二语习得引论 读书笔记 chapter 1-2

一、Key issues in second language acquisition(二语习得的关键问题)调查SLA的框架：（1）situational factors（形势）（2）Input（输入）（3）Learner differences（学习者差异）（4）Learner processes（学习过程）（5）Linguistics output（语言输出）1.situational factors（形势）Linguistic environment：situational factors & Input根据语言环境的不同，两种类型的习得：（1）naturalistic SLA（自然二语习得）（2）Classroom SLA（课堂二语习得）2.linguistic input（语言输入）中心问题是：语言输入在多大的程度上决定了SLA的过程，是仅仅激发了学习过程，还是机构化SLA？本地话语者是其话语水平适应L2学习者，另一个问题是：这些话语调整在促进学习中起到什么作用。

3.learner differences（学习者差异）潜在影响因素：年龄，个人能力水平（aptitude）和智力（intelligence），动机（motivation）和需求（needs），个性（personality）和认知方式（cognitive style）另一种差异：学习者的L1，要保证对比分析假说（contrastive analysis hypothesis）服从实验测试(empirical test)4.Learner processes（学习过程）学习过程包含认知学习过程（cognitive Learner processes）和语言学习过程（linguistic Learner processes）认知学习过程分为三个范畴：（1）学习战略（learning strategies）：内化新的L2知识（2）产生战略（production strategies）：学习者利用其现存的L2知识的方式（3）交流战略（communication strategies):用于当学习者缺乏L2资源导致交流受阻时用的战略。

一．概论Chapter 1. Introducing SLA1.Second language acquisition (SLA)2.Second language (L2)（也可能是第三四五外语） also commonly called a target language (TL)3.Basic questions:1). What exactly does the L2 learner come to know?2). How does the learner acquire this knowledge?3). Why are some learners more successful than others?4.linguistic; psychological; social.Only one (x) Combine (√)Chapter 2. Foundations of SLAⅠ. The world of second languages1.Multi-; bi-; mono- lingualism1)Multilingualism: the ability to use 2 or more languages.(bilingualism: 2 languages; multilingualism: >2)2)Monolingualism: the ability to use only one language.3)Multilingual competence (Vivian Cook, Multicompetence)Refers to: the compound state of a mind with 2 or more grammars.4)Monolingual competence (Vivian Cook, Monocompetence)Refers to: knowledge of only one language.2.People with multicompetence (a unique combination) ≠ 2 monolingualsWorld demographic shows:3.Acquisition4.The number of L1 and L2 speakers of different languages can only beestimated.1)Linguistic information is often not officially collected.2)Answers to questions seeking linguistic information may not bereliable.3) A lack of agreement on definition of terms and on criteria foridentification.Ⅱ. The nature of language learning1.L1 acquisition1). L1 acquisition was completed before you came to school and thedevelopment normally takes place without any conscious effort.2). Complex grammatical patterns continue to develop through the1) Refers to: Humans are born with an innate capacity to learnlanguage.2) Reasons:♦Children began to learn L1 at the same age and in much the same way.♦…master the basic phonological and grammatical operations in L1 at 5/ 6.♦…can understand and create novel utterances; and are not limited to repeating what they have heard; the utterances they produce are often systematically different from those of the adults around them.♦There is a cut-off age for L1 acquisition.♦L1 acquisition is not simply a facet of general intelligence.3)The natural ability, in terms of innate capacity, is that part oflanguage structure is genetically “given” to every human child.3. The role of social experience1) A necessary condition for acquisition: appropriate socialexperience (including L1 input and interaction) is2) Intentional L1 teaching to children is not necessary and may havelittle effect.3) Sources of L1 input and interaction vary for cultural and socialfactors.4) Children get adequate L1 input and interaction→sources has littleeffect on the rate and sequence of phonological and grammatical development.The regional and social varieties (sources) of the input→pronunciationⅢ. L1 vs. L2 learningⅣ. The logical problem of language learning1.Noam Chomsky:1)innate linguistic knowledge must underlie language acquisition2)Universal Grammar2.The theory of Universal Grammar:Reasons:1)Children’s knowledge of language > what could be learned from theinput.2)Constraints and principles cannot be learned.3)Universal patterns of development cannot be explained bylanguage-specific input.Children often say things that adults do not.♦Children use language in accordance with general universal rules of language though they have not developed the cognitive ability to understand these rules. Not learned from deduction or imitation.♦Patterns of children’s language development are not directly determined by the input they receive.。

