigation 用于国际航行的海峡Transit passage 过境通行 Archipelagic waters 群岛水域Right of archipelagic sea lanes passage 群岛海道通过权International sea-bed area 国际海底区域Single exploitation system 单一开发制 Parallel exploitation system平行开发制第八章国际航空法识别区/空中识别区 Cabotage 国内载运权The International Civil Aviation Organization = ICAO 国际民用航空组织Dol = wilful misconduct（承运人的）加害行为/故意造成损害的不法行为/故意的行为/不在乎地不顾后果的行为Two tier liability “双梯度”责任制度/两级责任制Aut dedere aut judicare 或引渡或起诉原则Aut dedere aut punier 或引渡或处罚第九章外层空间法 Outer space 外层空间第十章国际环境法Sustainable development 可持续发展 Pollution from vessels 船舶污染 Pollution by dumping 控制海洋倾倒 Pollution from land-based sources 陆源污染第十一章外交关系法Consular provision 委任文凭Consular exequatur 领事证书第十三章国际条约法The Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties 《维也纳条约法公约》Treaty 条约Convention 公约Convention 专约Agreement 协定 Protocol 议定书Final act 最后议定书/蒇事议定书Charter 宪章 Statute 规约Exchange of Notes 换文 Declaration 宣言 Joint statement 联合声明Bilateral treaty 双边条约Multilateral treaty 多边条约Negotiation（条约）谈判Full power 全权证书Adoption 议定Authentication 认证 Signature 签署 Ratification 批准 Accession 加入 Reservation 保留 Registration 登记 Publication 公布Pacta sunt servanda 条约必须遵守原则Pacta tertiis nec nocent nec prosunt 约定对第三者既无损，也无益 Termination 条约的终止 Invalidation 条约的失效Suspension 条约的暂停施行/条约的中止/条约的停止施行Interpretation 条约的解释 Revision 条约的修订 Amendment 条约的修正 Modification 条约的修改第十四章国际组织法International organization 国际组织Inter-governmental organization 政府间组织International institutional law 国际组织法Non-governmental organization 非政府间国际组织Organization of petroleum exportingcountries = OPEC 石油输出机构/石油输出国组织Organization for economic cooperation and development = OECD 经济协力开发机构/经济合作与发展组织/经合组织General Assembly 联合国大会Security Council 安全理事会/安理会Economic and Social Council 经济与社会理事会/经社理事会Trusteeship Council 托管理事会 International Court of Justice 国际法院 Secretariat 秘书处Specialized International Organization 专门性国际组织Specialized Agencies 联合国专门机构International telecommunication union = ITU 国际电信联盟Universal postal union = UPU 万国邮政联盟World meteorological organization = WMO 世界气象组织World health organization = WHO 世界卫生组织International labour organization = ILO 国际劳工组织Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations = FAO 联合国粮食及农业组织/联合国粮农组织United Nations Educational,Scientific,and Cultural Organization = UNESCO 联合国教科文组织International monetary fund = IMF 国际货币基金组织International bank for reconstruction and development = IBRD 国际复兴开发银行/世界银行International finance corporation = IFC 国际金融公司International maritime organization = IMO 国际海事组织International development association = IDA 国际开发协会World intellectual property organization = WIPO 世界知识产权组织International fund of agriculturaldevelopment = IFAD 国际农业发展基金（组织）United Nations Industrial DevelopmentOrganization = UNIDO 联合国工业发展组织World trade organization = WTO 世界贸易组织International atomic energy agency = IAEA 国际原子能机构Collective security 集体安全保障Peace-keeping operations = PKO 联合国维持和平行动Regional organization 区域性国际组织Organization of American States = OAS美洲国家组织Arab League = League of Arab States = AL = LAS 阿拉伯国家联盟/阿拉伯联盟/阿盟African