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LinguisticsThree words you must know before learning:Language ['læŋgwidʒ] 语言Linguistics [liŋ'gwistiks] 语言学Linguist ['liŋgwist] 语言学家What is the relation between linguistics and the courses we have learned in the previous two years?listening, speaking, reading , writing they are language skills ;linguistics, including literature…language knowledge 知其然,知其所以然Course objectives: 1.mastery of basic linguistic terms concepts and theories.2.T o arouse your interest in language and language phenomenon.3.Let you know the branches of linguistics. 4.preparation for further study and research about language.Chapter One An Introduction to language and Linguistics1. The Definition of Language语言的定义：(1)语言是一种社会现象……语言区别于其他社会现象的专门的特点是它是作为人们交际的工具、作为人们交流思想的工具来为社会服务的; (2) 它是作为人们的思维工具来为社会服务的。
……就语言自身而言,它是由语音和语义结合而成、由词汇和语法所构成的符号系统。
术语解释：Language: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific and systematic study of language.Design features（甑别性特征）: Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communicationArbitrariness(任意性): It means that there is no logical connection between meanings and soundsProductivity /creativity (创造性）: Language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the con-struction and interpretation of new signals by its users.Recursiveness(递归性）: according to some linguistic theories , the capacity that enables the grammar of a language to produce an infinite number of sentences.Cultural transmission（文化传递性）：It refers to the fact that the details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by each speaker. Language is not transmitted biologically from generation to generation.Interchangeability(可交替性）：means that any human being can be both a producer and receiver of messages.Displacement（移位性）: Displacement means that human language enable their users to symbolize objects,events and concepts which are not present(in time and space) at the moment of communication.Duality（二元性）: The duality nature of language means that language is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds and the other of meanings.Informative(信息功能）: The use of language to record facts to state what things are like, and to exchange information.Interpersonal Function(人际功能）: It is the most important sociological use of language, by which people establish and maintain their status in a society.Performative(行为功能）:Language can be used to do things, to change the social status or the immediate state of affairs of people.Emotive Function(情感功能）：Language can be used to express the emotional state of the speaker.Phatic Communion(交流功能）:This function refers to expressions that help define and maintain interpersonal relations.Ritual exchange: exchange that have little meaning but help to maintain our relationships with other people.Recreational Function(娱乐功能）: the use of language to have fun.Metalingual Function(元语言功能）：language can be used to explain or describe itself or other languages.研究语言学坚持的原则：Exhaustiveness穷尽性Consistency一致性Economy 经济性Objectivity客观性Phonetics（语言学）: The study of sounds which are used in linguistic communication is called phonetics. / the characteristics of speech sounds and provide methods for their description, classification, transcriptionPhonology(音韵学): The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication.Morphology（形态学）: The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words is called morphology.Syntax（句法）: The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax. / the rule governing the combination of words into sentencesSemantics（语义学）: It studies how meaning is encoded in a language. / The study of meaning in language is called semantics.Pragmatics(语用学): The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics. Macrolinguistics(宏观语言学）: the interdisciplinary study of language.Psycholinguistics（心理语言学）: The study of language with reference to the workings of mind is called psycholinguistics.Sociolinguistics（社会语言学）: The study of language with reference to society is called sociolinguistics.Anthropological Linguistics(人类语言学）: It mainly concerned with the change of language, the different between language in the past and in the present, and its evolution.Computational Linguistics(计算机语言学）: an interdisciplinary branch of study in which mathematical techniques and concepts are applied often with the aid of a computer.Applied linguistics（应用语言学）: Finding in linguistic studies can often be applied to the solution of practical problems such as the recovery of speech ability.Neurolinguistics(神经语言学）：It studies the neurological basis of language development and use in human beings.Descriptive(描述的）:If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyse the language people actually use.Prescriptive(规定的）：It aims to lay down rules for "correct and standard" behavior in using language.Competence（能力）: Chomsky defines competence as the ideal speaker's knowledge of the underlying system of rules in a language,Performance(表现）: refers to the actual use of the language by a speaker in a real communicational context.Synchronic(共时性）：study of language takes a fixed instant as its point of observation. It refers to the description of a language at some point of time in history.Diachronic(历时性）：study examines language through the course of time. It studies the development or history of language.In other words, it refers to the description of a language as it changes through time.langue（语言）: refers to the speaker's understanding and knowledge of the language that he speaks.It's a social phenomenon,an abstraction shared by all the members within a speech community.Parole（言语）: Parole refers to the actual speaking of language by an individual speaker. It's an individual linguistic phenomenon .Differences: Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language use rs all have to follow; Parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules. Langue is relatively stable, while Parole varies fro m person to person, from situation to situation. Langue is abstract; Parole is concrete.