Language and Cognition语言与认知

语言与认知的三种方法Language and cognition are intricate constructs that have fascinated scholars for centuries. Three primary approaches have emerged in studying these phenomena: behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism.Behaviorism views language and cognition as observable behaviors that can be shaped and modified through conditioning. This perspective focuses on external stimuli and their resulting responses, ignoring internal mental processes. For instance, a child learning a new word might associate it with a specific object or action, solidifying the language connection through repetition and reinforcement.认知主义则强调认知过程和内部心理结构的重要性。

它认为，语言和认知的发展是通过个体与环境的互动，以及对这些互动的内部解释和表征来实现的。

例如，当学习一个新概念时，人们会在大脑中构建相关的认知图式，这些图式帮助理解和解释新信息。

Constructivism takes a more active and subjective stance, emphasizing the individual's role in creating meaning from their experiences. Language and cognition are seen as constructs built by the learner through active engagement with the world. In this framework, learners are not just passive recipients of knowledge but active participants in its construction.这三种方法各有侧重点，互为补充。

mhk作文英文回答：In the realm of human consciousness, the intrinsic connection between language and cognition has sparked profound debates among scholars. The notion that the language we speak shapes our thoughts and perceptions has been extensively explored, leading to the recognition that language is not merely a tool of communication but also a lens through which we experience the world.The linguistic relativity hypothesis, also known as the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, proposes that the structure of a language influences the cognitive abilities and worldview of its speakers. In other words, the language we use forms a cognitive framework that determines the way we perceive and categorize reality. This hypothesis has generated numerous studies investigating the relationship between language and cognition.One area of inquiry has focused on the impact of language on color perception. Studies have demonstratedthat speakers of different languages with distinct color terms exhibit differences in color discrimination and categorization. For instance, the Himba people of Namibia, who have only two basic color terms (red and green), have been shown to have difficulty distinguishing betweencertain shades of blue and green compared to English speakers with more specific color terms.Another line of research has explored the influence of language on spatial cognition. Studies have revealed that speakers of languages that use absolute spatial terms (e.g., "left" and "right") have a stronger sense of absolute orientation compared to speakers of languages thatprimarily use relative spatial terms (e.g., "in front of" and "behind"). This suggests that the language we use can shape the way we navigate and interact with our spatial environment.Furthermore, language has been found to play a role in the development of concepts and categories. The existenceof specific words in a language can influence the way speakers perceive and organize information. For example,the Guugu Yimithirr language of Australia has separatewords for "dog" and "bitch," while English speakers use a single term to encompass both sexes. This linguistic distinction has been shown to affect how Guugu Yimithirr speakers categorize and classify dogs based on gender.The linguistic relativity hypothesis has significant implications for our understanding of culture and cognition. It suggests that the language we speak not only reflectsour cultural experiences but also contributes to theshaping of our worldview and cognitive abilities. This hypothesis emphasizes the importance of considering the linguistic diversity of human societies in order to fully comprehend the richness and complexity of human thought and experience.However, it is important to note that the linguistic relativity hypothesis does not imply that language strictly determines our cognition. Rather, it proposes that language provides a framework through which we interpret and makesense of our experiences. Individual factors, such associal and cultural context, also play a significant role in shaping our cognitive processes.In summary, the relationship between language and cognition is a complex and multifaceted one. The linguistic relativity hypothesis highlights the influential role that language plays in shaping our perceptions, categories, and cognitive abilities. While the structure of our language does not solely determine our cognition, it provides a lens through which we view and interact with the world.中文回答：语言与认知之间的内在联系是学者们广泛争论的课题。