二．主要研究成果Chapter 3. The linguistics of SLAⅠ. The nature of languageⅡ. Early approaches to SLA1.Contrastive Analysis (CA)1). as a beginning of the survey:aspects of its procedures are still incorporated in more recentapproaches.It introduced the influence of L1 on L2 (Chomsky)2). CA: an approach to the study of SLA which involves predicting andexplaining learner problems based on a comparison of L1 and L2 to determine similarities and differences.(Based on idealized linguistic structures attributed to native speakers of L1 and L2)3). influenced by Structuralism and Behaviorism.4). Goal of CA was primarily pedagogical in nature: to increaseefficiency in L2 teaching and testing.5). Process:Describing L1 and L2 at different levelAnalyzing comparable segment of the language for elements that may Types of interference Examplessame form and meaning; different distribution la s paloma s blanca s (Spanish) the white dove ssame meaning; different form kittie s 小猫们same meaning;different form and distribution water (n. v.)水（名）different form;partial overlap in meaning leg腿，蹄，下肢similar form; different meaning asistir (Spanish “to attend”) assist (English “to help”)Cannot explain the logical problem of language learning (how learners know more than they’ve heard and been taught)Not always validated by evidence from actual learner errors. Stimulated the preparation of comparative grammarIts analytic procedures have been usefully applied to descriptive studies and to translation2.Error analysis (EA)1). EA: the first approach to the study of SLA which includes aninternal focus on learner’s creative ability to construct language.(based on the description and analysis of actual learner errors in L2)2). CA→EAPredictions by CA not always correct; many real learner errors are not transferred from L1Focus on surface-level forms and patterns→underlying rulesBehaviorism→mentalism (emphasis on the innate capacity)Teaching concerns as motivation↓3). Procedures for analyzing learner errors:Collection of a sample of learner languageIdentification of errorsDescription of errorsExplanation of errorsEvaluation of errors4). ShortcomingsAmbiguity in classificationLack of positive dataPotential for avoidance3.Interlanguage (IL)1). IL refers to the intermediate states (interim grammars) of alearner’s language as it moves toward the target L2.2). Characteristics:SystematicDynamicVariableReduced system, both in form and function3). Differences between SLA and L1 acquisition by childrenLanguage transfer from L1 to L2Transfer of training, or how the L2 is taughtStrategies of 2nd language learningOvergeneralization of the target language linguistic materials4). L1 as fossilization for L2 learners:Fossilization: the probability that they’ll cease their IL development in some respects before they reach target language norms, in spite of continuing L2 input and passage time.Relates to: the age of learning; social identity; communicative need.4.Morpheme order studies1). Refers to： an important Q in the study of SLA, whether there isa natural order (or universal sequence) in the grammaticaldevelopment of L2 learners.2). Inflection: it adds one or more units of meaning to the base formof a word, to give it a more specific meaning. (plural nouns, past tense etc.)3). The order of morpheme acquisition reported was similar in L1 and L2It supports an Identity Hypothesis (L1=L2): that processes involved in L1 and L2 acquisition are the same.4). The concept of natural order remains very important forunderstanding SLA. (both from linguistic and cognitive approaches) 5.Monitor model1). One of the last of the early approaches which has an internal focusin the Monitor Model.(Stephen Krashen)2). It explicitly and essentially adopts the notion of a languageacquisition device (LAD) (Chomsky used for children’s innate knowledge of language)3). Krashen’s approach: 5 hypotheses6.Consensus:1). What is being acquired in SLA is a “rule0governed” languagesystems2). How SLA take place involves creative mental processes.3). Why some learners are more (less) successful in SLA than othersrelates primarily to the age of the learner.Ⅲ. Universal Grammar (UG)1.UG (Chomsky): what all languages have in common.1). Two important conceptslinguistic competence (speaker-hearers’underlying knowledge of language) needs to be accounted for LAsuch knowledge of language > what could be learned from the input.(the logic problem of language learning/ the poverty-of-the stimulus argument)2). The nature of speaker-hearers’competence in native language canbe explained only by innate knowledge that human genetically endowed with.3). The innate knowledge is in the language facultyLanguage faculty: a component of the human mind, physically represented in the brain and part of the biological endowment of the species.2.Principles and Parameters1). With Chomsky’s reconceptualization of UG in the Principles andParameters framework [often called the Government and Binding (GB) model] and the subsequent introduction of the Minimalist program, there came a new idea about the acquisition process.2). UG has been conceptualized as a set of principles which areproperties of all languages in the world.Some of these principles contain parameters3). What is acquired in L1 acquisition (not UG itself):LA includes a process of selecting among the limited parametric options in UG that match the settings which are encountered in linguistic input.4). How acquisition occurs for children:natural; instinctive; internal to the cognitive system5). Why some learners are more successful:Irrelevant with L1 acquisition, for all native speakers attain essentially the same final state. (For SLA, attitudes; motivation and social context matters)States UG SLAInitial state Make parametricchoices that areappropriate for L1(Guided by UG)L1 transferNature anddevelopment ofinterlanguageFinal state Native language;same Why more successful relevant to L2:The degree of access to UGRelationships betweenL1&L2 →differentialtransfer or interferenceL2 input qualityDegree of perceptionDegree of specificationfor lexical featuresⅣ. Functional approaches1.Functional approach1). Based on: the framework of Functionalism2). Characteristics of functional approaches to SLAFocus on the use of language in real situations (performance) and underlying knowledge (competence)Assumption: purpose of language is communication; LA and SLA require communicative useConcern about the sentence, discourse structure, how language is used in interaction; include aspects of communication beyond languageSystemic linguistics Systemic linguistics is a model for analyzing language in terms of the interrelated systems of choices that are available for expressing meaning.“language acquisition needs to be seen as the mastery of linguistic functions”2). What language learners acquire: meaning potential3). Process of acquisition:mastering certain basic functions of languagedeveloping a meaning potential for each4). pragmatic functions development in L1 acquisition:instrumental→regulatory→interactional→personal→heuristic→ imagination→ representational5). linguistic structures: directly reflections of the functions thatlanguage serves; related to the social and personal needs2.Functional Typology1). Based on: the comparative study of a wide range of the world’slanguage2). Goal: to describe patterns of similarities and differences amonglanguages; to determine which types and patterns occur more/less frequently or are universal in distribution.3). Application: why some L2 constructions are more/less difficultthan others for L2 learners to acquire; for the selectivety of crosslinguistic influence or transfer4). important concept: markedness (deals with whether any specificfeature of language is marked or unmarked)Feature in L2PredictionFeature inL1Marked Unmarked (common)L2 feature will be easy to learnL1 feature will not transfer toL2Unmarked Marked L1 feature will transfer to L2In SLA, unmarked elements are easier to master than marked ones.6). Compared with CA:Functional typology goes beyond the surface-level structural (CA) to more abstract patterns, principles and constraints;the Markedness Differential Hypothesis7). implications:some aspects of some languages are more difficultwhy some types and patterns of features are more/less frequent in native and 2nd language (factors: perceptual salience, ease of cognitive processing, physical constraints, communicative needs) 3.Function-to-form mapping1). Basic concept: L1 and L2 acquisition involves a process ofgrammaticalization.2). Grammaticalization: a grammatical function is first conveyed byshared extralinguistic knowledge and inferencing based on the context of discourse, then by a lexical word, and only later by a grammatical marker.Driven by: communicative need and use.Related to : the development of more efficient cognitive process3). Pragmatic mode: a style of expressing meaning which relies more on context.Syntactic mode: a style which relies more on formal grammatical element4). According to function-to-mapping approach, LA importantlyinvolves developing linguistic forms to fulfill semantic or pragmatic functions.rmation organization1). Focus on: utterance structure (the way learners put their wordstogether.)2). Includes:describing the structures of interlanguage (learner varieties)discovering what organizational principles guide learners’production at various stages of developmentanalyzing how these principles interact with one another.3). European Science Foundation (ESF) projectdevelopmental levels: in this study, no matter what their L1 and L2, the learners go through a remarkably similar sequence of development in their interlanguage.organizing principles:*there is a limited set of principles (phrasal constraints;semantic constraints; pragmatic constraints) which learnersmake use of for organizing information.*Individual variation: how the principles apply in their L1 and influence the interlanguage use.。

第二语言习得：是指人们在获得母语的基础上习得另一种或几种语言的过程。

母语：第一语言，通常是指学习者所属种族，社团使用的语言，因而也称作“本族语”。

就语言获得的方式而言，习得是指非正式的语言获得，儿童大都是通过这种方式来获得母语的，学习是指正式的语言获得，即通过课堂教学的方式来获得第二语言。

就语言获得的心理过程而言，习得是指在下意识状态下获得的语言，而学习一般是指有意识的语言获得。

心理学者一般称前者为内隐学习，后者为外显学习。

习得是通过无意识或者下意识的方式来获得语言知识。

学习则是在有意识的状态下，通过规则学习来获得语言知识。

就语言获得的知识类型而言，通过习得方式获得的是隐性语言知识，通过学习获得的是显性语言知识，所以，学者们通常用“picking up a language”来描述习得，就像儿童那样下意识的，毫不费力的获得一种语言。