union = AU 非洲联盟/非盟Organization of African Unity = OAU 非洲统一组织/非统组织Association of Southeast Asian Nations = ASEAN 东南亚国家联盟/东盟European community = EC 欧洲共同体 ECSC 欧洲煤钢共同体EUBATOM 欧洲原子能共同体 EEC 欧洲经济共同体European union = EU 欧洲联盟Shanghai Cooperation Organization =SCO 上海合作组织/上合组织第十五章国际人权法 Human Rights 人权The responsibility to protect 保护的责任The Universal Declaration of Human Rights 《世界人权宣言》The International Covenant on Civil andPolitical Rights 《公民权利和政治权利国际公约》The International Covenant onEconomic,Social and Cultural Rights 《经济、社会和文化权利国际公约》第十六章国际刑法International criminal law 国际刑法 International crimes 国际犯罪The direct enforcement model 直接执行模式The indirect enforcement model 间接执行模式International penal judicial assistance 国际刑事司法协助Extradition 引渡Principle of non-extradition of political offenders 政治犯不引渡原则Assassination Clause = Attentat clause 行刺条款/暗杀条款/比利时行刺条款Transfer jurisdiction of criminal procedure 刑事诉讼移管/刑事诉讼移转管辖Recognition and enforcement of foreign penal judgements 外国刑事判决的承认和执行 International criminal jurisdiction 国际刑事管辖第十七章国际争端法International disputes 国际争端Legal disputes = justiciable disputes 法律性质的争端/可裁判的争端政治性质的争端/不可裁判的争端Compulsive means 强制方法Negotiation 谈判 Consultation 协商 Good office 斡旋 Mediation 调停International inquiry 国际调查/调查 Conciliation 和解/调解Bryan peace treaties 《布赖恩和平条约》/冷却条约International arbitration 国际仲裁/国际公断 Jay treaty 杰伊条约Permanent court of arbitration 常设仲裁法院Judicial settlement 司法解决The permanent court of international justice 常设国际法院International court of justice 国际法院Contentious jurisdiction 诉讼管辖权 Optional compulsory jurisdiction 任意强制管辖Connally reservation 康纳利保留条款 Advisory jurisdiction 咨询管辖权Regional agency = Regional arrangement 区域机关/区域办法第十八章战争法 Law of war 战争法Law of armed conflict 武装冲突法 Animo belligerendi 交战意向 Jus ad bellum 诉诸战争权 Suspension of arms 停战 Surrender 投降International humanitarian law 国际人道法Crimes against humanity 违反人道罪 War time neutrality 战时中立 War neutrality law 战时中立法Permanent neutralized state 永久中立国/中立化国家War crimes 战争犯罪第二篇：纲目附件2：“两基”迎“国检”县、乡（镇）、学校必备的档案资料纲目（修订）一、县级（一）组织实施类资料1、关于全县“两基”工作的汇报（格式和要求同攻坚验收的文本格式:一是本县自然、经济、社会发展情况及教育概况；二是“普九”指标完成及巩固情况；三是主要措施和基本做法；四是存在的问题和改进措施及今后的努力方向），收集范围为验收当年及前三年的材料。

^| You have to believe, there is a way. The ancients said:" the kingdom of heaven is trying to enter". Only when the reluctant step by step to go to it 's time, must be managed to get one step down, only have struggled to achieve it.-- Guo Ge Tech期权期货常用英语Abandon 放弃：确认期权失效Actuals 现货（LME普遍使用physical）Arbitrage 市场间套利Assay 检验分析Ask 要价，喊价At-the-Money 相等价值：期权履约价与当前期权期货合约的现价完全相同Back pricing 有效时间定价：生产者常用LME 结算价作为报价基准，每天公布的结算价到次日中午有效。

又称“公认定价”（Pricing on the Known）Backwardation 现货升水：现货价高于期货价（又称Back），是为逆向市场、倒价市场Base Metal 贱金属，基金属：除金、银、铂族以外的金属Bar Chart 条形图Basis 基差：同一种商品现货价与期货价之差Basis Price 基本价格，履约价格：期权交易中买卖双方商定，并按此进行交易的价格。

