内分泌与代谢疾病
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内科学内分泌代谢系统疾病讲稿内分泌、代谢疾病总论一、概述为了适应不断改变着的外界环境并保持机体内环境的相对稳定性,人体必须依赖于神经系统、内分泌系统和免疫系统的相互配合和调控,使全身各器官系统的活动协调一致,共同担负起机体的代谢、生长、发育、生殖、运动、衰老和病态等生命现象。
内分泌系统除其固有的内分泌腺(垂体、甲状腺、甲状旁腺、肾上腺、性腺和胰岛)外,尚有分布在心、肺、肝、胃肠、肾、脑的内分泌组织和细胞。
它们所分泌的激素,可通过血液传递(内分泌),也可通过细胞外液局部或邻近传递(旁分泌),乃至所分泌的物质直接作用于自身细胞(自分泌),更有细胞内的化学物直接作用在自身细胞称为胞内分泌(intracnine)。
内分泌系统辅助神经系统将体液性信息物质传递到全身各细胞组织,包括远处的和相近的靶细胞,发挥其对细胞的生物作用。
激素要在细胞发挥作用必须具有识别微量激素的受体,并在与激素结合后,改变受体的立体构象,进而通过第二信使在细胞内进行信号放大和转导,促进蛋白合成和酶促反应,表达其生物学活性。
我国古代医书早有关于糖尿病(消渴)、甲状腺肿(瘿瘤)、性腺功能减退症(睾丸阉割)、侏儒等详细记载,但是对内分泌学的深入认识,始于内分泌腺的解剖、组织、生理、生化和临床医疗,经历了三个阶1/ 3段:1.腺体内分泌学研究即将内分泌腺切除,观察切除前、后的生理生化改变,再将该内分泌腺中提取的有效成分补充给所切除的动物,观察激素补充后的恢复情况。
从内分泌腺提取激素,分析其有效成分,了解其化学结构,进而制备各种类同物和拮抗物,丰富了对各个内分泌腺的认识。
2.组织内分泌学研究此方面研究推动了细胞生物学的发展,激素的提纯及其抗体制备,激素的放射性核素标记,创建了放射免疫测定,奠定了微量激素测定的特异性和高度敏感性,由此又推动了放射受体测定,酶联免疫化学和发光免疫测定等,对微量激素可精确测定。
免疫荧光显微技术利用抗体与细胞表面或内部高分子(抗原)的特异性结合,进行定位研究,了解激素分布情况,通过光镜、电镜可以识别各种激素分泌细胞,加深对分泌激素或类激素的恶性肿瘤的认识。
内分泌与代谢疾病是一类常见的疾病,常见的包括糖尿病、甲亢、甲减、嗜铬细胞瘤和垂体腺瘤等。
这些疾病严重影响了人们的健康和生活质量,甚至会威胁到患者的生命安全,因此重视和预防这些疾病非常重要。
首先,糖尿病是一种由于胰岛素分泌不足或胰岛素作用受阻而导致的高血糖病。
由于胰岛素在调节葡萄糖代谢和能量代谢中起着重要作用,因此糖尿病患者常伴有代谢的混乱和疲劳。
为了预防和控制糖尿病,我们应该注意饮食和运动,降低饱和脂肪酸和高糖分的食品摄入,增加膳食纤维和维生素的摄入,加强有氧运动的强度和频度。
其次,甲亢是由于甲状腺功能亢进所导致的疾病,常见的症状包括心悸、手颤、睡眠障碍和情绪波动等。
甲亢是一种自身免疫性疾病,常见于女性,治疗方法包括药物、放射性碘、手术等。
因此,对于甲亢患者来说,定期检查甲状腺功能,合理用药是非常重要的。
此外,甲减是由于甲状腺功能低下所引起的代谢疾病。
甲减的症状包括乏力、体重增加、记忆力下降等。
甲减多见于女性,常常在中年后出现,治疗方法包括药物和甲状腺激素替代治疗等。
因此,对于有甲减症状的人来说,及时检查甲状腺功能,合理用药是非常重要的。
再者,嗜铬细胞瘤是一种极少见的神经内分泌肿瘤,由嗜铬细胞发生于嗜铬细胞系统所致。
嗜铬细胞瘤患者产生大量的肾上腺素和去甲肾上腺素,其常见的症状包括高血压、心跳过快、出汗等。
嗜铬细胞瘤的治疗方法包括手术、放疗和化疗等,因此,对于可能患有嗜铬细胞瘤的人来说,应进行定期检查和体检。
最后,垂体腺瘤是垂体腺前叶、后叶及中叶不同细胞群或组织发生的肿瘤,常见的症状包括视力下降、月经不调、体重增加等。
垂体腺瘤的治疗方法包括手术、放疗和药物治疗等。
总的来说,是一类常见的疾病,它们都严重影响了人们的健康和生活质量。
因此,我们应该注重健康生活方式、定期体检和合理用药,提高对的认识和预防意识,以更好的预防和治疗这些疾病。
内分泌及代谢疾病概述与常见症状常见的内分泌及代谢疾病包括:1.甲状腺疾病:甲状腺功能亢进症和甲状腺功能减退症是最常见的甲状腺疾病。
甲状腺功能亢进症会导致心跳加快、代谢率增高、体重减轻、焦虑、多汗等症状;而甲状腺功能减退症会导致疲倦、体重增加、便秘、心率缓慢等症状。
2.糖尿病:糖尿病是由于胰岛素分泌不足或细胞对胰岛素的反应降低引起的高血糖症状。
常见症状包括多尿、多食、多渴、体重减轻。
严重的糖尿病还可能引发神经病变、眼病、肾病等并发症。
3.垂体疾病:垂体功能亢进或减退引起的疾病如垂体腺瘤、垂体功能减退症等。
垂体瘤可能导致头痛、视力改变、性激素失调等症状;而垂体功能减退症会导致疲劳、性功能减退、体重增加等症状。
4.骨质疏松症:由于钙负平衡和骨骼组织破坏引起的骨骼疾病。
常见症状包括骨折、背痛、身高减少等。
5.多囊卵巢综合征(PCOS):PCOS是由于卵巢产生过多的雄激素和不正常的卵泡发育引起的女性疾病。
常见症状包括月经不规律、多毛、皮肤痤疮等。
6.甲状旁腺疾病:甲状旁腺功能亢进或减退引起的疾病如甲状旁腺功能亢进症和甲状旁腺功能减退症。
功能亢进会导致高血钙症状如疲劳、骨折等;而功能减退会导致低血钙症状如肌肉痉挛、抽搐等。
上述疾病中的症状可能有重叠,因为不同的内分泌腺体相互影响,异常一个腺体的功能可能对其他腺体造成负面影响。
这些症状还可能受到年龄、性别、个体差异等因素的影响。
确诊这些内分泌及代谢疾病需要进行详细的医学史询问、体格检查和相关实验室检查。
一旦确诊,治疗常常包括药物治疗、手术、放射治疗等手段。
同时,健康的生活方式如饮食控制、体育锻炼和保持良好的心理状态也对预防和治疗这些疾病有益。
总之,内分泌及代谢疾病是一类由于内分泌系统异常功能引起的疾病,常见症状包括代谢紊乱、体重变化、性功能障碍等。
