Linguistics Exercises for Lecture 4

语言学C h a p t e r-4--E x e r c i s e s-含答案(总10页)--本页仅作为文档封面，使用时请直接删除即可----内页可以根据需求调整合适字体及大小--Chapter 4 From Word to TextI. Decide whether each of the following statements is true or false:1. Grammatical sentences are formed following a set of syntactic rules.2. The syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, butthere is no limit to the number of sentences nativespeakers of that language are able to produce andcomprehend.3. An endocentric construction is also known as headedconstruction because it has just one head4. Constituents that can be substituted for one another withoutloss of grammaticality belong to the same syntacticcategory.5. In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories arecommonly recognized and discussed, namely, nounphrase, verb phrase, infinitive phrase, and auxiliaryphrase.6. Number and gender are categories of noun and pronoun.7. Word order plays an important role in the organization ofEnglish sentences.8. Like English, modern Chinese is a SVO language.9. In English the subject usually precedes the verb and the direct object usually follows the verb.10. A noun phrase must contain a noun, but other elements are optional.( 1-5 TTFTF 6-10 TTTTT )II.Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:1 A s________ is a structurally in dependent unit that usuallycomprises a number of words to form a completestatement, question or command2. A clause that takes a subject and a finite verb, and at thesame time structurally alone is known as an f__________clause3. The part of a sentence which comprises a finite verb or averb phrase and which says something about the subjectis grammatically called p_________.4. A c_________ sentence contains two, or more, clauses, oneof which is incorporated into the other.5. In the complex sentence, the incorporated or subordinateclause is normally called an e_______ clause.6. Major lexical categories are o___ categories in the sensethat new words are constantly added.7. G_________ relations refer to the structural and logicalfunctional relations between every noun phrase andsentence8. A a__________ sentence consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence.9. A s__________ is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement, question or command.10. A s__________ may be a noun or a noun phrase in a sentence that usually precedes the predicate.Answers:1. sentence2. finite3. predicate4. complex5. embedded6. open7. grammatical8. simple9. sentence 10. subjectIII. There are four given choices for each statement below.Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:1 The head of the phrase “the city Rome”is__________A the cityB RomeC cityD the city and Rome 2. A __________ in the embedded clause refers to the introductory word that introduces the embedded clause.A. coordinatorB. particleC. PrepositionD. subordinator3 Phrase structure rules have ____ properties.A. recursiveB. grammaticalC. socialD. functional4. Phrase structure rules allow us to better understand_____________.A. how words and phrases form sentences.B. what constitutes the grammaticality of strings of wordsC. how people produce and recognize possible sentencesD. All of the above.5 The phrase “on the half” belongs to ________constructionA endocentricB exocentricC subordinateD coordinate6 . The theory of case condition accounts for the fact that__________.A. noun phrases appear only in subject and object positions.B. noun phrases can be used to modify another noun phraseC. noun phrase can be used in adverbial positionsD. noun phrase can be moved to any place if necessary.7 The sentence structure is ________.A. only linearB. Only hierarchicalC. compelD. both linear and hierarchical8. The syntactic rules of any language are ____ in number.A. largeB. smallC. finiteD. infinite9. The ________ rules are the rules that group words and phrasesto form grammatical sentences.A. lexicalB. morphologicalC. linguisticD. combinational10 The sentence “They were wan ted to remain quiet and notto expose themselves” is a ____________sentenceA simpleB coordinateC compoundD complex Answers:1 D2 D 3. A 4 D 5 B 6 A 7 D 8 C 9 D 10 AIV. Explain the following terms, using examples.1. Syntax2. IC analysis3. Hierarchical structureAnswers :1.Syntax: Syntax refers to the rules governing the way wordsare combined to form sentences in a language, or simply, the study of the formation of sentences.2. IC analysis: Immediate constituent analysis, IC analysis forshort, refers to the analysis of a sentence in terms of itsimmediate constituents – word groups (phrases), which are in turn analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own, and the process goes on until the ultimate sake ofconvenience.3. Hierarchical structure: It is the sentence structure thatgroups words into structural constituents and shows thesyntactic category of each structural constituent, such as NP, VP and PP.V. Answer the following questions:1. What are the major types of sentences Illustrate them with examples.2. What are endocentric construction and exocentric construction?3. Draw a tree diagram according to the PS rules to show the deep structure of the sentence:The child asked for a new book4. What are the major types of sentences according to traditional approach Illustrate them with examplesAnswers :1. Traditionally, there are three major types of sentences.They are simple sentence, coordinate( compound) sentence, and complex sentence. A simple sentence consists of asingle clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence, for example: John readsextensively. A coordinate sentence contains two clausesjoined by a linking word that is called coordinatingconjunction, such as "and", "but", "or". For example: John is reading a linguistic book, and Mary is preparing for herhistory exam. A complex sentence contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other. The two clauses in a complex sentence do not have equal status, one is subordinate to the other. For example: Before John gave her a lecture, Mary showed no interest in linguistics.2. An endocentric construction is one whose distribution isfunctionally equivalent, or approaching equivalence, to oneof its constituents, which serves as the center, or head, of the whole. A typical example is the three small childrenwith children as its head. The exocentric construction,opposite to the first type, is defined negatively as aconstruction whose distribution is not functionallyequivalent to any of its constituents. Prepositional phrasal like on the shelf are typical examples of this type.3.略4. Traditionally, there are three major types of sentences. Theyare simple sentence, coordinate( compound) sentence, and complex sentence. A simple sentence consists of a singleclause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence, for example: John readsextensively. A coordinate sentence contains two clausesjoined by a linking word that is called coordinatingconjunction, such as "and", "but", "or". For example: John is reading a linguistic book, and Mary is preparing for her history exam. A complex sentence contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other. Thetwo clauses in a complex sentence do not have equalstatus, one is subordinate to the other. For exam­ple:Before John gave her a lecture, Mary showed no interest in lin­guistics.。

