英语专业语言学ppt

举例: too 和 tea 中的 /t/ 发too中的/t/时, 舌位更靠近口腔前部 发tea中的/t/时，舌位更靠近口腔后部 所以too 和 tea 中的 /t/两个不同的音子
Hale Waihona Puke Phoneme(音位): phonological and abstract unit, a unit of distinctive value; the smallest unit of sound in a language which can distinguish two words.
1. Bilabial双唇 ; 2. Labiodental唇齿的; 3. Dental or
interdental齿音和齿 间; 4. Alveolar齿龈音 ; 5. Palatoalveolar腭齿音; 6. Palatal 腭音; 7. Velar软腭音; 8. Uvular小舌音; 9. Glottal声门.
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What is linguistics
Linguistics, the scientific study of language, concerns itself with all aspects of how people use language and what they must know in order to do so.
The diagram of single vowel classification by applying the two criteria so far mentioned:
I Language as a Formal System
The study of how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication. is called phonology音系学.

The Critical Period Hypothesis
The end of the critical period is the point at which the nature of language learning changes from being an automatically engaged process to one in which it becomes yet another cognitive activity, a modularity organized on the basis of information-processing stages: input, central processing, and output (Skehan 233, 283).
Differences between L1 Acquisition and L2 Learning
But L2 learning is different. The bulk of the evidence indeed comes from sentences the learner hears—positive evidence from linguistic input. But the L2 learners also has the L1 available to them. Negative evidence can be used to work out what does not occur in L2 but might be expected to occur if it were like L1.
Language Acquisition
Universal grammar The critical period hypothesis Differences between L1 and L2 Major theories in L2 acquisition Some major hypotheses Individual differences Learning strategies Some major teaching methods

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Phones, phoneme, allophone 4
Allophones are of the same phoneme.
Allophones do not distinguish meaning.
Allophones are in complementary distribution (互补分布）, i.e., they never occur in the same environment.
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Chapter 2 The Sounds of Language(2) Phonology
➢Minimal pairs ➢Free variation ➢Distinctive features ➢Syllables & consonant clusters ➢Suprasemental features
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English Vowels 2
• According to lip-rounding: • 1.Rounded vowels 圆唇音 • [u:] [u] [ɔ:][ɔ]
• 2.Unrounded vowels展唇音 • [i:] [i] [e] [æ] [ə:] [ə] [ʌ] [ɑ:]
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Phonetics and Phonology
• Phonetics is the linguistic study to identify and describe the characteristics of all the speech sounds that occur in all human languages.
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Some Natural Classes

• （applied psycholinguistics） • D．如何建立心理语言学的计算机模型---计算心
理语言学（computational psycholinguistics）
• 心理语言学研究对象： • 语言习得及语言使用的心理过程 • 理论语言学：研究语言结构 • 社会语言学: 研究语言功能 • 收音机（结构：原件、材料和线路图） • ---话语（语音、词汇和语法系统） • 功能：接收声波（长中段波）---表达、交
流思想（陈述、感情、疑问等）
心理学根源
• 1879， Wundt, Leipzig university, psycholab
• 认为：像感觉、情感、意象那样的心理现 象都可以用自然科学的研究方法进行观察 和研究。
• 心理学家可以像物理学家把复杂的化合物 分解为一样，研究经验的元素，把复杂的 感觉和感情分解为人类经验的“原子”。
• 相关性研究（correlational study） • 也是自然观察。 • 2个或多个属性的相互关系。 • 如抽烟与肺癌的关系。 • 1-2 实验方法 • 是有控制的观察。 • 任何一种行为都是多种因素起作用的结果。 • 控制其他因素，专门操纵某一因素，使它做系统
的改变，从而观察其作用。
• 如学习时间、方法、材料、年龄、老师等与英语 考试成绩的关系。
• A．人们是怎样理解和产生语言的---实验心理语 言学（experimental psycholinguistics）
• B．儿童是怎样习得母语的---发展心理学 （developmental psycholinguistics）
• C. 心理语言学的研究成果是怎样应用到其他领域 的---应用心理语言学
手段，主要研究个体心理差异。 • 主要内容：测量阈限和等价刺激等的心理物理法；感觉量

Sentence types
Binary division in terms of structure:
Simple Non-simple
– Complex – Compound
Extension of sentence
Conjoining (Coordination) 并列句 Embedding (Subordination)嵌入句 Recursiveness (Layers of
Most constructions are exocentric.
Prepositional phrases and subordinate clauses.
IC analysis 直接成分分析法1
Immediate constituent analysis 直接成分 分析法—a descriptive approach
IC Analysis 4
The word groups in a sentence are called its constituents 成分.
Constituents as parts of a bigger word group are called its immediate constituents (ICs).直接成分
Syntagmatic vs. Paradigmatic Relations 2
The syntagmatic relation is the relation between one item and others in a linear sequence, or between elements which are all present.
The father of American structuralism — Leonard Bloomfield.