及早发现、正确诊断和及时治疗能够有效控制病情,提高生活质量。
因此,对于可能存在内分泌及代谢疾病的人群应及时就医,并遵循医生的治疗建议。
内分泌与心血管代谢疾病的关系
内分泌系统和心血管代谢疾病之间存在着密切的关系。
内分泌系统通过激素的分泌和调节影响着机体的新陈代谢和生理功能,而这些功能与心血管系统的健康密切相关。
首先,内分泌系统中的激素如胰岛素、甲状腺素、肾上腺素等对血糖、脂质和蛋白质代谢起着重要作用。
当这些激素的分泌或作用受到影响时,可能会导致血糖水平升高、血脂异常等,从而增加心血管疾病的发病风险。
其次,内分泌失调也会影响血压调节和血管功能。
例如,肾上腺素和肾上腺皮质激素的过度分泌可能导致高血压,而甲状腺素过高或过低则可能影响血管收缩和舒张功能,进而影响心血管健康。
另外,内分泌系统的异常也与炎症因子的释放有关,炎症反应是心血管疾病发生和发展的重要环节。
例如,肥胖患者往往伴有慢性低度炎症,这与脂肪细胞分泌的炎症因子和内分泌激素有关,进而增加了动脉粥样硬化等心血管疾病的风险。
此外,一些内分泌疾病本身也会直接影响心血管健康,例如甲
状腺功能亢进症患者易出现心律失常、甲减患者易出现心肌功能减退等。
总的来说,内分泌系统的稳定与否对心血管代谢的调节和维持起着至关重要的作用。
因此,通过调节内分泌系统的功能,可以预防和治疗心血管代谢疾病,这也为临床治疗提供了新的思路。
内分泌系统与代谢疾病随着现代生活方式的改变,人们的代谢状况也逐渐出现了不同程度的问题,包括糖尿病、肥胖症、高血压等代谢性疾病。
这些疾病的发生往往与内分泌系统的调节失衡有关。
本文将从内分泌系统的结构和功能、代谢疾病的表现、病因和治疗等方面进行论述。
内分泌系统是机体内部大脑和化学信使的传导中心。
人体内分泌系统包括:下丘脑-垂体-靶器官轴、内分泌腺和组织细胞。
下丘脑-垂体-靶器官轴由下丘脑神经元、垂体前叶和一系列靶器官组成,对生长发育、代谢、生殖和应激等有着重要的调节作用。
内分泌腺包括甲状腺、胰岛、肾上腺和性腺等。
它们通过分泌激素调节身体的内稳态,保持器官和组织的正常生理活动。
组织细胞则可以运用自主神经系统通过神经调节作用影响某些机体部位的功能。
代谢疾病的表现广泛,包括糖尿病、肥胖症、高尿酸血症、高胆固醇血症等,其中以糖尿病最为常见。
糖尿病是一组常见的代谢性疾病,由于胰岛素分泌不足或胰岛素作用障碍,导致血糖升高、蛋白质代谢障碍等。
糖尿病不仅严重损害了患者的生活质量,长期而言也会引发心血管病、肝肾病等并发症。
肥胖症是另一种常见的代谢性疾病,通常被定义为BMI ≥ 30 kg/m2,它和各种非传染性疾病的风险异质性、动脉粥样硬化、内脏脂肪的积蓄等疾病密切相关。
代谢疾病的病因复杂,多种因素如遗传、环境、生活习惯等互相影响。
作为一种常见的代谢性疾病,糖尿病的发病存在诸多风险因素,例如肥胖、家族病史、日常饮食过量等。
研究表明肥胖症是糖尿病无疑的重要风险因素,因为它会导致胰岛素抵抗,从而引发糖尿病的发生。
此外,现代生活方式中的环境和社会因素也在加重人们代谢性疾病的病因,例如持续的压力、过度食物摄入、睡眠不足等。
治疗代谢疾病的方法包括生活方式干预和药物治疗等。
生活方式干预主要包括控制食物摄入、定期进行体育运动以及避免饮酒等不良习惯。
药物治疗方面,胰岛素类药物、口服降糖药、胰岛素增敏剂等被广泛应用于糖尿病的治疗;而针对肥胖症的治疗方法则包括饮食治疗、运动、药物治疗以及手术治疗等多种方法。
内分泌与代谢疾病nontoxic goiterPhysiological function; Synthesis of thyroid hormonesTests of thyroid function : Measurement of total serum thyroid hormone concentrationsSerum free T4 and T3 concentrationsRadioactive iodine uptakeTests of thyroid regulation: Serum thyrotropinAnatomic evaluation of the thyroid gland :The thyroid scan ,Thyroid ultrasound ,Needle biopsy Anti-thyroid antibodies : thyroid microsomal antibody (TMAb)thyroglobulin antibodies (TgAb)thyroid TSH receptor (TRAb’sThe roles of thyroid hormonesregulate tissue metabolismcentral nervous system developmentgrowth and bone maturationEtiology and pathogenesisendemic goiter:iodine deficiencySporadic goiter: diet ,drugs , heredity , immunityClinical manifestations: Simple thyroid gland intumescence,usually asymptomatic,severintumescence can cause press symptomeI: diameter<3cm II: diameter 3-5 cm III: diameter 5-7 cmIV: diameter 7-9 cm V: diameter >9cmLaboratory findingsT3、T4 、TSH normalRadioactive iodine uptake increase, but the time of peak dose not move forewardThyroid globulin increaseAntibodies to thyroid are