又称敲定价格（Strike Price），通常为当前市场价Bear 卖空者，看跌者：与Bull正相反Bear Covering 结束空头部位Bear Market 空头市场，熊市：价格普遍下跌的市场Bear Position 空头部位：已卖出期货，期望以后能以较低价买进，利润为现在卖出与以后补进价之差额Best Orders 最佳买卖订单（Buying/Selling “at Best”）Bid 买方出价Bond 债券Bottom 底价：某时间段内的最低价Borrowing 借入（Borrowing metal from the market）：买进近期货的同时，卖出远期货Break 暴跌，暴升，突破：价格出现较大波动Broker 经纪行，经纪人Bull 买空者，看涨者：与Bear相反Bull Market 多头市场，牛市：价格普遍上涨的市场Bull Position 多头部位：已买进期货，期望以后能以较高价卖出，其利润为现在买进与以后卖出价之差额Business Day 交易日Buying Hedge （Long Hedge）买进套期保值Buy In 补进：平仓、对冲或关闭一个空头部位Buy on Close 收市买进：在收市时按收市价买进Buy on Opening 开市买进：在开市时按开市价买进Call Option 看涨期权，延买期权：允许购买者按一特定的基价购买一种指定期货合约的权力。

商业词汇法英对照该文章转载自无忧考网：/show.asp?id= 1052359&Page=2【外语教育网- 法语水平测试(TEF)指南】：Business organizationsLes modèles de sociétésGeneral BackgroundGénéralitéBusinessle monde des affairesthe public sectorle secteur publicstate controll a Régie d'Etatnationalizationétatilisationnaionalized/state run/govement controlledétatiséstate-ownednationaliséthe private sectorle secteur privéto be privatizedêtre privatiséto take a company private privatizer une entrepriseto go private (through)se privatiser (par)to privatize a companydénationaliser une sociétéprivatizationla privatizationto go publicintroduire en boursea societyune association (à but non lucratif)a cooperative societyune cooperativea trading / commercial establishmentune établissement commerciala public coorperationun établissement publican outfit / a setupune petite affaire/une boîtea finance outfitune petite société financièrea cowboy outfitune entreprise peu sérieusea fly by nightune entreprise fantômea tool of tradeun outil de travailAccountingLa comptabilitBook-keepingGénéralitéaccountancyla comptailitéa chart of accounts un plan comptablean accounting period un exercice financiera financial yearun exercice annuela fiscal yearune année fiscalefunctional currencyla monnaie d'exploitationthe Financial accounting standard boardLa commission de réglementation des principes comptableGeneral accepted Accounting Principalsprincipes comptable reconnusthe Accounting Standards Steering CommitteeLe comité de réglementation des principes comptablestatement of standardla règlementation comptablesta atement of financial accounting standardsnormes comptablesthe Big Eightles 8 plus grands cabinets d'auditAccounting MethodsLes méthodes de comptabilitéa departureune dérogationaccrual basis of accounting la comptabilité d'engagementbudgetingla comptabilité budgétaire cash basis of accountingla méthode de comptabilité de caisse selon les entrées et les sortiescash flow accountingla comptabilité de trésorerieAccounting CriteriaLes critères comptablesaccounting policiespratiques comptablesharmonizationla mise en harmoniematerialityla matérialitéconsistencyla cohérence dans l'applic ation des règles et normes comptablesobjectivityla sincérité objectiveprudencele principe de prudencetrue and fair viewla présentation fidèle et sincèrea full disclosureune image complèterelevancela pertinenceAccounting InstrumentLes inct ruments se la comptabilitéa recordun registre comptablethe account bookle livre de comptabilitéstatement of revenueévolution des compte de réservestatement of earningsle compte de résultatnotes to the