第二章Articulatory phonetics（发音语音学）: is the study of the production of speech sounds.Acoustic phonetics（听觉发音学）: is the study of the physical properties of speech sounds.Auditory/Perceptual phonetics（感知语音学）: is concerned with the perception of …Speech Organs（发音器官）: Organs in human body whose secondary use is in the production of speech sounds.International phonetic alphabet（国际音标）: It is a standardized and internation ally accepted system of phonetic transcription.Consonants(辅音):The sounds in the production of which there is an obstruction of the airstream at some point of the vocal tract.Vowels(元音）:sounds in the production of which no two articulators come very close together and no airstream is obstructed at any point of vocal tractVowel glides/ Diphthongs(双元音）: It's produced by moving from one vowel position to another through intervening positions.It's has an audible change of quality.Coarticulation(协同发音）：when such simultaneous or overlapping articulations are involved, we call the process coarticulation.Complementary distribution(互补分布）：when two sounds never occur in the same environment, they are said to be in complementary distribution.Free variation(自由变体）;when the substitution of one sound for the other does not produce a new word.Phoneme(音素）: The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme; it is a unit of distinctive value. But it is an abstract unit. To be exact, a phoneme is not a sound; it is a collection of distinctive phonetic features. / minimal linguistic unit of sound that can distinguish.Allophone（音位变体）: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.Phonetic similarity(语音相似性）：means that the allophones of a phoneme must bear some phonetic resemblance.Intonation（声调）: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation.phone （音子）: Phones can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a language. A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. It does not necessarily distinguish meaning.phonemic contrast（音位对立）: Phonemic contrast refers to the relation between two phonemes. If two phonemes can occur in the same environment and distinguish meaning, they are in phonemic contrast.Tone（语气）: Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.minimal pair（最小音差）: When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair.。
Linguistics1.The scope of linguistics: (a branch of linguistics that….)phonetics（语音学）: the study of linguistic speech sounds, how they are produced, how they are perceived, and their physical properties.(study of the phonic medium of language)phonology:（音位学）the study of how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistics communication.morphology:（形态学）the study of the word structure and word formation. syntax:（句法学）is the branch of linguistics that studies the rules that govern the formation of sentences.semantics: (语义学) the study of linguistic meaning.pragmatics:（语用学）a branch of linguistics that studies the context of language use to effect successful communication.Some distinctions in linguistics:1)Prescriptive & descriptivePrescriptive: aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use Descriptive: aims to lay down rules for “correct & standard” behavior in using language.(doctor)2)Synchronic & diachronic 共时的&历时的Synchronic: the description of a language at some point of time in history.Diachronic: the description of a language as it changes through time.3)Langue & parole 语言&言语Langue: refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members ofa speech community.Parole: refers to the realization of language in actual use.4)Competence & performance 语言能力&语言运用Competence: the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his languagePerformance: the actual realization of this knowledge in linguisticcommunication.Design features of language:1)arbitrariness: （任意性）means there is no logical connection betweenmeanings and sounds.2)Productivity: it makes possible the construction and interpretation of newsignals by its users.3)Duality:（双重性）duality of structure or double articulation of languageenables users to talk about anything within their knowledge.4)Displacement: language can be used to refer to contexts removed from theimmediate situations of the speaker. 