而学习，学者们认为knowing about a language，即学习一种显性语言知识，而不是language learning，即获得一种语言。

SLA的发端：20世纪60年代末。

1、在《中介语》中首次提出SLA的研究对象：学习者的语言系统（学习者在目的语学习的过程中产生的语言）。

2、把学习者的语言系统作为与其母语和目的语系统相对应的，独立的语言系统。

汉语作为SLA的研究起点：《中介语理论与外国人学习汉语的语音偏误分析》鲁健骥，1984。

乔姆斯基对“刺激——反应”模式的批判1、语言最重要的特点之一是移置型，行为主义无法表达这种特性。

2、句子结构的重要特征之一是成分结构和表层结构的不吻合性。

3、合乎语法的句子不一定有意义。

4、行为主义无法合理解释语言习得。

行为主义对语言本质的看法：1、语言是一套习惯，语言习得是此习惯的养成。

2、揭示语言行为的模式是刺激反应理论。

3、人们的话语就是对其环境或他人的语言，行为所做的一系列反应。

4、把语言行为加以强化，便形成了语言习惯。

5、语言行为则是语言习惯的总和。

Chapter 1. Introducing Second Language AcquisitionI. What id SLA?1. The definition of SLASLA, that is Second Language Acquisition. It refers both to the study of individual and groups who are learning a language subsequent to learning their first one as young children, and to the process of learning that language. The additional language is called a second language or target language.2.The scope of SLAIt includes informal L2 learning and formal L2 learning.Informal L2 learning take place in naturalistic context, formal L2 learning takes place in classrooms.3.Three basic questionsIn trying to understand the process of second language acquisition, we are seeking to answer three basic questions:(1)What exactly does the L2 learner come to know?(2)How does the learner acquire this knowledge?(3)Why are some learners more successful than others?There are probably no answers that all second language researches would agree on completely. This is because SLA is highly complex in nature, and in part because scholars studying SLA come from academic disciplines which differ greatly in theory and research methods.II. What is a second Language?A second language is typically an official or societally dominant language needed for education, employment, and other basic purposes.A foreign language is one not widely used in the learners' immediate social context which might be used for further travel or other cross-cultural communication situations, or studied as a curricular requirement or elective in school, but with no immediate or necessary practical application.A library language is one which functions primarily as a tool for further learning through reading, especially when books or journals in a desired field of study are not commonly published in the learners' native tongue.An auxiliary language is one which learners need to know for some official functions in their immediate political setting, or will need for purposes of wider communication, although their first language serves most other needs in their lives.III. What is a first language?Acquisition of more than one language during early childhood is called simultaneous multilingualism.Sequential multilingualism: learning additional languages after L1.IV. Diversity in learning and learnersWhat is learned in acquiring a second language, as well as how it islearned is often influenced by whether the situation involves informal exposure to speakers of other languages, immersion in a setting where one needs a new language to meet basic needs, or formal instruction in school, and these learning conditions are often profoundly influenced by powerful social, cultural, and economic factors affecting the status of both languages and learners.Chapter 2 Foundations of Second Language AcquisitionI. The world of second languageNot only is bilingualism worldwide, it is a phenomenon that has existed since the beginning of language in human history. It is probably true that no language group has ever existed in isolation from other language groups. There are many more bilingual or multilingual individuals in the world than there are monolingual.Multilingualism refers to the ability to use two or more languages.Monolingualism refers to the ability to use only one.Those who grow up in a multilingual environment acquire multilingual competence in the natural course of using two or more languages from childhood with the people around them, and tend to regard it as perfectly normal to do so. Adding second languages at an older age often takes considerable effort, however, and thus requires motivation. This motivation may arise from a variety of conditions, including the following:(1)invasion or conquest of one's country by speakers of another language;(2)A need or desire to contact speakers of other languages in economic or other specific domains;(3)Immigration to a country where use of a language other than one's another language;(4)Adoption of religious beliefs and practices which involve use of another language.(5)A need or desire to pursue educational experience s where access requires proficiency in another language;(6)A desire for occupational or social advancement which is furthered by knowledge of another language;(7)An interest in knowing more about peoples of other cultures and having access to their technologies or literatures.II. Reasons for uncertainty in reporting language data include some which have social and political significance, and some which merely reflect imprecise or ambiguous terminology, for example:1.Linguistic information is often not officially collected2.Answers to questions seeking linguistic information may not be reliable3.There is lack of agreement on definition of terms and on criteria for identificationIII. The nature of language learningBy the age of six months an infant has produced all of the vowel sounds and most of the consonant sounds of any language in the world.On average children have mastered most of the distinctive sounds of their first language before they are three years old, and an awareness of basic discourse patterns such as conversational turn-taking appear at aneven earlier age. Children control most of the basic L1 grammatical patterns before they are five or six, although complex grammatical patterns continue to develop through the school years.The understanding of how children accomplish the early mastery of L1has changed radically in the past fifty years or so. (1). It was suggested that first language acquisition is in larger part the result of children's natural desire to please their doting parents. (2). Others argued that children's language acquisition is purposive, that they develop language because of their urge to communicate their wants and needs to the people who take care of them. (3). The most widely held view by the middle of the twentieth century was that children learn language by imitation .IV. The role of natural abilityHumans are born with a natural ability or innate capacity to learn language. In viewing the natural ability to acquire language in terms of innate capacity, we are saying that part of language structure is genetically "given" to every human child. If a child had to consciously learn the set of abstract principles that indicate which sequences of words are possible sentences in their language as opposed to those that are not, only the smartest would learn to talk, and it would take them many more years than it actually does.V. The role of social experienceEven if the universal properties of language are preprogrammed inchildren, they must learn all of those features which distinguish their L1 from all other possible human languages. Appropriate social experience , including L1 input and interaction, is thus a necessary condition for acquisition.Sources of L1 input and interaction vary depending on cultural and social factors. Mother's talk is often assumed to be the most important source of early language input to children. The relative importance of input from other young children also varies in different cultures, as does the importance of social institutions such as nursery schools.When young children's social experience includes people around them using two or more languages, they have the same innate capacity to learn both or all of them.VI. L1 versus L2 learningThis brief comparison of L1 and L2 learning is divided into three phases. The first is the initial state, which many linguists ans psychologists believe includes the underlying knowledge about language structures and principles that is in learner's heads at the very start of L1or L2 acquisition. The second phase, the intermediate states, covers all stages of basic language development. The third phase is the final state, which is the outcome of L1and L2 learning.(1). Initial stateSome linguists and psychologists believe that the genetic predispositionwhich children have from birth to learn language remains with them throughout life, and that differences in the final outcomes of L1and L2 learning are attributable to other factors. Others believe that some aspects of the innate capacity which children have for L1 remain in force for acquisition of subsequent languages, but that some aspects of this natural ability are lost with advancing age.There is complete agreement , however, that since L2 acquisition follows L1 acquisition , a major component of the initial state for L2 learning must be prior knowledge of L1.(2).Intermediate statesThere is similarity in that the development of both L1and L2 is largely systematic, including predictable sequencing of many phenomena within each and some similarity of sequencing across languages, and in the fact that L1and L2 learners both play a creative role in their own language development and do not mimic what they have heard or been taught. ·processes·necessary conditions·facilitating conditions(3)final stateThe final state is the outcome of L1or L2 learning . The final state of L1development is native linguistic competence. While vocabulary learning and cultivation of specialized registers may continue intoadulthood,the basic phonological and grammatical systems of whatever languages children hear around them re essentially established by the age of about five or six years , along with vocabulary knowledge and interaction skills that are adequate for fulfilling communicative functions. VII. The logical problem of language learningThe "problem" as it has been formulated by linguists relates most importantly to syntactic phenomena. As noted in the preceding section, most linguists ans psychologist assume this achievement must be attributed to innate and spontaneous language-learning construct and/or process. The notion that innate linguistic knowledge must underline language acquisition. This view has been supported by arguments such as the following:1.Children's knowledge of language goes beyond what could be learned from the input they receiveThis is essentially the poverty -of- the- stimulus argument. According to this argument, children often hear incomplete or ungrammatical utterances along with grammatical input,and yet they are somehow able to filter the language they hear so that the ungrammatical input is not incorporated into their L1 system.2.Constrains and principles cannot be learnedConstrains ans principles cannot be learned in part because children acquire a first language at an age when such abstractions are beyond theircomprehension; Constrains ans principles are thus outside the realm of learning processes which are related to general intelligence.3.Universal patterns of development cannot be explained by language-specific inputThe extent of this similarity suggests that language universals are not only constructs derived from sophisticated theories and analyses by linguists, but also innate representations in every young child's mind. The logical problem of language learningFirst of all, children often say things that adults do not.Next, children use language in accordance with general universal rules of language even though they have not yet developed the cognitive ability necessary to understand these rules.Finally, patterns of children's language development are not directly determined by the input they receive.VIII. Frameworks for SLAFrameworks for study of SLATimeline linguistic psychological social195os and before structuralism behaviorism sociocultural theory 1960s TGG neurolinguistics information processing ethnography of communication variation theory1970s functionalism humanistic models acculturation theroy1980s principles and parameters model connectionism social psychology1990s minimalist program processabilityThis view is still influential in SLA approaches which are concerned with the role of input and interaction.1.linguisticThere have been two foci for the study fo SLA from a linguistic perspective since 1960:internal and external. The internal focus has been based primarily on the work of Noam Chomsky and his followers. It sets the goal of study as accounting for speakers' internalized, underlying knowledge of language rather than the description of surface forms as in earlier Structuralism. The external focus for the study of SLA has emphasized language use, including the functions of language which are realized in learners' production at different stages of development.2.PsychologicalThere have been three foci in the study of SLA from a psychological perspective: languages and the brain, learning processes and learner differences.Language and the brainThe location and representation of language in the brain has been of interest to biologists and psychologists since the nineteenth century. And the expanding field of Neurolinguistics was one of the first to influencecognitive perspectives on SLA when systematic study began in th e1960s.Learning processesThe focus on learning processes has been heavily influenced by computer-based Information Processing(IP) models of learning, which were established in cognitive psychology by the 1960s. Explanations of SLA phenomena based on this framework involve assumptions that L2 is a highly complex skill, and that learning L2 is not essentially unlike learning other highly complex skills.Learner differencesThe focus on learner differences in SLA has been most concerned with the question of why some learners are more successful than others. This framework calls for consideration of emotional involvement in learning, such as affective factors of attitude, motivation, and anxiety level.SocialThere are two foci for the study of SLA from this perspective:micro-social and macro-social.Micro-social focusThe concerns within the micro-social focus relate to language acquisition and use in immediate social contexts of production, interpretation and interaction.Macro-social focusThe concerns fo the macro-social focus relate language acquisition and use to broader ecological contexts, including cultural, political and educational settings.。