negativePrevention and treatmentEndemic goiter prevention: iodine saltTreatment : levothyroxine; SurgeryHyperthyroidismDefinition: Syndrome that reflects the hypermetabolism resulting from excessive quantities of circulating thyroid hormonesGD: The most common form of thyrotoxicosisclinical syndrome: hypermetabolism,diffuse enlargement of the thyroid gland exophthalmos,pretibial myxedemaEtiology and pathogenesisAutoimmune disorder: TRAbGenetic inheritanceOthers factorsSymptoms and signsHypermetabolic signs : moist warm skin; tachycardia or atrial fibrillation , even (rarely) heartfailure; fine resting finger tremors, hyperreflexia.Goiter: most common, but on occasion absent, Symmetric diffusive enlargement, Move with swallow, Soft to moderate in consistency, Not pain, Commonly bruit or murmurs can be heard and/or thrill can be feltEyes: 25%-50% with exophthalmos (eye forward protruding) Mostly Simple–proptosis<18mm–Stare (Stellwag sign), “pop-eye”–Upper lid retraction leads to widening of the palpebralfissure–Lid lag (von Graefe sign), globe lag–No wrinkle when look upward (Joffroy sign)–Inward gaze or convergence is impaired (Mobius sign)Infiltrative or malignant or graves’: Proptosis>18mmSpecial manifestation: Thyrocardiac disorders(Arrhythmia,Cardiomegaly, dilation of thechambers, Cardiac insufficiency/failureThyrotoxic CrisisPretibial MyxedemaApathetic Graves’s diseaseUsually in senile personWithout/mild goiterSlight or insidious thyrotoxicosis & often go unnoticed, therefore, prone to develop crisis ?Most often present with anorexia, vomiting, diarrheaSometimes to see the cardiologist for tachycardia or arrhythmiaEasy to be suspected with malignancy because of weight loss Isolated T3 or T4 HyperthyroidismT3 hyperthyroidism–Early stage of goiter, under antithyroid therapy or simple iodine deficient goiter –Mild thyrotoxicosis–FT3 & T3↑, FT4 & T4→, TSH → /↓, RAIU →/ ↑T4 Hyperthyroidism–GD with severe systemic disorders–FT4 & T4 ↑, FT3 & T3 →/slight ↓ TSH → /↓, RAIU →/ ↑Subclinical HyperthyroidismT3 & T4 →, TSH↓Under TH treatment or during antithyroid treatmentMay lead to heart impairment or present with periodical paralysis or opthalmopathy. ?Generally need not to be treated Euthyroid Graves exophthalmos<5% Graves’ exophthalmosUnilateral or bilateralMostly infiltrativeThyrotoxicosis develops usually in several months or years Most often have thyroid dysfunction, TSH↓ or suppressed TRH stimulation Thyrotoxic Periodic ParalysisMost often occurs among oriental malesIncidence was estimated as high