Word-level categories
Traditional and non-traditional classification Major lexical categories: N, V, Adj, Prep.
(serving as heads: NP, VP, AP, PP.) Minor Lexical categories: Det, Deg, Qual, Aux,
PP (Deg) + P + (NP)……on the shelf, in the boat, quite near the station.
( ): optional; ……:other options
The XP rule
XP
Specifier
X
Complement
Head
Note: abstraction of all phrases: The phrase structure rules can be summed up as XP rule shown in the diagram, in which X, as a variable, stands for N, V, A or P.
the categories must be of the same type;
the category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type the elements being conjoined.
Categories
Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb. The most central categories to the syntactic study are the word-level categories (traditionally, parts of speech/word class.)

VP
V NP
Types of VP VP V PP V
VP
S
hit the ball speak about the book said VP VP
that he had told lies
V
run
Adv
VБайду номын сангаас
fast Look!
PP Prepositional Phrase -A phrase containing a preposition and a noun phrase. --on the table. --in the park --with the telescope It is possible to have a PP within a PP: --in the park with the telescope
PP P NP
AP Deg Adj
about
the book
very little
e.g.
S
NP
VP V-Bar
specifier head Complement
Susan rarely does
so
6.Transformational Generative Grammar TG • A description of the possible rules of human language that allow for infinite production of grammatical sentences. • tries to define a universal grammar (UG)
• Three levels of transformational rules: • The basic rule is Chomsky’s universal grammar ,the underlying principle • The second type is the obligatory rules that govern the transformations of auxiliaries and principles • The third type is the optional transformational rules that govern the transformatons of negotion ,passive voice ,interrogation

• Problem: What is the link?
Triangle of Reference by Ogden & Richards
Contextualism
3. Contextualism: Meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context.
• morning star 启明星 , evening star冥王星
Major sense relations— homonymy 121
• Homonymy 同音/形异义,including: ➢Homophones同音词: rain/reign,
night/night, ➢Homographs同形词:bow v./ n., tear v./
• Linguistic forms having the same sense may have different references in different situations.
• Linguistic forms with the same reference might differ in sense.
5.Reflective/reflected meaning反映义
(association with another sense of the same expression) e.g. intercourse, nucleur
6. Collocative meaning 搭配义 p.116:
• The associations of a word gets because of the meanings of words which tend to occur in its linguistic context.

• 5. Meaning as truth conditions: truthconditional theory/semantics 真值理论draws on formal logic 形式逻辑.
• Knowing the meaning of a sentence means knowing the conditions under which the sentence is true or false.
5.Reflective/reflected meaning反映义
(association with another sense of the same expression) e.g. intercourse, nucleur
6. Collocative meaning 搭配义 p.116:
• The associations of a word gets because of the meanings of words which tend to occur in its linguistic context.
• morning star 启明星 , evening star冥王星
Major sense relations— homonymy 121
• Homonymy 同音/形异义,including: ➢Homophones同音词: rain/reign,
night/night, ➢Homographs同形词:bow v./ n., tear v./
• It’s mainly a matter of choice b/t alternative grammatical constructions.
• Jack was presented with a gold medal. • The Olympic Committee presented Jack

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(1)What does ‘tall’ mean? (signify) (2)A nod means agreement. (indicate) (3)I know the place you mean. (refer to) (4)Your presence would mean a lot to me. (matter) (5)I am sorry. I didn’t mean to be late. (intend) (6)The boy wasn’t meant to be there. (supposed to)
Review
• What are common means of cohesion in English? • What do we mean by conversational repair?
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Contents
7.1 The notion of semantics 7.2 Semantic properties 7.3 Semantic relations 7.4 Sense and reference
• The connotative meaning can be the same /different in different languages or cultures. e.g.: fox, machine BUT: dragon, dog, elephant (White Elephant)
detective
spy
decease
die
pegged out
slim
thin
skinny
strong-minded
firm
pig-headed
public servant government employee bureaucrat

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2.2 Definition of language

Common aspects of language agreed upon by the linguists:



a system a system of verbal symbols Communication is one of the major functions of language though language can also be said to perform other functions. Human language Language is arbitrary in the sense that the relation between speech sounds (form) and the ideas the sounds convey (meaning) is arbitrary.