一．概论Chapter 1. Introducing SLA1.Second language acquisition (SLA)2.Second language (L2)（也可能是第三四五外语） also commonly called a target language (TL)3.Basic questions:1). What exactly does the L2 learner come to know?2). How does the learner acquire this knowledge?3). Why are some learners more successful than others?4.linguistic; psychological; social.Only one (x) Combine (√)Chapter 2. Foundations of SLAⅠ. The world of second languages1.Multi-; bi-; mono- lingualism1)Multilingualism: the ability to use 2 or more languages.(bilingualism: 2 languages; multilingualism: >2)2)Monolingualism: the ability to use only one language.3)Multilingual competence (Vivian Cook, Multicompetence)Refers to: the compound state of a mind with 2 or more grammars.4)Monolingual competence (Vivian Cook, Monocompetence)Refers to: knowledge of only one language.2.People with multicompetence (a unique combination) ≠ 2 monolingualsWorld demographic shows:3.Acquisition4.The number of L1 and L2 speakers of different languages can only beestimated.1)Linguistic information is often not officially collected.2)Answers to questions seeking linguistic information may not bereliable.3) A lack of agreement on definition of terms and on criteria foridentification.Ⅱ. The nature of language learning1.L1 acquisition1). L1 acquisition was completed before you came to school and thedevelopment normally takes place without any conscious effort.2). Complex grammatical patterns continue to develop through the1) Refers to: Humans are born with an innate capacity to learnlanguage.2) Reasons:♦Children began to learn L1 at the same age and in much the same way.♦…master the basic phonological and grammatical operations in L1 at 5/ 6.♦…can understand and create novel utterances; and are not limited to repeating what they have heard; the utterances they produce are often systematically different from those of the adults around them.♦There is a cut-off age for L1 acquisition.♦L1 acquisition is not simply a facet of general intelligence.3)The natural ability, in terms of innate capacity, is that part oflanguage structure is genetically “given” to every human child.3. The role of social experience1) A necessary condition for acquisition: appropriate socialexperience (including L1 input and interaction) is2) Intentional L1 teaching to children is not necessary and may havelittle effect.3) Sources of L1 input and interaction vary for cultural and socialfactors.4) Children get adequate L1 input and interaction→sources has littleeffect on the rate and sequence of phonological and grammatical development.The regional and social varieties (sources) of the input→pronunciationⅢ. L1 vs. L2 learningⅣ. The logical problem of language learning1.Noam Chomsky:1)innate linguistic knowledge must underlie language acquisition2)Universal Grammar2.The theory of Universal Grammar:Reasons:1)Children’s knowledge of language > what could be learned from theinput.2)Constraints and principles cannot be learned.3)Universal patterns of development cannot be explained bylanguage-specific input.Children often say things that adults do not.♦Children use language in accordance with general universal rules of language though they have not developed the cognitive ability to understand these rules. Not learned from deduction or imitation.♦Patterns of children’s language development are not directly determined by the input they receive.。

《第二语言习得》阅读笔记:习得笔记一1 外向型的学习者善谈和善于反映有利于获得更多的输入和实践机会，但他们往往不注重语言的形式。

内向型的学习者更长于利用他们沉静的性格对输入与规则进行深入细致的分析，对语料进行对比观察，因而在注重形式与规则的教学环境下更有优势。

（评：因而对于不同性格场学员要有不同的教学策略与教学方法）2 动机和态度是决定不同学习者达到不同程度水平的主要因素。

动机可以分为情景性动机，工具性动机，社会性动机（综合性动机）（评：因而刺激并加强学习者学习动机促使其主动学习是外语教学的必要策略。

）3 理想的外语学习者特点 a 可以适应团体的活力与语言的交际特性，克服焦虑 b 积极寻找机会使用目的语，并练习倾听指向他的言语，作出反应 c 通过学习规则掌握交际的多样形式，并可以创造性使用 d 在进入少年阶段，应该积极主动地学习基础的语言概念与规则（语法）d. 主动地区分、储存并监测目的语的特征，并可以在过程中持续纠正。

e 具备外语学习强烈的综合动机与工具性动机习得笔记二1 通过偏误分析发现，只有25%的语言偏误由于母语的负迁移导致，其他往往由于过分应用一般认知手段，如类比及概括等产生。

（评：学习者过度自信对于语言学习有害。

教学者在讲解规律时，除了一般性规律，一定不可以特殊的现象）2 对待偏误的态度行为主义观点：错误是刺激反应过程中的偏差，需要新的正确的刺激强化加以矫正。

认知主义观点：错误恰恰说明学习者是灵活积极的，有辨别能力的，不需特别的加以矫正，错误会随着对目的语了解的深入自然消失。

3 因而教师对待偏误的态度：a 规则无知引起的理解性错误，指出并讲解，b 表达性错误，初期—接触正确言语，促使其意识并逐步理解纠正中后期—指出并强化正确言语（刺激—反应）（评：偏误分析的最大价值为改变了教师对于偏误本质的认识）习得笔记三1 一般而言，词汇错误比语法错误更影响交流，语音错误除非十分严重，否则影响最小。