as 13% of men and 0.4% of women in thyrotoxicosis. ?Severity is not related to thyroid state, but the PP may be accentuated by hyperthyroidism ?Potassium intake is very effective to alleviate the symptomAntithyroid therapy is prudent in reducing the recurrenceLaboratory Examination1. Thyroid hormones: Total T4 (T T4 ) and T3(T T3 ), Free T4(FT4 )and Free T3 (FT3)Thyrotropin (Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone, TSH ) decrease2.3.TSH receptor antibodies (TRAb): Untreated 80%-100% positive, Early diagnosis,Activity, RelapseTPOAb and TGAb: 50%~90% positive4.Anatomic evaluation of the thyroid gland5. BiopsyDiagnosis: Typical s/s and lab test—easy to makeNotice atypical, transient and tumor—biopsy and imaging is helpful DifferentialPsychosis diseaseanxiety neurosis or mania : the thyroid is not enlarged and thyroid functiontests are usually normal.acute psychiatric disorders : about 30% of whom have hyperthyroxinemiawithout thyrotoxicosis. The TSH is notsuppressed, distinguishing psychiatric disorderfrom true hyperthyroidism. T4 levels return tonormal gradually.Simple goiterPheochromocytoma: this is an adrenal coma,often associated with hypermeta-bolitism, the function of thyroid is normalOthers: weight loss—malignancy, diarrhea—inflammatory bowel disease,arrhythmia—CHD, ophthalmopathy—orbital tumor, etc.Treatment1.General MeasuresEnough rest, sufficient nutrition, esp. calories, protein, lipid and sugarNo need replenish iodine, use salt withoutSedatives maybe helpful for psychosis, sleepless2.Antithyroid agents or ThionamidesCLASSES: Thiouracils, Mazols3. PharmacologyInhibit the synthesis of TH by inhibiting the organification of iodinemethimazole and propylthiouracil PTUβ-Adrenergic blocking agents Iodinated contrast agentsFactors favoring long term remission after antithyroid therapySymptoms and signs of hyperthyroidism disappearDecrease in goiter size during therapyNormal thyroid functionNormal TRH stimulation testNormal or positive to negative TRAbrelapse within 3 months, ? in 6months4.Radioactive iodine (131I)Indications Most patients may receive radioiodineContraindications pregnant women, Thyrotoxic Crisis, Ophthalmopathy,Leucocyte <3×109/LDrawbacks hypothyroidism , ophthalmopathy5. Surgerypregnant woman whose thyrotoxicosis is not controlled with low doses of thioureaspatients with particularly large goitersPatients with a significant chance of malignancyContraindicationsSevere or progressive infiltrative ophthalmopathy–Patients with severe heart, hepatic, lunch or