accountsannexes aux états financierspro-forma statementsétats financiers prévionnelsan itemun chapitre, un poste du bilan, un élément de comptethe general ledgele grand livrea plant registerun livre des immobiliersa payroll ledgerun livre de paiea subsidiary ledgeun livre auxiliarea goods-bought ledge un livre des achata sales ledgeun livre de ventea stock ledgeun livre de stocka petty cash ledgeun livre de caissea balance sheet ledge un livre d'inventairea trial balance ledge un l ivre de balancea journalun journala cash bookun journala counter cash book une main courantea counterfoil bookun carnet à a souchesa draftun projetan official journalun journal cotéé paraphéa paid cash bookune main courante de sortiea purchases day bookun journal des achatsa rough draftun brouillona sales journalun journal des ventesa sundry entries journalun journal des opérations diversesa tally sheetune feuille récapitulativea bank deposit slipun bordereau de remisea bank statementun relevéé de banka card/a form/a sheet une fichea card file indexun fichiera cash voucherune pièce de caissea certified invoiceune facture certifiée conformea credit/debit adviceun avis de crédit/débita credit noteun avoira a dispatch noteun avis d'expéditionab expense sheetune note de fraisa formal receiptune quittance comptablea goods inward noteun bon de réception。

Fundamentals of businessUnit 1sole proprietorship 商个体，个体户partnership 商合伙，合伙公司corporation (股份有限)公司franchise 特许经营license/permit (营业)执照sole proprietor 个体业主shareholder 股东board director 董事会成员，董事unlimited liability 无限责任access获取方法，渠道assets 资产financing 筹集的资金，融资marketing 营销dissolution 解散law firm 法律事务所accounting firm 会计事务所real estate firm 房地产公司partner 合伙人general partner 普通合伙人limited partner (责任)有限合伙人supplier 供货商extend credit 提供信贷legal framework 法律框架go broke 破产internal conflict 内部纷争，冲突broth 肉汤incorporator 公司股东sales revenue 销售收入legal person 法人sue 起诉，控告bankrupt 破产bond 债权collateral 抵押物finance 为…提供资金expansion 扩张separated ownership and management 所有权与经营分离termination 终结resilient 有弹性的，可恢复的dividend 股息，分红income tax 所得税double taxation 双重征税corporate charter 公司执照industrial relations 劳资关系incur 引起，导致stockholder 股东executive 公司行政领导franchisor 授予特许者décor （店铺）装饰attire （员工）服装unit 2replica 复制品centralized 中央集权的chronic shortage 长期短缺product-oriented 产品导向的acquire 获得personal selling 当面推销publicity 媒体推介bulk buying 大宗购买discount price 打折销售uniform specification 统一规格marketing mix 营销组合promotion 促销utility 功能，便利channels of distribution 分销渠道，销售渠道market segmentation 市场细分zero in on…瞄准，集中精力于…demographic 人口统计的psychographic 消费心态学product-use variable 产品用途因素unit 3convenience goods 方便商品shopping goods （货比三家后再购买的）商品specialty goods 特种商品，特色商品feasibility 可行的marketability 可销售性pilot model 样品，样机prototype 样机commercialization 商业化product life cycle 产品生命周期pricing 定价profit-oriented objectives 利润导向型目标return on capital 资本（投资）回报率sales-oriented objective 销售额导向型目标be sold under cost 亏本销售，赔本买卖follow-the leader objective 跟进型目标equilibrium price 均衡点价格精品文档break-even 盈亏平衡点double-edge