Preview the part of Chapter I of course book: design features of language, Functions of language. Read the further reading material: (available in the course public e-mail box)
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“From now on I will consider language to be a set (finite or infinite) of sentences, each finite in length and constructed out of a finite set of elements.” --Noam Chomsky (1928- ): Syntactic Structures (1957)

Gradable antonyms---there are often intermediate forms between the two members of a pair, e.g. old-young, hot-cold, tall-short, …
Complementary antonyms
Note
Linguistic forms having the same sense may have different references in different situations; on the other hand, there are also occasions, when linguistic forms with the same reference might differ in sense, e.g. the morning star and the evening star, rising sun in the morning and the sunset at dusk.
Meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, contex—elements closely linked with language behavior. Two types of contexts are recognized: Situational context: spatiotemporal situation Linguistic context: the probability of a word’s cooccurrence or collocation.
Chapter 5 Semantics
What is semantics

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• Questions: • 1. Do ran and rang form a minimal pair? How about lead and leave, why and high, bought
following types:
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• Stops/plosives 塞音/破裂音 • Fricatives 擦音 • Affricates 塞擦音 • Liquids 流音: [l]﹙lateral边音﹚ [r]﹙retroflex卷舌音﹚ • Nasals 鼻音 • Glides/semi-vowels 滑音/半元音
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4. Classifications of English
• Question:
s o u n d s • Analyze the impor tant features of vowels and consonants.
speech
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• (1) Classification of consonants • In terms of manner of articulation, English consonants can be classified into the
diacritics变音符. Diacritics are a set of symbols added to the letter-symbols to bring out the finer distinctions than the letters alone may possibly do.
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• Broad transcription 宽式标音: the transcription with letter-symbols only. • Narrow transcription 严 式 标 音 : the transcription with letter-symbols together with the

Derivational and inflectional morphemes (p.55)
Some derivational morphemes change the grammatical category of words (or grammatical class of words) and others
➢ the smallest unit in terms of relationship between expression and content,
➢ a unit which cannot be divided without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.
When the root of the word is a free morpheme, we say the word has a free root, such as e.g. hopeful, interpersonal
When it is a bound morpheme, we say the word has a bound root, such as e.g. precede, receive, submit, retain, recur
The identification of words
(2) Relative uninterruptibility(相对的不可 隔 断 性 ): new elements are not to be inserted into a word even when there are several parts in the word. (i.e. outlaws, touch-me-not)

Language change from region to region, from social group to another, from individual to individual.
Language varieties are related to region, social ass, educational background, and the degree of formality of a situation in which language is used, including standard language, dialects, registers, pidgins, creoles, etc.
Horizontal bilingualism (横向性双语现 象） & diagonal bilingualism （倾斜性 双语现象）
Multilingualism
A situation where 3 or more languages are used by an individual or by a group of speakers.
Chapter 8 Sociolinguistics
Language is a city to the building of which every human being brought a stone. ——Ralph Waldo Emerson
Once you open your mouth, you are placed. —— Pygmalion by Bernard Shaw
The origin of the name
➢ -- Hebrew pidjom meaning “trade or exchange” -- Chinese characters pei and ts'in meaning “paying money”

Language & Mind
Language & Culture
Language & Computer
Sociolinguistics 社会语言学
Psycholinguistics 心理语言学
anthropological linguistics
人类语言学
Computational Linguistics
I 语言学导论 II 语言学主要分支学科 III 语言学的流派和理论
I 语言学导论
1. design feature of language （语言的定义特征）
2. Language Families (世界语言分类) 3. important distinctions in linguistics (语言学研究中几对重要的概念) 4. scope of linguistics (语言学的研究范围)
Important Distinctions in Linguistics
4) Competence（语言能力） and performance （语言运用） theorist: Chomsky(乔姆斯基) competence: user's knowledge of rules about the linguistic system. performance: the actual realization of this knowledge in concrete situations.
法语，西班牙语等
东支 罗马尼亚语
West Slavic group 斯拉夫语西支
波兰语，捷克语
东支 俄语
Important Distinctions in
Linguistics

Chapter 3: Morphology
The study of words
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3.1 Introductions:
• U.S. fast food giant McDonald's Corp said on Tuesday it would give its Chinese employees their first across-the-board pay rise.
dictionary dictation prediction dictograph
dictum
audible audience audiometer auditor auditorium
visual visible visit vision
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Diagram B to classify morphemes
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3.4 Morphs and allomorphs
Morphs are the smallest meaningful phonetic segments of an utterance on the level of parole.
morpheme (langue) morph (parole)
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3.3 What is morpheme??
• Morpheme is the minimal linguistic sign, a grammatical unit in which there is an arbitrary union of a sound and a meaning and that cannot be further analyzed.