不受时空限制5)Cultural transmission 文化传播（eg:狼孩）2.Functions of language:1)Descriptive function: it is the function to convey factual information,which can be asserted or denied, and in some cases even verified.2)Expressive function: supplies information about the user’s feelings,preferences, prejudices and values.3)Social function: serves to establish and maintain social relations betweenpeople.Phone:（音素）is a phonetic unit or segment.Phoneme:（音位）is a phonological unit. It is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit.3.Morphemes词素—the minimal units of meaningThe smallest unit of language that carries information about meaning or function Free morpheme: a morpheme which can be a word by itself.Bound morpheme: a morpheme must be attached to another one.Derivational morphemes：(衍生词素) the morphemes which change the category or grammatical class of words. They are conjoined to other morphemes /words, new words are derived or formed. (-en,-ate,-ic,-ous,-ly,-tion,-sive,-er) 标出Inflectional morphemes: (曲折词素) they are attached to words or morphemes, but they never change their syntactic category.(-s,-er,-est,-ed,-ing) ○标出4.Category: refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phase or a verb. Non-traditional categories: determiner(Det)限定词,degree(Deg),qualifier(Qua) Phrase elements : specifiers, complements(XP Rule), modifiers.Deep structure: formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head’s subcategorization properties. 没变形陈述句Surface structure5. Lexical meaning:Sense: is concerned with the inherent meaning of a linguistic form, the collection of all its features; it is abstract and de-contextualized.Eg: dog-general meaning of dog, featuresReference: means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world. Eg；One particular/certain dog existent in the situation, known to each other6.Context: it is generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer. (John Firth)Speech act theory: (John Austin)Locutionary act:（言内行为）is the act of uttering words, phrases and clauses. Illocutionary act: (言外之意) is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention; it is the act of performed in saying something.Perlocutionary act:（言后行为）is the act of performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance.Cooperative principle-CP (Paul Grice)The maxim of quantity:Say no less than the conversation requires.Say no more than the conversation requires.The maxim of quality:Don't say what you believe to be false.Don't say things for which you lack evidence.The maxim of manner:Don't be obscure. Don't be ambiguous.Be brief. Be orderly.The maxim of relevance: Be relevant.7. Language changeAddition of new words:1)Coinage:创新词Spyware digital camera cyber citizen mouse potato2)Clipped words: 缩略词Lab-laboratory gym-gymnasium fridge-refrigerator burger-hamburger 3)Blending: 紧缩法Smog-smoke+fog brunch-breakfast+lunch camcorder-camera+recorder 4)Acronyms: 首字母缩略词CEO-chief executive officer IT-information technologyEU VIP B2B CPI5)Back-formation: 逆构词法To edit/beg/baby-sit/donate/orient/hawk/aviate/appreciate6)Function shiftn.-v. To knee/bug/tape v.-n. a hold/reject/retreatadj.-v. to cool/narrow/dim/slow7)BorrowingBonus tragedy skirt education cycle prince guitar balcony Balloon opera pump tea tofu kowtow sampan zeroKungfu mahjong spaghetti bizarre garage8)Derivation 派生词Fixable refusal exciting impressive dislike restate anti-pollution unfair realize happiness9)Compounds 复合词Bittersweet rainbow spoonfeed sleepwalk inborn off-license Undertake without landlady handover whitewash8.Register 语域Field of discourse话语范围: refers to what is going on: on the area of operation of the language activity.Tenor of discourse话语基调: refers to the role of relationship in the situation in question: who the participants in the communication groups are and what relationship they stand to each other.Mode of discourse话语方式: refers to the means of communication. It is concerned with “how” communication is carried out.9.Sapir-whorf hypothesis (SWH) 萨丕尔·沃尔夫假说Language filters people’s perception ang the way they categorize their experiences.10. Language AcquisitionTheories of child language acquisition:1)The behavioristImitation and practice are preliminary, and discrimination and generalization are crucial to language development.(habit-forming)But it fails to explain how children acquire more complex grammaticalstructures of the language.2)The innatistLanguage Acquisition device(LAD)ChomskyIt proposed that human beings are born with an innate ability.It said that the “the black box” contain principles that are universal to all human language.Universal Grammar (UG)3)The interactionistIt holds that language develops as a result of the complex interplay between the human characteristics of the child and the environment in which he grows.motherese child directed speech (CDS) caretaker talkCritical Period Hypothesis (CPH) Eric LennebergLAD works successfully only when it is stimulated at the right time—aspecific and limited time period for language acquisition.Two versions:Strong one suggests that children must acquire their first language by puberty or they will never be able to learn from subsequent exposure.The weak holds that language learning will be more difficult and incomplete after puberty.11. Second Language AcquisitionPositive transfer正迁移facilitateNegative transfer 负迁移interfere or hinderInterlanguage 中介语It was established as learners’ independent system of the second language, which is of neither the native language nor the second language, but a continuum or approximation from one extreme of his native language to the other of the second language.Fossilization 石化现象It is a process occurring from time to time in which incorrect linguistic features become a permanent part of the way a person speaks or writes a language.Acquisition 习得It is a subconscious process without minute learning of grammatical rules. Learning学习It refers to conscious efforts to learn the second language knowledge by learning the rules and talking about the rules.。