sword 双刃剑skimming strategy 撇脂战略penetration strategy 渗透战略loss leader pricing strategy （用少量低价商品）诱导战略odd pricing strategy 心理定价战略price lining strategy 分类定价战略unit 4wholesaler 批发商retailer 零售商discount store 折扣商店，平价商店turnover 周转率mail-order house 邮购公司vending machine 自动售货机virtual store 虚拟商店，网上商店agent 代理商broker 经纪人time utility 时间上的方便place utility 地点上的方便ownership utility 获得拥有权上的方便information utility 信息上的方便form utility 产品成型上的方便truck rates 卡车运费perishable 易腐烂的forklift 叉车conveyer belt 运输带crane 吊车unit 5promotion mix 促销组合product advertising 产品广告institutional advertising 厂商整体形象广告outdoor billboard 户外广告牌spot （播放）时段specialist magazine 专业杂志hypermedia （互联网上的）超媒体yellow pages 电话薄advertising agency 广告代理公司artwork 艺术设计commission 佣金prospect 物色（潜在顾客）qualify 确认approach 接触（顾客）make presentation 演示handle objections 处理（顾客）不同意见close 成交follow-up售后跟踪point-of-sale displays 销售点上的演示sweep stakes 摸奖，赌券coupon 打折券，优惠券premium 奖励券trade stamp 行业优惠券redeem 兑换，返还trade show 行业展览会sponsorship 赞助public relations 公共关系publicity 媒体推介word of mouth 口碑unit 6portability 可携带性divisibility 可分割性stability 稳定性durability 耐用性，耐磨损性acceptability 合法使用性denomination 面值paper note 纸币inflation 通货膨胀transaction 交易circulation 流通legal tender 法定货币medium of exchange 交换媒体store of value 价值存储unit of account 计算单位，会计单位demand deposit 活期存款interest-bearing 产生利息的checking account 支票帐户withdrawal 取款minimum balance 最少余额credit union 信用社serial number 序列号liquidity变现性，流动性portfolio 投资组合securities 有价证券savings account 存款帐户currency exchange 货币兑换letters of credit 信用证banker＇s acceptance 银行承兑draft 汇票access card 自动柜员机卡精品文档credit card 信用卡debit card 借记卡financial counseling 理财咨询home mortgage 住房抵押mutual savings bank 互助储蓄银行depositor 存款人pension fund 养老基金premium 保险费unchecked 不受控制的sustainable 可持续的Federal Reserve 美国联邦储备局Fed 美联储discount rate 贴现率open-market operation 公开市场运作vault 金库dealer （有价证券）券商unit 7trade credit 行业信用commercial paper 短期融资券factor （对应收帐等的）贴现account receivable 应收账款account payable 应付账款open account 开立账户，赊账帐户promissory note 本票draft 汇票obligation 义务，债务line of credit 信用额度secured/ unsecured 有/无担保的collateral 抵押物inventory 库存compensating balance 补偿余额revolving credit 循环信用the going interest rate 市场利率face value 面值factor 贴现商debt capital 债务资本corporate bond 公司债券equity capital 权益资本retained earnings 留用利润dividend 股息depreciation 折旧stock 一个公司的股票总称IOU 借据equity financing 股权融资share 股票其中的一张debt financing 借款融资capital structure 资本结构cash flow 现金流utilities companies 水，电等公用事业公司maturity date 到期日principal 本金redemption premium 赎金preferred stock 优先股callable 可召回的common stock 普通股creditor 债权人liquidation 清算unit 8managerial accounting 管理会计financial accounting 财务会计financial statement 财务报表balance sheet 资产负债表owner＇s equity 所有者权益patent 专利copyright 版权current assets 流动资产fixed assets 固定资产intangible assets 无形资产liabilities 负债current liabilities 流动负债long-term liabilities 长期负债current ratio 流动比率quick ratio （acid test ratio）速动比率rental revenue 租赁收入gross profit margin 毛利润率net profit margin 净利润率inventory turnover 库存周转率average inventory 平均库存account receivable turnover 