kidney disease –Pregnant(<3months)and(>6 months)preparationThiourea drug and Propranolol are givenHeart rate <80/minTH normalIpodate sodium or iopanoic acid or iodine is used 7-10 days before operation ?Drawback–damage to the recurrent laryngeal nerve–Hypoparathyroidism–Infection–Thyroid strom–Hypothyroidism–Aggravation of exophthalmosChoice of TherapyMedical treatment: Effective and safe, but need long term therapy and monitoringof thyroid function and hematology. Sometime leads to hepaticnecrosis or toxic hepatitis and many othersSurgery–Fast control and effective, but mortality rate 1.3%–30% relapse–Many complicationsRadioiodine–effective and generally safe Generally no relapse–High rate of hypothyroidism, Radiothyroiditis, aggravation ofexophthalmosManagement of Thyroid CrisisInhibition of TH synthesis: PTUInhibition of TH release: Iodine, 1-2hrs post PTUI of conversion of T4 to T3 and binding of T3 to its receptor: prednisoneand -adrenergic antagonist ?Increase the response to stressing: HydrocortisoneDecrease the TH in circulation: dialysisSupportive: fluid volume and electrolytesPalliative: fever and oxygenResume of standardized antithyroid therapyManagement of infiltrative exophthalmosPalliative therapyAntithyroid therapy when hyperfunction existsLT4 replacement may be effective by suppressionof TSH elevation ?Immunosuppression and/or modulationRetro-orbital steroid injection or radiationOrbital depressionRadiotherapy with linear accelerator (59% in 624 patients during 1973-2000) Treatment of hyperthyroidism during pregnancyNo need to stop pregnancyMedical therapy is preferredLower dose and PTU is of choicePropanolol is not recommendedSubtotal thyroidectomy is unsuitable during pregnancy,if must,chose midterm (4th-6th m)Hypothyroidism and MyxedemaDefinition:refers to any state in which thyroid hormone production , secretion or activity is below normalThree types: 呆小型,幼年型,成年型CretinismPathology; Hashimoto thyroiditis, Hypo-pituitarismClinical manifestationsEarly symptoms: weakness, fatigue, cold intolerance, constipation, joint ormuscle pain. Features may include thin, brittle finger-nails, thin and brittle hair, and paleness.Late stage: slow speech, dry flaky skin, absence of sweating, thickening of theskin, puffy face, feet, peripheral edema, decreased taste and smell,thinning of eyebrows, hoarseness, the heart rate is slow,hypothermia may be present. and abnormal menstrual periods mayoccur.The condition may progress into hypothermic, stuporous state (myxedema coma)with respiratory