第一节语言的本质一、语言的普遍特征（Design Features）1.任意性 Arbitratriness：shu 和Tree都能表示“树”这一概念；同样的声音，各国不同的表达方式2.双层结构Duality：语言由声音结构和意义结构组成（the structure ofsounds and meaning）3.多产性productive: 语言可以理解并创造无限数量的新句子，是由双层结构造成的结果（Understand and create unlimited number withsentences）4.移位性 Displacemennt：可以表达许多不在场的东西，如过去的经历、将来可能发生的事情，或者表达根本不存在的东西等5.文化传播性 Cultural Transmission：语言需要后天在特定文化环境中掌握二、语言的功能（Functions of Language）1.传达信息功能 Informative：最主要功能The main function2.人际功能 Interpersonal：人类在社会中建立并维持各自地位的功能establish and maintain their identity3.行事功能 performative：现实应用——判刑、咒语、为船命名等Judge，naming，and curses4.表情功能 Emotive Function：表达强烈情感的语言，如感叹词/句exclamatory expressions5.寒暄功能 Phatic Communion：应酬话phatic language，比如“吃了没？”“天儿真好啊！”等等6.元语言功能 Metalingual Function：用语言来谈论、改变语言本身，如book可以指现实中的书也可以用“book这个词来表达作为语言单位的“书”三、语言学的分支1. 核心语言学 Core linguistic1)语音学 Phonetics：关注语音的产生、传播和接受过程，着重考察人类语言中的单音。
Chapter 1 Introduction1.1 What is linguistics?1.1.1 Definition: Linguistics is the scientific study of language.language: language in general, not any particular language, e.g. English,Chinese, Arabic, and Latin.1.1.2The Scope of linguisticsA）general linguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics.basic concepts: language; sentence; wordstheories:descriptions:models:methods applicable in any linguistic study:B) main branches of linguisticsLanguage study focuses on Meaning and Form.i) Form:soundwritten1) PhoneticsThe study of sounds used in linguistic communication.2) PhonologyThe study of the way in which the sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication.3) MorphologyThe study of the way in which the symbols are arranged and combined to form words .4) SyntaxThe study of rules which govern the combination of words to form grammatically permissible sentences in languages.5) Semantics: meaning in languageThe study of meaning is known as semantics.6) Pragmatics: meaning in contextWhen the study of meaning is conducted, not in isolation, but in the context of language use, it becomes another branch of linguistic study called pragmatics.C) MacrolinguisticsLinguistics is not the only field concerned with language. Other disciplines such as psychology, sociology, anthropology, artificial intelligence, medicine and education etc. are also preoccupied with language.1) SociolinguisticsThe study of the social aspects of language and its relation with society forms the core of the branch called sociolinguistics.2) PsycholinguisticsIt relates the study of language to psychology.e.g. to study language development in children, such as the theories of languageacquisition;3) Applied linguisticsa) the study of second and foreign language learning and teaching.b) the study of language and linguistics in relation to practical problems. It usesinformation from sociology, psychology, anthropology and information theory as well as linguistics in order to develop its own theoretical models of language and language use, and then uses this information and theory in practical areas.1.1.3 Linguistics as a ScienceThree adequaciesHow can we appraise the extent of success in scientific study? There are three levels to consider, namely observation, description, and explanation. What a linguist seeks for can be summarized as three adequacies correspondingly.a) observational adequacyA successful research is expected to be adequate in observation at first.It is characterized by correctly specifying what is observed to be phonologically, morphologically, syntactically, semantically, or pragmatically well-formed or ill-formed.b) descriptive adequacyProper description is based on adequate observation, and a piece of scientific work is descriptively adequate if it provides a principled account of the native speaker‟s intuiti ons about the structure of the linguistic phenomenon observed.c) explanatory adequacyExplanatory adequacy is the ultimate goal of any scientific exploration.In linguistics, a theory attains explanatory adequacy just in case it provides a descriptively adequate grammar for every natural language, and does so in terms of a maximally constrained set of universal principles which represent psychologically plausible natural principles of mental computation.1.2 What is language?1.2.1 Design featuresDesign features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.The framework of the design features was proposed by the American linguist Charles Hockett.1) ArbitrarinessArbitrariness means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.Why?a) different languages may have different sounds to represent the same object thatexists in society.b) the same sound may express different meaningsexception: onomatopoeia: based on the natural voices.2)DualityDEFINITION: Language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures, or two levels. At the lower or the basic level there is a structure of sounds, which are meaningless by themselves. But the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning, which are found at the higher level of the system.3) ProductivityDEFINITION: Language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.comparing with animal communication systemse.g. an experiment on bee dance:Bee communication regarding location has a fixed set signals, all of which relate to horizontal distance. The bee cannot