Chapter 1. Introducing Second Language AcquisitionI. What id SLA?1. The definition of SLASLA, that is Second Language Acquisition. It refers both to the study of individual and groups who are learning a language subsequent to learning their first one as young children, and to the process of learning that language. The additional language is called a second language or target language.2.The scope of SLAIt includes informal L2 learning and formal L2 learning.Informal L2 learning take place in naturalistic context, formal L2 learning takes place in classrooms.3.Three basic questionsIn trying to understand the process of second language acquisition, we are seeking to answer three basic questions:(1)What exactly does the L2 learner come to know?(2)How does the learner acquire this knowledge?(3)Why are some learners more successful than others?There are probably no answers that all second language researches would agree on completely. This is because SLA is highly complex in nature, and in part because scholars studying SLA come from academic disciplines which differ greatly in theory and research methods.II. What is a second Language?A second language is typically an official or societally dominant language needed for education, employment, and other basic purposes.A foreign language is one not widely used in the learners' immediate social context which might be used for further travel or other cross-cultural communication situations, or studied as a curricular requirement or elective in school, but with no immediate or necessary practical application.A library language is one which functions primarily as a tool for further learning through reading, especially when books or journals in a desired field of study are not commonly published in the learners' native tongue.An auxiliary language is one which learners need to know for some official functions in their immediate political setting, or will need for purposes of wider communication, although their first language serves most other needs in their lives.III. What is a first language?Acquisition of more than one language during early childhood is called simultaneous multilingualism.Sequential multilingualism: learning additional languages after L1.IV. Diversity in learning and learnersWhat is learned in acquiring a second language, as well as how it islearned is often influenced by whether the situation involves informal exposure to speakers of other languages, immersion in a setting where one needs a new language to meet basic needs, or formal instruction in school, and these learning conditions are often profoundly influenced by powerful social, cultural, and economic factors affecting the status of both languages and learners.Chapter 2 Foundations of Second Language AcquisitionI. The world of second languageNot only is bilingualism worldwide, it is a phenomenon that has existed since the beginning of language in human history. It is probably true that no language group has ever existed in isolation from other language groups. There are many more bilingual or multilingual individuals in the world than there are monolingual.Multilingualism refers to the ability to use two or more languages.Monolingualism refers to the ability to use only one.Those who grow up in a multilingual environment acquire multilingual competence in the natural course of using two or more languages from childhood with the people around them, and tend to regard it as perfectly normal to do so. Adding second languages at an older age often takes considerable effort, however, and thus requires motivation. This motivation may arise from a variety of conditions, including the following:(1)invasion or conquest of one's country by speakers of another language;(2)A need or desire to contact speakers of other languages in economic or other specific domains;(3)Immigration to a country where use of a language other than one's another language;(4)Adoption of religious beliefs and practices which involve use of another language.(5)A need or desire to pursue educational experience s where access requires proficiency in another language;(6)A desire for occupational or social advancement which is furthered by knowledge of another language;(7)An interest in knowing more about peoples of other cultures and having access to their technologies or literatures.II. Reasons for uncertainty in reporting language data include some which have social and political significance, and some which merely reflect imprecise or ambiguous terminology, for example:1.Linguistic information is often not officially collected2.Answers to questions seeking linguistic information may not be reliable3.There is lack of agreement on definition of terms and on criteria for identificationIII. The nature of language learningBy the age of six months an infant has produced all of the vowel sounds and most of the consonant sounds of any language in the world.On average children have mastered most of the distinctive sounds of their first language before they are three years old, and an awareness of basic discourse patterns such as conversational turn-taking appear at aneven earlier age. Children control most of the basic L1 grammatical patterns before they are five or six, although complex grammatical patterns continue to develop through the school years.The understanding of how children accomplish the early mastery of L1has changed radically in the past fifty years or so. (1). It was suggested that first language acquisition is in larger part the result of children's natural desire to please their doting parents. (2). Others argued that children's language acquisition is purposive, that they develop language because of their urge to communicate their wants and needs to the people who take care of them. (3). The most widely held view by the middle of the twentieth century was that children learn language by imitation .IV. The role of natural abilityHumans are born with a natural ability or innate capacity to learn language. In viewing the natural ability to acquire language in terms of innate capacity, we are saying that part of language structure is genetically "given" to every human child. If a child had to consciously learn the set of abstract principles that indicate which sequences of words are possible sentences in their language as opposed to those that are not, only the smartest would learn to talk, and it would take them many more years than it actually does.V. The role of social experienceEven if the universal properties of language are preprogrammed inchildren, they must learn all of those features which distinguish their L1 from all other possible human languages. Appropriate social experience , including L1 input and interaction, is thus a necessary condition for acquisition.Sources of L1 input and interaction vary depending on cultural and social factors. Mother's talk is often assumed to be the most important source of early language input to children. The relative importance of input from other young children also varies in different cultures, as does the importance of social institutions such as nursery schools.When young children's social experience includes people around them using two or more languages, they have the same innate capacity to learn both or all of them.VI. L1 versus L2 learningThis brief comparison of L1 and L2 learning is divided into three phases. The first is the initial state, which many linguists ans psychologists believe includes the underlying knowledge about language structures and principles that is in learner's heads at the very start of L1or L2 acquisition. The second phase, the intermediate states, covers all stages of basic language development. The third phase is the final state, which is the outcome of L1and L2 learning.(1). Initial stateSome linguists and psychologists believe that the genetic predispositionwhich children have from birth to learn language remains with them throughout life, and that differences in the final outcomes of L1and L2 learning are attributable to other factors. Others believe that some aspects of the innate capacity which children have for L1 remain in force for acquisition of subsequent languages, but that some aspects of this natural ability are lost with advancing age.There is complete agreement , however, that since L2 acquisition follows L1 acquisition , a major component of the initial state for L2 learning must be prior knowledge of L1.(2).Intermediate statesThere is similarity in that the development of both L1and L2 is largely systematic, including predictable sequencing of many phenomena within each and some similarity of sequencing across languages, and in the fact that L1and L2 learners both play a creative role in their own language development and do not mimic what they have heard or been taught. ·processes·necessary conditions·facilitating conditions(3)final stateThe final state is the outcome of L1or L2 learning . The final state of L1development is native linguistic competence. While vocabulary learning and cultivation of specialized registers may continue intoadulthood,the basic phonological and grammatical systems of whatever languages children hear around them re essentially established by the age of about five or six years , along with vocabulary knowledge and interaction skills that are adequate for fulfilling communicative functions. VII. The logical problem of language learningThe "problem" as it has been formulated by linguists relates most importantly to syntactic phenomena. As noted in the preceding section, most linguists ans psychologist assume this achievement must be attributed to innate and spontaneous language-learning construct and/or process. The notion that innate linguistic knowledge must underline language acquisition. This view has been supported by arguments such as the following:1.Children's knowledge of language goes beyond what could be learned from the input they receiveThis is essentially the poverty -of- the- stimulus argument. According to this argument, children often hear incomplete or ungrammatical utterances along with grammatical input,and yet they are somehow able to filter the language they hear so that the ungrammatical input is not incorporated into their L1 system.2.Constrains and principles cannot be learnedConstrains ans principles cannot be learned in part because children acquire a first language at an age when such abstractions are beyond theircomprehension; Constrains ans principles are thus outside the realm of learning processes which are related to general intelligence.3.Universal patterns of development cannot be explained by language-specific inputThe extent of this similarity suggests that language universals are not only constructs derived from sophisticated theories and analyses by linguists, but also innate representations in every young child's mind. The logical problem of language learningFirst of all, children often say things that adults do not.Next, children use language in accordance with general universal rules of language even though they have not yet developed the cognitive ability necessary to understand these rules.Finally, patterns of children's language development are not directly determined by the input they receive.VIII. Frameworks for SLAFrameworks for study of SLATimeline linguistic psychological social195os and before structuralism behaviorism sociocultural theory 1960s TGG neurolinguistics information processing ethnography of communication variation theory1970s functionalism humanistic models acculturation theroy1980s principles and parameters model connectionism social psychology1990s minimalist program processabilityThis view is still influential in SLA approaches which are concerned with the role of input and interaction.1.linguisticThere have been two foci for the study fo SLA from a linguistic perspective since 1960:internal and external. The internal focus has been based primarily on the work of Noam Chomsky and his followers. It sets the goal of study as accounting for speakers' internalized, underlying knowledge of language rather than the description of surface forms as in earlier Structuralism. The external focus for the study of SLA has emphasized language use, including the functions of language which are realized in learners' production at different stages of development.2.PsychologicalThere have been three foci in the study of SLA from a psychological perspective: languages and the brain, learning processes and learner differences.Language and the brainThe location and representation of language in the brain has been of interest to biologists and psychologists since the nineteenth century. And the expanding field of Neurolinguistics was one of the first to influencecognitive perspectives on SLA when systematic study began in th e1960s.Learning processesThe focus on learning processes has been heavily influenced by computer-based Information Processing(IP) models of learning, which were established in cognitive psychology by the 1960s. Explanations of SLA phenomena based on this framework involve assumptions that L2 is a highly complex skill, and that learning L2 is not essentially unlike learning other highly complex skills.Learner differencesThe focus on learner differences in SLA has been most concerned with the question of why some learners are more successful than others. This framework calls for consideration of emotional involvement in learning, such as affective factors of attitude, motivation, and anxiety level.SocialThere are two foci for the study of SLA from this perspective:micro-social and macro-social.Micro-social focusThe concerns within the micro-social focus relate to language acquisition and use in immediate social contexts of production, interpretation and interaction.Macro-social focusThe concerns fo the macro-social focus relate language acquisition and use to broader ecological contexts, including cultural, political and educational settings.。