depressionSubclinical hypothyroidism is state of normal thyroid hormone levels and mildelevation of TSH, despite the name, some patients may have minor symptoms.Laboratory findings1. T3、T4 、TSH2. TRH excited test3. Others4. Imagine studiesDiagnosis and differential dignosisClinical manifestations: symptoms and signsLaboratory test: T4 TSH antibodies against TPO and TGTreatmentLevothyroxine ( thyroxine; T4)Routine initiation of treatmentMaintenanceTreatment myxedema coma1. Levothyroxine sodium 100-300ug is given intravenously asa loading dose,followed by 50 ug intravenously daily.2.Keep warmed only with blankets3.Anti-infection4.Hydrocortisone must be used intravenously in patients suspected of havingconcomitant adrenal insufficiency.Special hypothyroidism1.Subclinical hypothyroidism2.Over dosage of anti-thyroid drugs3.Hypothyroidism with pregnancyCushing syndromeDefine: manifestations of excessive corticosteroidsdue to supraphysiologic doses of glucocorticoid drugs and spontaneous production of excessive corticosteroids by the adrenal cortexClinical presentationsLipid Metabolism :Central obesity ( protuberant abdomen, thin extremitie)moon face buffalo hump supraclavicular fat padsProtein metabolism: Purple striae Petechia Muscular weaknessOsteoporosis Growth delayGlucose metabolism: Impaired glucose tolerance even to diabetesElectrolyte metabolism: HypokalemiaCardiovascular system: hypertension 、heart failureSport system: OsteoporosisImmunologic system: inhibitated immuneNerve system: From diminished ability to concentrate to increased lability of mood to frank psyc procreation system: female:Oligomenorrhea or amenorrheamale:impotence in the maledigestive system: polyphagiaHematic systempossible causeAdrenal gland:hypothalamus-pituitary:Non-pituitary neoplasms:Cushing diseaseEctopic ACTH syndromeLaboratory Findings一. The serum and urine cortisol and its rhythm二.hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis functionThe small-dose dexamethasone inhibitory testThe large-dose dexamethasone inhibitory test三.Serum ACTH四. Ultrasound, MRI and CT scan, isotopic scanDiagnosis1.function diagnosis —— yes or not Cushing syndrome2. position diagnosis——pituitary、adrenal3.Etiologic diagnosis—adenoma hyperplasia cancer附诊断流程图临床和实验室检查:低血钾性碱中毒,女性男性化表现,皮肤色素沉着24h尿17-KS(17-ketosteroid)增多异位ACTH综合征,肾上腺皮质癌Differential DiagnosisObesity&Type 2 diabetes:皮质醇节律正常,小剂量地塞米松可抑制Artificial Cushing Syndrome:见于酗酒兼有肝损害者,血、尿皮质醇增高,不能被小剂量地塞米松抑制,戒酒一周后,血尿皮质醇恢复正常Depressed patients:实验室检查有异常,如24小时尿游离皮质醇、17-羟、17酮可增高无Cushing综合征临床表现。