应收账款周转率return on owner＇s investment 投资回报率unit 9securities market 证券市场underwrite 承销broker 经纪人stock exchange 股票交易所stock brokerage 股票经销商（公司）bull 预计股价会涨者，买多者bear 预计股票会跌者，卖空者speculator 投机者精品文档forfeit 放弃growth stocks 绩优股blue chip 蓝筹股，绩优股speculative issues 收益与风险俱大的股票unit 10risk management 风险管理works-in-process 半成品probability 概率pirating 海盗活动the Strait of Malacca马六甲海峡hedging 套期保值feed 饲料risk-sharing mechanism风险分担机制premium 保险费insurance policy 保险合同insurable interest 可保利益indemnity 补偿subrogation 代位proximate cause 近因insured 保户dependent 抚养人utmost good faith 最大诚信compensation 赔偿contribution 全部赔偿不能超过应得补偿insurable risk 可保风险underwrite 承保policyholder 保户property insurance 财产险marine insurance 海险adversity 灾祸aviation insurance 航空险liability insurance 责任险premises 单位，私家所属的场所worker＇s compensation 工伤赔偿split-liability 责任分担vandalism 打砸等破坏行为no-fault auto insurance 无过错汽车保险reimburse 报销surgical expenses 手术费用hospital expenses 住院费用cafeteria plan 自选组合term life insurance 简单寿险limited payment life insurance 定期寿险endowment life insurance 增值寿险straight life insurance 完全寿险group life insurance 集团寿险key person insurance 关键人物险credit life insurance 信用寿险fidelity bond 忠实险surety bond 履行义务险unit 11common law 普通法，习惯法，判例法statutory law 制定法，成文法regulatory law 行政法规jurisdiction 管辖，权限lawful purpose 合法目的competency of parties 合同各方具备能力voluntary agreement 自愿缔约meeting of the minds 合意coercion 胁迫fraudulent manipulation 欺诈操纵consideration 对价proper form 有效形式breach of contract 违约enforceable 可实施的，可执行的tort law 侵权法negligence 疏忽surgical forceps 手术用镊子title to property 财产所有权trial 试用cash on delivery 货到付款，交货付现free on board 离岸价格unauthorized 未经授权的royalty 版税，专利使用费license 允许使用（专利）warranty 担保merchantability 可用性refund 退款negotiable instrument 票据certificate of deposit 存款单maker （本票，支票）出票人drawer （汇票）出票人endorsement 背书blank endorsement 普通背书restrictive endorsement （指定收票人的）特种背书qualified endorsement 限定性背书without recourse 不可追索agency law 代理法principal 委托人，授权人精品文档agent 代理人power of attorney 委任书，授权书equitable 公平的terms of reference 授权范围overbill 开出超过合理数额的账单bankruptcy law 破产法petition for bankruptcy 破产申请referee 调解人trustee 托管人proceeds 收益extension agreement 延展协议reorganization 重组unit 13planning 规划means and ends 手段和目的organizing 组织chain of command 指挥链，指令链leading 领导motivate 激励，激发autonomy 自主权rewards 回报，奖励controlling 调控deviation 偏离，背离corrective measure 矫正措施chief executive officer 首席执行官function/division manager 部门经理operating manager 操作层经理human skills 人际关系技能conceptual skills 概括技能technical skills 操作技能recruit 招聘，招募political tint 政治色彩bottom-line manager 一线经理，基层经理proven track record 被实践证明的业绩记录headhunter 猎头公司job specialization 工作专门化departmentalization 部门化unity of command 统一指挥line authority 直线职权staff authority 职能（部门的）职权line-and-staff organization 直线――职能混合型组织responsibility 责任delegation分权，授权span of management 管理跨度，管理幅度hierarchical levels 管理层次，组织结构层次functional organization 按功能划分部门的组织divisional organization 按事业部划分的组织division manager 部门经理，事业部经理generalist 经验全面的人才，通才matrix organization 矩阵型组织standing committee 常设委员会ad hoc committee 特别委员会grapevine 非正式沟通的途径。