第二语言习得研究概况第一章介绍1.1 L2在世界中的地位：不仅在学校，而且影响人们生活的方方面面，在这个相互依存的世界里，SLA和二语使用无处不在。

1.2 为什么研究二语习得1.3 SLA领域的发展SLA研究的范围必须足够的广用来包含很多的受试，说很多不同的语言，在很多背景下因为很多原因习得很多L2。

第二章二语习得研究方法1.重要的不是选择定质方法范式还是定量方法范式，运用性质的最优结合来处理研究问题。

2.SLA研究者开始探寻SLA过程的理解，希望当语言教学与SLA协调的时候语言教学会提高。

毫无疑问有好多相同点和不同点在教学中的习得和非教学中的习得。

然而我们不能忽视他们之间的相似性。

3.数据的收集尽可能真实自然，设计的好的工具能够使生产、直觉和情感数据的收集更加有效。

而且能够产色和那个更多完整和可比较的数据。

学习者在不同的任务中语言表现不同，因此应从多个角度来处理研究问题，并且研究者应避免做出不适当的概括。

4.语言水平很难定义，更别说测量。

第三章SLA：数据分析的类型后一种分析的类型包含了前者，而不是代替前者。

除形位句法以外，语言的其他方面和交流能力也要能考虑到，对于语义方面，行为形成或规则形成都不可用，话语联想，多项区分和概念学习有更大的解释力。

第四章中介语研究：实证发现4.2.1 自由变量原因（1）IL在发展中变化地非常快(2)比起小孩习得母语来说，大一点的儿童和成人SL习得者很少认知上和心理语言学上受限制。

4.2.2 系统变量4.2.3 自由变量阻碍发展4.2.1对于变量的多种解释4.3 IL展现了共同的习得顺序和发展序列4.3.1 习得顺序：形位研究4.3.2 发展序列：疑问句4.3.3 发展序列：否定句4.4 IL收学习者L1的影响相似点而不是不同点引起了主要的问题4.4.1 L1如何影响SLA（1）发展序列的步子被打断了（2）发展结构的数量改变了L1-L2的不同并没有改变发展序列，只是推迟了，推迟了开始，增加了次阶段。

二语习得引论读书笔记c h a p t e r文件管理序列号：[K8UY-K9IO69-O6M243-OL889-F88688]一．概论Chapter 1. Introducing SLA1.Second language acquisition (SLA)2.Second language (L2)（也可能是第三四五外语）also commonly called a target language (TL)Refers to: any language that is the aim or goal of learning.3.Basic questions:1). What exactly does the L2 learner come to know2). How does the learner acquire this knowledge3). Why are some learners more successful than othersDifferent answers from different fields4.3 main perspectives:linguistic; psychological; social.Only one (x) Combine (√)Chapter 2. Foundations of SLAⅠ. The world of second languages1.Multi-; bi-; mono- lingualism1)Multilingualism: the ability to use 2 or more languages.(bilingualism: 2 languages; multilingualism: >2)2)Monolingualism: the ability to use only one language.3)Multilingual competence (Vivian Cook, Multicompetence)Refers to: the compound state of a mind with 2 or more grammars.4)Monolingual competence (Vivian Cook, Monocompetence)Refers to: knowledge of only one language.2.People with multicompetence (a unique combination) ≠ 2monolingualsWorld demographic shows:3.Acquisition4.The number of L1 and L2 speakers of different languages canonly be estimated.1)Linguistic information is often not officially collected.2)Answers to questions seeking linguistic information maynot be reliable.3)A lack of agreement on definition of terms and on criteriafor identification.Ⅱ. The nature of language learning1.L1 acquisition1). L1 acquisition was completed before you came to schooland the development normally takes place without anyconscious effort.2). Complex grammatical patterns continue to develop throughthe school years.< < 3 years old Master an awareness of basic discourse patterns< 3 years old Master most of the distinctive sounds of L1< 5 or 6 years old Control most of the basic L1 grammatical patterns2. The role of natural ability1) Refers to: Humans are born with an innate capacity tolearn language.2) Reasons:Children began to learn L1 at the same age and in much thesame way.…master the basic phonological and grammatical operations in L1 at 5/ 6.…can understand and create novel utterances; and are not limited to repeating what they have heard; the utterances they produce are often systematically different fromthose of the adults around them.There is a cut-off age for L1 acquisition.L1 acquisition is not simply a facet of generalintelligence.3)The natural ability, in terms of innate capacity, is thatpart of language structure is genetically “given”to every human child.3. The role of social experience1) A necessary condition for acquisition: appropriate socialexperience (including L1 input and interaction) is2) Intentional L1 teaching to children is not necessary andmay have little effect.3) Sources of L1 input and interaction vary for cultural andsocial factors.4) Children get adequate L1 input and interaction→sourceshas little effect on the rate and sequence of phonological and grammatical development.The regional and social varieties (sources) of the input→pronunciationⅢ. L1 vs. L2 learning1.L1 and L2 development:Final state NativeMultilingual competencecompetence2.Understanding the statesⅣ. The logical problem of language learning1.Noam Chomsky:1)innate linguistic knowledge must underlie languageacquisition2)Universal Grammar2.The theory of Universal Grammar:Reasons:1)Children’s knowledge of language > what could be learnedfrom the input.2)Constraints and principles cannot be learned.3)Universal patterns of development cannot be explained bylanguage-specific input.Children often say things that adults do not.Children use language in accordance with generaluniversal rules of language though they have notdeveloped the cognitive ability to understand theserules. Not learned from deduction or imitation.Patterns of children’s language development are notdirectly determined by the input they receive.Ⅴ. Frame works for SLA。