语⾔学English Linguistics英语语⾔学Chapter SixLanguage and Cognition语⾔与认知What is language ?What is cognition ?I . Cognition(I). Definition:Mental processes of an individual, information processingMental process or faculty of knowing, including awareness, perception, reasoning, and judgment.(Ⅱ).Three approaches to the study of language and cognition:1.The formal approach: addresses the structural patterns, including the study of morphological, syntactic, and lexical structure.2.The psychological approach: looks at language from the perspective of general cognitive systems ranging from perception, memory, attention to reasoning. PSYCHOLOGICAL LINGUISTICS ⼼理语⾔学3.The conceptual approach: addresses how language structures (processes & patterns) conceptual content.COGNITIVE LINGUISTICS 认知语⾔学Ⅱ. Psycholinguistics(I). Definition:Psycholinguistics is the study of psychological aspects of language, it usually studies the psychological states and mental activity associated with the use of language.(Ⅱ).Three subjects of researchLanguage acquisitionLanguage comprehensionLanguage production1. Language Acquisition(1). Definition:Language acquisition is the process by which humans acquire the capacity to perceive and comprehend language, as well as to produce and use words to communicate.(2). Studies on Language acquisition:One of the central topics in psycholinguisticsAll normal humans speak, no nonhuman animal does.Children’s acquisition of language has received much attention.Scholars kept diaries of children’s speech for their research data.(3). Stages of Language acquisition:a. Holophrastic stage (from two months to a year)–Language’s sound patterns–Phonetic distinctions in parents’ language.–One-word stage: objects, actions, motions, routines.b.Two-word stage (around 18 months)c. Three-word stage–Give doggie paper.–Put truck window.–Tractor go floor.d. Fluent grammatical conversation stageEmbed one constituent inside another:–Give doggie paper.–Give big doggie paper.Use more function words: missing function words and inflection in the beginning but good use (90%) by the age of 3, with a full range of sentence types.All parts of a language are acquired before the child turns four.2. Language comprehension(1). Definition:The mental process in which humans can understand sentences that carry novel messages in a way exquisitely sensitive to the structure of the language.(2). Stages of language comprehension:a. word recognitionb. comprehension of sentencesc. comprehension of texts3. Language production(1). Definition:In psycholinguistics, language production is the production of spoken or written language. It describes all of the stages between having a concept, and translating that concept into linguistic form.(2). Stages of language production:a. access to wordsb. generation of sentencesc. written language productionⅢ. Cognitive LinguisticsDefinition:It is the scientific study of the relation between the way we communicate and the way we think. ?It is based on human experiences of the world and the way they perceive and conceptualize the (I) Construal and Construal Operations (识解与识解活动)Construal: the ability to conceive and portray the same situation in different waysConstrual Operations include the following aspects:Attention / salience(注意⁄突显)We activate the most relevant concepts more than concepts that are irrelevant to what we are thinking about.a We drove along the road.(a line:one-dimenaional)b. She ran across the road.(a surface:two-dimenaional)c. The workers dug through the road.(a volume:three-dimenaional)a. He cleaned the window. (glass)b. He opened the window. (frame)a. I’ve broken the window. (I)b. A stone has broken the window. (stone)2. Judgment / Comparison (判断⁄⽐较)Figure / Ground (图形⁄背景)We cannot attend to all facets of a scene at the same time.We cannot pay attention to everything. Instead, we focus on events of particular salience. ?Figure-ground organization –The ground seems to be placed behind the figure extending in the background.–The figure is thus more prominent, or even more interesting, than the ground.Figure-groundFigure-ground also seems to apply to our perception of moving objects.In order to distinguish between stationary and dynamic figure-ground relations, some cognitive linguists (eg Ronald Langacker) use the term trajector （射体）for a moving figure and landmark （界标）for the ground of a moving figure. There’s a cat[figure] on the mat[ground]There are still some peanuts[figure] in the bag[ground]Batman[figure] was standing on the roof[ground]The computer[figure] under the table[ground] is mineThe spacecraft[figure] was hovering over Metropolis[ground]Tarzan[trajector] jumped into the river[landmark]Spiderman[trajector] climbed up the wall[landmark]The bird[trajector] winged its way out the window[landmark]We[trajector] went across the field[landmark]I[trajector]’m going to London[landmark]3. Perspective⁄Situatedness(视⾓⁄情景)Perspective ：the way in which we view a scene in terms of our situatedness. It generally depends on two things: where we are situated in relation to the scene we're viewinghow the scene is arranged in relation to our situatedness.