manipulate its communicating system to create a “new” message indicating vertical distance.4) DisplacementDEFINITION：Language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places.Animals are under “immediate stimulus control”.Human language is, unlike animal communication systems, stimulus free.5) Cultural transmissionLanguage cultural transmission means that language is culturally transmitted. It is passed on from one generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather than by instinct.1.2.2 Definitions of languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.1.2.2.1Language is a systemelements of language are combined according to rules.a) rules of sound systemb) rules of written system1.2.2.2 Language is arbitrary and symbolic1.2.2.3 Language is vocala) the primary medium for all languages is sound.b) writing systems came into being much later than the spoken forms.c) some language only have sound systems and no writing systems1.2.2.4 Language is human-specific1.2.2.5 communication vs information1.2.3 Knowledge of language: endowed or conventional?TIME-HONORED PROBLEMS•WHAT IS KNOWLEDGE OF LANGUAGE?•WHERE DOES IT COME FROM?Aristotle (384-322 B.C.):Language is arrived at by convention and agreement of the speakers of a given language.BEHA VIORISMEMPIRICISMOur brain was blank when we were born. Language is a social, empirical entity.B.F. Skinner: the American psychologist and a famous Harvard behaviouristThe famous quotation “language is behaviour ”Verbal behaviour is the same as any other fundamental respect of non-verbal behaviour.The occurrence of behaviours is dependent upon three crucial elements:a stimulus, which serves to elicit behaviour;a response triggered by a stimulus;reinforcement, which serves to mark the response as being appropriate (or inappropriate) and encourages the repetition (or suppression) of the response in the future.Verbal behaviour:the stimulus as what is taught (language input),the response as the learner‟s reaction to the stimulus,the reinforcement as the approval or praise (or discouragement) of the teacher or fellow students.Argument for“poverty of the stimulus”●a) The child‟s linguistic experience (stimulus) is not sufficient to justify theadult grammar.●b) As far as a child is concerned, an utterance containing a mistake is justanother piece of linguistic experience to be treated on a par with error-free utterance. But they still know the correct grammar.●c) A child and a chimpanzee both live in the same language environment, onlythe child can learn the language.Plato (427?-347 B.C.)There is a universally correct and acceptable logic of language for man to follow in expressing his ideas.NATIVISMMENTALISMThere is a biological, physiological entity inside our brain which decides that we speak.Language faculty/(LAD=Language Acquisition Device): Human beings do have an inborn knowledge of language which must be universally correct and acceptable, the location of such innate knowledge just in our genes.Experience of L—LF—Grammar of LChomsky’s epistemology of the knowledge of language●The initial state of human language faculty is called UG(Universal Grammar).●UG(universal grammar): Every speaker knows a set of principles which applyto all languages and also a set of (binary) parameters that can vary from one language to another.principles:all human languages have the subject, verb, and object.reflexible pronoun principle: the reflexible pronoun should take the noun in the same clause as antecedent.parameters:binary parameter:the position of the wh-element in the sentence●Due to the effect of later experience, our brain/mind develops from the initialstate into the steady state, which corresponds to the competence of speaking a human language.experienceUG----------------PG (Particular Grammar)PG=a.UG1.3 Some important distinctions in linguistics1.3.1Prescriptive vs. descriptivePrescriptive and descriptive represent two different types of linguistic study. Descriptive study:If a linguistic study aims to describes and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive.Prescriptive study:If a linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “co rrect and standard” behavior in using language, it is said to be prescriptive.1.3.2 Synchronic vs. diachronic--by Ferdinand de Saussure.synchronic study: the description of a language at some point of time in history. diachronic study: the description of a language as it changes through time. A diachronic study of language is a historical study; it studies the historical development of language over a period of time.1.3.3 Speech and writingSpeech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication.The spoken language as the natural or the primary medium of human language.1) speech is prior to writing: (from the point of view of linguistic evolution)2)Speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mothertongue, and writing is learned and taught later when he goes to school.3) Spoken language reveals many true features of human speech while writtenlanguage is only the “revised” record of speech.4) In everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in termsof the amount of information conveyed.1.3.4 Langue and paroleThe distinction between langue and parole was made by the Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure.1) definitionA) langue:a) the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community(a