一．概论Chapter 1. Introducing SLA1.Second language acquisition (SLA)2.Second language (L2)（也可能是第三四五外语） also commonly called a target language (TL)Refers to: any language that is the aim or goal of learning.3.Basic questions:1). What exactly does the L2 learner come to know2). How does the learner acquire this knowledge3). Why are some learners more successful than othersDifferent answers from different fields4.3 main perspectives:linguistic; psychological; social.Only one (x) Combine (√)Chapter 2. Foundations of SLAⅠ. The world of second languages1.Multi-; bi-; mono- lingualism1)Multilingualism: the ability to use 2 or more languages.(bilingualism: 2 languages; multilingualism: >2)2)Monolingualism: the ability to use only one language.3)Multilingual competence (Vivian Cook, Multicompetence)Refers to: the compound state of a mind with 2 or more grammars.4)Monolingual competence (Vivian Cook, Monocompetence)Refers to: knowledge of only one language.2.People with multicompetence (a unique combination) ≠ 2monolingualsWorld demographic shows:3.Acquisition4.The number of L1 and L2 speakers of different languages can onlybe estimated.1)Linguistic information is often not officially collected.2)Answers to questions seeking linguistic information may notbe reliable.3)A lack of agreement on definition of terms and on criteria foridentification.Ⅱ. The nature of language learning1.L1 acquisition1). L1 acquisition was completed before you came to school andthe development normally takes place without any conscious effort.2). Complex grammatical patterns continue to develop through theschool years.Time Children will< 6 months (infant)Produce all of the vowel sounds and most of the consonant sounds of any language in the world. Learn to discriminate the among the sounds that make a different in the meaning of words (the phonemes)< < 3 years old Master an awareness of basic discourse patterns < 3 years old Master most of the distinctive sounds of L1< 5 or 6 years old Control most of the basic L1 grammatical patterns2. The role of natural ability1) Refers to: Humans are born with an innate capacity to learnlanguage.2) Reasons:Children began to learn L1 at the same age and in much thesame way.…master the basic phonological and grammatical operations in L1 at 5/ 6.…can understand and create novel utterances; and are not limited to repeating what they have heard; the utterances they produce are often systematically different from those of the adults around them.There is a cut-off age for L1 acquisition.L1 acquisition is not simply a facet of general intelligence.3)The natural ability, in terms of innate capacity, is that partof language structure is genetically “given”to every human child.3. The role of social experience1) A necessary condition for acquisition: appropriate socialexperience (including L1 input and interaction) is2) Intentional L1 teaching to children is not necessary and mayhave little effect.3) Sources of L1 input and interaction vary for cultural andsocial factors.4) Children get adequate L1 input and interaction→sources haslittle effect on the rate and sequence of phonological and grammatical development.The regional and social varieties (sources) of the input→pronunciationⅢ. L1 vs. L2 learning1.L1 and L2 development:2.Understanding the statesⅣ. The logical problem of language learning1.Noam Chomsky:1)innate linguistic knowledge must underlie languageacquisition2)Universal Grammar2.The theory of Universal Grammar:Reasons:1)Children’s knowledge of language > what could be learned fromthe input.2)Constraints and principles cannot be learned.3)Universal patterns of development cannot be explained bylanguage-specific input.Children often say things that adults do not.Children use language in accordance with general universalrules of language though they have not developed thecognitive ability to understand these rules. Not learnedfrom deduction or imitation.Patterns of children’s language development are notdirectly determined by the input they receive.Ⅴ. Frame works for SLA≤1950s1960s1970s1980s1990s。

学习与习得的区别：
1.习得的方法主要靠在自然语言环境中的语言交际活动，没有大纲和教材；学习是在教师指导下通过模仿和练习来理解掌握语言规则；
2.习得是一种潜意识的行为，目的性不明确；学习则是主体为了掌握一种新的交际工具所进行的目的性非常明确的活动，除了本身自觉要求之外，还有外部的督导、考试、竞争等外部因素的作用，是一种有意识的行为；
3.习得一般是在使用该目的语的社会环境中进行的；学习主要在课堂环境下进行，可能有目的语环境，也可能没有；
4.习得时注意力主要集中在语言的功能和意义上；学习的主要注意点在语言形式上,有意识的系统的掌握语音词汇语法，经常忽略了语言的意义；
5.习得需要大量的时间，习得效果一般都较好；学习花费时间一般较少，但学习效果通常不佳。

Krashen 把通过这两个方式获得语言的过程看作彼此独立的学习过程。

乔姆斯基在60年代提出的概念：
语言能力：是指人们所具有的语言知识，是一种内化了的包括语音、词汇、语法等的语言规则体系。

Performance（语言表达）：指的是交际双方在语言的理解与生成过程中对其内在语法的运用。

社会语言学家海姆斯在60年代提出了“交际能力”的概念：运用语言（或非语言手段）进行社会交往的能力，包括传递信息、交流思想和表达感情。

交际能力四特征：语法性——指语法上是否正确；可接受性——在交际中是否被接受；得体性——在一定的语境中是否恰当，是否合乎社会文化习惯；现实性——是否是现实中常用。

一、Key issues in second language acquisition(二语习得的关键问题)调查SLA的框架：（1）situational factors（形势）（2）Input（输入）（3）Learner differences（学习者差异）（4）Learner processes（学习过程）（5）Linguistics output（语言输出）1.situational factors（形势）Linguistic environment：situational factors & Input根据语言环境的不同，两种类型的习得：（1）naturalistic SLA（自然二语习得）（2）Classroom SLA（课堂二语习得）2.linguistic input（语言输入）中心问题是：语言输入在多大的程度上决定了SLA的过程，是仅仅激发了学习过程，还是机构化SLA？本地话语者是其话语水平适应L2学习者，另一个问题是：这些话语调整在促进学习中起到什么作用。

3.learner differences（学习者差异）潜在影响因素：年龄，个人能力水平（aptitude）和智力（intelligence），动机（motivation）和需求（needs），个性（personality）和认知方式（cognitive style）另一种差异：学习者的L1，要保证对比分析假说（contrastive analysis hypothesis）服从实验测试(empirical test)4.Learner processes（学习过程）学习过程包含认知学习过程（cognitive Learner processes）和语言学习过程（linguistic Learner processes）认知学习过程分为三个范畴：（1）学习战略（learning strategies）：内化新的L2知识（2）产生战略（production strategies）：学习者利用其现存的L2知识的方式（3）交流战略（communication strategies):用于当学习者缺乏L2资源导致交流受阻时用的战略。

第一章：语言习得和语言教学第一课：第一语言和第二语言第一语言是个人身份的标志，总体水平也高于第二语言。

第二语言可以在不同环境中获得。

外语环境和二语环境，它们的区分主要取决于课堂之外的目的与是否常用。

第一、而与环境和外语环境的对立，取决与目的与在社区中是否常用。

第二、外语环境和二语环境的区分，有时并不像认为的那么简单。

第三、随着科学技术的进步，特别是因特网的普及，二语环境和外语环境的区别可能变得不那么重要。

第二课：语言习得语言习得即指语言习得这一现象，也指对这现象的研究。

第一语言习得研究的是儿童学习母语问题，也称“母语习得”。

第二语言习得包括对母语之外的所有语言的习得研究，研究对象一般是成年人。

语言习得研究中，有两个基本问题：逻辑问题和发展问题。

逻辑问题研究的课题是：语言习得是如何成为可能的？发展问题指的是：语言习得遵循一定的发展顺序和步骤。

第三课：应用语言学科德是应用语言学的早期代表人物之一。

语言教学和第二语言习得仍然是应用语言学的两个重要领域，但是应用语言学的研究范学科。

与应用语言学相对的，是理论语言学。

理论语言学的目的是对语言系统本身进行理论描述，找出其规律。

第四课：语言教学第一语言教学（母语教学）语言教学母语环境中的第二语言教学（或二语教学）第二语言教学对外环境的第二语言教学（外语教学）上图说明第二语言教学在两个层面上出现即广义：第二语言教学是从基本性质角度进行的分类，与第一语言教学相对。