–The tree is behind the man.–The tree is in front of the man.(Ⅱ) Categorization（范畴化）1. Definition:The process of classifying our experiences into different categories based on commonalities and differences.2. Three levels in categories:–basic level–superordinate level–subordinate levelBasic level Superordinate levelAnimalHorse Dog CatChihuahua German dachshundshepherdSubordinate levelVertical organization(Ⅲ) Image Schema（意象图式）Definition:A recurring, dynamic pattern of our perceptual interactions and motor programs that gives coherence and structure to our experience (Mark Johnson).2. Patterns of image schemas:Center-periphery schema（中央—边缘图式）Involves–a physical or metaphorical core and edge, and–degrees of distance from the core.Examples (English):–The structure of an apple–An individual’s perceptual sphere–An individual’s social sphere, with family and friends at the core and others having degrees of peripherality （周边性）Containment schema（容器图式）Involves a physical or metaphorical–boundary–enclosed area or volume, or–excluded area or volume.Bodily experience: human bodies as containers.Structural elements: interior, boundary, exterior–The ship is coming into view.–She’s deep in thought.–We stood in silence.Cycle schema （循环图式）Involves repetitious events and event series. Its structure includes the following:–A starting point–A progression through successive events without backtracking–A return to the initial stateThe schema often has superimposed on it a structure that builds toward a climax and then goes through a release or decline.Examples (English)–Days–Weeks–Years–Sleeping and waking–Breathing–Circulation–Emotional buildup and releaseForce schema （⼒量图式）Involves physical or metaphorical causal interaction. It includes the following elements:–A source and target of the force–A direction and intensity of the force–A path of motion of the source and/or target–A sequence of causationExamples (English):–Physical: Wind, Gravity–Structural elements: force, path, entity, etc.–Interaction, directionality, causality–Compulsion–Blockage–Counterforce–Diversion–Removal of restraintLink schema（连接图式）Consists of two or more entities, connected physically or metaphorically, and the bond between them.Entity A Entity BExamples (English):–A child holding her mother’s hand–Someone plugging a lamp into the wall–A causal “connection”–Kinship “ties”Part-whole schema（部分—整体图式）Involves physical or metaphorical wholes along with their parts and a configuration of the parts.Examples (English):–Physical: The body and its parts–Metaphorical: The familyPath schema（路径图式）Involves physical or metaphorical movement from place to place, andconsists of a starting point, a goal, and a series of intermediate points.Examples (English):Physical: Paths; TrajectoriesMetaphorical: The purpose-as-physical-goal metaphor, as expressed in the following sentences: –Tom has gone a long way toward changing his personality.–You have reached the midpoint of your flight training.–She's just starting out to make her fortune.–Jane was sidetracked in her search for self-understanding.Scale schema（刻度图式）Involves an increase or decrease of physical or metaphorical amount, andconsists of any of the following:–A closed- or open-endedprogression of amount–A position in the progressionof amount–One or more norms of amountExamples:–Physical amounts–Properties in the number system–Economic entities such as supply and demandVerticality schema（垂直图式）Involves “up” and “down” relations.Examples:–Standing upright–Climbing stairs–Viewing a flagpole–Watching water rise in a tub(Ⅳ) MetaphorGeorge Lakoff and Mark Johnson (1980). Metaphors We Live By. University of Chicago Press. <中⼩学英语教学与研究>2011第6期英语中的概念隐喻表达法崔传明⽯磊（⼭东科技⼤学，⼭东泰安271000）隐喻（metaphor）就是把⼀个领域的概念投射到另⼀领域，或者说从⼀个认知域—来源（source domain）投射到另⼀个认知域—⽬标域（target domain）。

l开头c结尾的简单英文单词
艺术融合
艺术融合（Aesthetic Convergence）是一个新兴的艺术领域，它融合了多种艺术形式和风格，创造出独特而富有表现力的作品。

这个单词可以作为l开头c结尾的简单英文单词，同时字数超过
500个。

它代表着一种追求美的融合和创新的思维方式，也代表着
一种对艺术多样性和包容性的追求。

标题：Language and Cognition，正文：语言与认知
语言与认知（Language and Cognition）是一个非常广泛的学科领域，它研究语言与认知之间的关系。

这个单词可以作为l开头
c结尾的简单英文单词，同时字数超过500个。

它涉及到语言学、
心理学、神经科学等多个学科领域，探讨人类如何使用语言进行思考、交流和表达。

标题：Cultural Exchange，正文：文化交流
文化交流（Cultural Exchange）是不同文化之间相互理解和
互动的过程。

这个单词可以作为l开头c结尾的简单英文单词，同
时字数超过500个。

它涉及到不同文化背景的人们之间的交流、互
动和合作，旨在促进文化多样性和包容性，增进不同文化之间的理
解和友谊。