social code);b) the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to abide by;c) abstract, it is not the language people actually use.d) relatively stable, it does not change frequently.B) parole:a) the realization of langue in actual use.b) the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules.c) concrete, it refers to the naturally occurring language events.d) varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.2) The significances of the distinction:a) it is convenient in that it delimits an area of enquiry which is manageable: thatarea is langueb) the concept of langue can be said to capture the central and determining aspectof language itself.3) The relation between the langue and parolea) Langue comes from parole.b) Parole is guided by langue.1.3.5 competence and performanceProposed by the American linguist Noam Chomsky.1) definitionCompetence: the ideal user‟s knowledge of the rules of his language. Performance: the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.2) The relation between the competence and performancea) competence is essential and primary; performance is the residual category of secondary phenomena, incidental, and peripheral.b) competence and performance are quite different phenomena and you cannotdirectly infer one from the other.3) The difference between the two pairs of concepts: langue vs parole and competence vs performancei)similarities:a) It represents a similar dichotomy of knowledge and behaviour.b) It represents a similar demarcation of the scope of linguistic enquiry.c) They are both be glossed in terms of abstract knowledgeii) differences:a) the nature of knowledge is conceived of in very different ways.--Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions.--Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.b) the different study interest--Langue, the focus of attention will be in what makes each language different.--Competence, the focus of attention will be in what makes languages alike.1.3.6 Traditional grammar and modern linguistics1) definition:Modern linguistics: The beginning of modern linguistics was marked by the publication of F. de Saussure‟s book Course in General Linguistics in the early 20th century.Traditional grammar: The general approach traditionally formed to the study of language over the ye ars, before the book “Course in General Linguistics” was published.2) differences between traditional grammar and modern linguistics:a) modern linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.b)modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the writing.Traditional grammarians, on the other hand, tended to emphasize, the importance of the written word.c) traditional grammar forces languages into a Latin-based framework, but modernlinguistics does notReading recommendationBeginner-friendly:S. C. Poole: An Introduction to Linguistics. Macmillan Publishers Ltd, 1999; 外语教学与研究出版社2000 （刘润清导读）。
语言学复习重点 High quality manuscripts are welcome to downloadC h a p t e r1绪论1. What is linguistics 什么是语言学Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.It studies not any particular language, but languages in general.2. The scope of linguistics 语言学的研究范畴The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. (普通语言学)The study of sounds, which are used in linguistic communication, is called phonetics. （语音学）The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology. （音系学）The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words are called morphology.（形态学）The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax. （句法学）The study of meaning in language is called semantics. （语义学）The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics. （语用学）The study of language with reference to society is called socio-linguistics. （社会语言学）The study of language with reference to the working of mind is called psycho-linguistics. （心理语言学）The study of applications (as the recovery of speech ability) is generally known as applied linguistics. （应用语言学） But in a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second language.Other related branches include anthropological linguistics, （人类语言学） neurological linguistics, （神经语言学） mathematical linguistics, （数字语言学）and computational linguistics. （计算机语言学）3. Some important distinctions in linguistics语言学研究中的几对基本概念Prescriptive and descriptive 规定与描写If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive, if it aims to lay downrules to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar. Traditional grammar is prescriptive while modern linguistics is descriptive. The task of linguists is supposed to describe the language people actually use, whether it is “correct” or not.Synchronic and diachronic 共时和历时The description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is adiachronic study. In modern linguistics, synchronic study is more important.Speech and writing 口头语与书面语Speech and writing are the two major media of communication. Modern linguistics regards the spoken form of language as primary, but not the written form. Reasons are: 1. Speech precedes writing; 2. There arestill many languages that have only the spoken form; 3. In terms of function, the spoken language is used for a wider range of purposes than the written, and carries a larger load of communication than the written.Langue and parole 语言和言语The Swiss linguist F. de Saussure made the distinction between langue and parole early 20th century.Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. Saussure made the distinction in order to single out one aspect of language for serious study. He believes whatlinguists should do is to abstract langue from parole, to discover the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subjects of study of linguistics.Competence and performance 语言能力和语言运用Proposed by American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s.He defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. He believes the task of the linguists is to discover and specify the language rules.is language 语言的定义Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Sapir uses “ideas” “emotions” and “desires” in his definition. Hall, like Sapir, treats language as a purely human institution. Chomsky’s definition is quite different, it focus on the purely structural properties of languages and to suggest that these properties can be investigated from a mathematically precise point of view.5. Design features 语言的甄别性特征Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. American linguist Charles Hockett specified twelve design features, five of which will be discussed here.Arbitrariness 语言的随意性Arbitrariness means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. It is not entirely arbitrary.Example: different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages.Productivity 语言的创造性Language is productive in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. This is why they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences, including sentences they have never heard before.Duality 语言的二重性The duality nature of language means that language is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds and the other of meaning.Displacement 语言的移位性Displacement means that language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places.Cultural transmission 语言的文化传递性While human capacity for language has a genetic basis, ., we were born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned anew. This indicates that language is culturally transmitted. It is passed down from one generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather than by instinct.Chapter 2 Phonology 音系学1. The phonic medium of language 语言的声音媒介Speech and writing are the two media used by natural languages as vehicles for communication. Of the two media of language, speech ismore basic than writing. Speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented” by its users to record speech when the need arises.For linguists, the study of sounds is of greater importance than that of writing.The limited ranges of sounds which are meaningful in human communication and are of interest to linguistic studies are the phonic medium of language (语言的声音媒介) . The individual sounds within this range are the speech sounds （语音）.2．What is phonetics什么是语音学Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language；It is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages.语音学研究的对象是语言的声音媒介，即人类语言中使用的全部语音。
Chapter one Introduction一、定义1.语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.3.语言languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。
4.识别特征Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。
Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性Duality双重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递⑴arbitrarinessThere is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.P.S the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions⑵ProductivityAnimals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send.⑶DualityLanguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels.⑷DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.⑸Cultural transmissionHuman capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species.5.语言能力CompetenceCompetence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.6.语言运用performancePerformance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的体现。
第一章Invitation to Linguistics1.Definition of language：Language is a system of vocal (and written) symbols with meaning attached that is used forhuman communication of thoughts and feelings.2.Design features of language(语言的普遍特征)：①.Arbitrariness 任意性：The forms of linguistic signs generally bear no natural relationship to the meanings they carry②.Duality 二重性：Human language has two levels of structures: the primary meaningful level of morphemes, words, phrases, sentences and the secondary meaningless level of sounds. The units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level, and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.③.Creativity 创造性：Language is resourceful because of its duality and recursiveness.④.Displacement移位性：Human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present in time and space at the moment of communication.3.Functions of language1)Informative function2)Interpersonal function人际功能3)Performative (行为) function4)Emotive function5)Phatic (寒暄) function6)Recreational function7)Metalingual function（元语言功能）指用语言去说明或解释语言的功能4.Main branches of linguistics：Main branches of linguistics (microlinguistics微观) and interdisciplinary（跨领域、跨学科）fields of linguistics (macrolinguistics宏观)1) Main branches of linguistics:(1) Phonetics发音学，语音学;(2) Phonology;（音位学、语音体系）(3) Morphology 词法/ Lexicology词汇学;(4) Syntax句法;(5) Semantics语义学(6) Pragmatics语用学：研究特定情境中的特定话语，在不同的语言交际环境中如何理解和运用语言支。