狭义：第二语言教学是从学习环境角度进行的分类，和外语教学相对。

研究重点：学习机制、学习者语言、语言环境和语言习得、学习者个体差异。

第二语言教学研究的重点是教师和教学过程，第二语言习得研究的重点是学习和学习过程，包括中介语。

第五课：教学理念反应的是对语言学习和语言教学的基本认识。

包括：学习什么、怎样学习、如何教授。

理念是从一个人所受的全部语言教育当中，从这个人的语言学习有关的全部经历当中感悟出来的。

比较系统，有比较深厚的理论基础。

Summary about SLAThere is another version of the definition provided by Wikipedia, compared with the definition of SLA in our textbook.Second-language acquisition, second-language learning, or L2 acquisition,is the process by which people learn a second language. Second-languageacquisition(often abbreviated to SLA) also refers to the scientific disciplinedevoted to studying that process. Second-language refers to any languagelearned in addition to a person’s first language; although the concept isnamed second-language acquisition, it can also incorporate the learning thelearning of third, fourth, or subsequent languages. Second-languageacquisition refers to what learners do; it dose not refer to practices inlanguage teaching, although teaching can affect acquisition.(Wikipedia)My understanding is that, for learners, SLA aims to learn a kind of language; however, for researchers, SLA refers to a scientific discipline about the learners learning process. SLA as a scientific discipline, differentiates itself from physics,chemistry or biology those traditional disciplines.Now I would like to explain some important terms in Chapter One in my own words.Puzzle: something that is difficult to understand or explainSLA: is abbreviation of Second Language Acquisition, SLA research has been primarily concerned with studying the second language which is generally used to refer to any language other than the first foreign language. The main goal of SLA is to characterize learner‟s underlying knowledge of second language.L1/L2L1 refers to learner‟s mother tongue. L1 acquisition shows that children didn‟t seem to learn their mother tongue as a set of “habits”but rather seem to construct mental“rule”, which often bore no resemblance to those manifest in their parent‟s speech.L2: “2”is generally refer to any language other than the first language. In SLA literature, L2 may also be called “target language,” the language one is trying to learn or acquire.UG: one of the claims of L2 theorists working within a generative framework is that any theory of L2 acquisition that is not based on an adequate theory of language will prove inadequate. The argument is that The Theory of Universal Grammar, as propose by Chomsky, constitutes the best theory of grammar currently available, because it achieves both descriptive and explanatory adequacy. Chomsky defines UG as “the system of principle,conditions,and rules that are elements or properties of all human languages,”it compromises a set of linguistic universals. Subsequently, Chomsky characterizes the universals as a consisting of principles and parameters.The following diagram is my understanding of the main part of Chapter OneDescriptionIssues for Exploration social conditionsExternal FactorsExplanation input learners receivek nowledge of L1Internal Factors cognitive mechanismsthe universal grammarIt is necessary to explain description and explanation. The task of descrip tion requires that we carefully collect samples of learner language—the language ;earners produce when they use L2 in speech or in writing—record them and analyze them. When we try to explain the phenomena we have observed in the second language learner, we look either outside the learner or inside; that is, we identify the external and internal factors that cause SLA to take place the way it dose.I am interested in Task1.5 which refers that many factors influence the learning of a foreign language, internal as well as external, which ones are important? What is the most important factor to you?I am very delighted to share my Korean acquisition since I have learned SLA under the guide of your distinguished Pro.Zhou. From the end of last century, the popular culture from the South Korea spread abroad rapidly through Asian. We call it …Korean Trend”, which had double effect on college culture construction. It is worth mentioning that Korean sitcoms are becoming increasingly popular worldwide due to their distinct cultural connotations and fine workmanship. I am a soap fan. However, as we all know, Korean TV series only update two episodes every week, which means once the actors finished their shooting, their pictures were send to TV station.(SBS or KBS) In order to catch the latest plot, I often log on their official TV website. Then there comes a question, how should I make myself understand the episode presented with Korean without Chinese subtitle? Then I enrolled a on-line Korean course to acquire my third foreign language, since I have acquired English, French respectively. The on-line course provide some so called “shortcut”. Though there are twists and turns, I have overcome many difficulties. The most persuasive reason for my so-called “persistent” K orean acquisition is my inner needs, which can be classified into external factors. As the textbook goes that “one external factor is the social conditions in which learners acquire an L2. Researchers hold that success or failure to pick up an L2 is related to how strongly a learner sees himself or herself being treated by the L1 group.” I am desperately want to watch the latest episode at the price of watch that untranslated one. I attribute my successful Korean acquisition to my cognitive mechanisms or aptitude, which means, my ability for language learning . This reason maybe classified into the second reason of internal factors. As the textbook mentionedthat “scholars in the West, go further to argue that language aptitude is critically important and that those with high aptitude are more likely to succeed in L2 acquisition than those without.” I have a good command of English, both spoken and written; I can also read some French words and accomplish some basic daily dialogue.I am deeply convinced that I can learn Korean well. In a word, my answer for Task1.5 is that both internal and external factors can influence one‟s SLA, the only differentiation lies in the degree since everyone‟s SLA performance varies from one to another. There is a remark in th e textbook “input is conductive to acquisition when it contains new features but still understandable to the learner and that such comprehensible input can be best generated through the learner‟s interaction with native speakers.” Though this theory runs i nto difficulty when critics raise counterexamples: there are learners, both naturalistic and instructed learners, who engage in a lot of interaction but achieve little in acquisition.。

中介语：L2学习者内化了心理语法，一个自然的语言系统可以用语言规则来描述。

目前的生成语言学关注中介语的表征，这一焦点可以视为原始的中介语假说的衍生。

中介语能力的本质，中介语语法多大程度上类似于其他语法以及UG的作用，都有一些明确的论述。

一直在争论的问题：UG是否对L2有调节作用，程度多大。

这个问题源于1.语言的普遍性的个别观点和2.关于语言能力本质的个别假说。

生成语法的传统观点，语法是心理表征，普遍规限制这些表征。

语言的普遍性的存在源于人类思想的属性，语法的存在源于他们的普遍规则。

UG在L2习得中的作用，前十年，主要关注“Access”：探索UG在非一语习得中是否仍然有效，这一问题关系到一些基本的问题：什么是自然的语言语法？语言能力的本质是什么，又是如何习得？UG的解释是一个局部的答案，至少在一语语法习得中是这样。

没有具体的天生的语言规则来限制语法，不可能习得语言？在L2习得研究中，问题是：中介语表征是否受UG的限制。

2. UG和语言习得的逻辑问题逻辑问题的由来：柏拉图本人认为,人类就是凭借天赋神授的理性,才得以获得广博无限的知识。

“柏拉图问题”同样表现在儿童语言能力的获得上。

对这一问题研究数十年的乔姆斯基,到最近还发出这样的惊叹: “儿童知道的远比经验提供的多……在语言生长的高峰时间,虽然儿童的语言接触非常有限,语言环境又模棱两可,但儿童大约每小时就可以学会一个词。

儿童理解词汇方式之精巧奇妙,非任何词典能及……语言习得更像是一般器官的生长;它是发生在儿童身上的事,并非儿童所做的事。

”(Chomsky , 2000 :6 - 7)语言学家们把这一表现在儿童语言知识获得过程中的“柏拉图问题”称之为语言习得中的“逻辑问题”。

简单地说, 逻辑问题基于所谓的“刺激贫乏说”,旨在解决儿童语言有限、残缺、不足的语料输入及最终能在短短几年里迅速而一致地获得丰富的语言系统这一貌似不合逻辑的问题。

无论是经验主义哲学的感觉经验,还是行为主义的刺激反应、重复模仿的“逻辑”都无法给予圆满的解释。