LinguisticsThree words you must know before learning:Language ['læŋgwidʒ] 语言Linguistics [liŋ'gwistiks] 语言学Linguist ['liŋgwist] 语言学家What is the relation between linguistics and the courses we have learned in the previous two years?listening, speaking, reading , writing they are language skills ;linguistics, including literature…language knowledge 知其然,知其所以然Course objectives: 1.mastery of basic linguistic terms concepts and theories.2.T o arouse your interest in language and language phenomenon.3.Let you know the branches of linguistics. 4.preparation for further study and research about language.Chapter One An Introduction to language and Linguistics1. The Definition of Language语言的定义：(1)语言是一种社会现象……语言区别于其他社会现象的专门的特点是它是作为人们交际的工具、作为人们交流思想的工具来为社会服务的; (2) 它是作为人们的思维工具来为社会服务的。

……就语言自身而言,它是由语音和语义结合而成、由词汇和语法所构成的符号系统。

Assignment for linguistics course ○Hi, my dear students,I appreciate your great efforts in trying to cope with a most difficult course with me and I do hope you have learned something from the lectures in the past few weeks .Now it’s your turn to do some team work together to figure out the answers. I am sure you will make some concerted efforts to show the best of you and enjoy the process on the way ! Y.H.Chapter 1 Introduction1.What do you know about microlinguistics and macrolinguistics? Briefly define them.2.How do you understand the definition of language?3.What are the design featuresmentioned in the textbook? Illustrate with examples.4.What is language used for? Please give examples.5.What’s the relationship between langue and parole? What about competence and performance?6.what are the major schools of linguistics? Who are the respective representatives?Chapter 2 Sounds1.What’s the difference between phonetics and phonology?2.How are English sounds classified? How are the vowels and consonants classified?3.What is free variation? Illustrate with examples from both English and Chinese.4.What is assimilation? Illustrate with examples.5.How is a syllable defined? What are open syllables and closed syllables? Illustrate with examples.Chapter 3 Morphology1.what are morphemes? What’s the difference between free morphemes and bound morphemes? Illustrate with examples. some of the ways of word formation and give examples.Chapter 4 Syntax1. What are the major contributions of Noam Chomsky?2 . What do you know about Immediate constituent analysis?3. What do you know about TG?4. Paraphrase the ambiguous sentences. See page 96: *8Chapter 5 Semantics1.What are some major approaches to meaning? Their representatives?2.What are Leech’s seven types of meaning? Examples?3.What is componential analysis? Examples?4.What are the semantic relationship between words? Examples?5.How do you distinguish entailment from presupposition? Examples?6.Explain some semantic ambiguous sentences. See page 133:2Chapter 6 Pragmatics1.What is speech act theory? Representative (s)?2.What is CP? Representative ?3.What is PP? Representative ?Chapter 8 Sociolinguistics1.What is dialect? How is it categorized? Examples?2.What’s the relationship between pidgins and creoles?3. What’s Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis? Make some comment on itChapter 9 PsycholinguisticsWhat’s Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis? Make some comment on it.Chapter 9, 11 and 12 Second Language acquisitionPlease refer to oral presentation parts.Oral presentation○Hi, my dear students,Now you are going to do some team projects based on the following topics.I am sure you will try your very best to present them in a clearest and most logical way!Chapter 6 Pragmatics1.The Cooperative Principle and its applications in English and Chinese cultures2.The Politeness Principle and its applications in English and Chinese culturesChapter 8 Sociolinguistics1.What’s the relationship between pidgins and creoles? Has China gone through both pidginazation and creolization processes?2.How is gender difference reflected through language? Give examples in both English and Chinese cultures.3. What is standard language? Shouldwe learn standard language (e.g.Standard English) only? Why and whynot?4. What do you know about the Englishtaboos and euphemisms? Anydifferences from the Chinese ones?Chapter 9 Psycholinguistics1.What’s Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis? Make some comment on it. What’s the relationship between language and thought anyway?Chapter 9, 11 and 12 Second Language acquisition1.Generally speaking, there are three prevalent approaches on first language acquisition, namely, the behaviorist approach, the innateness approach and the interationist approach. Which one is more plausible to you and why?2.What are the differences between L1 acquisition and L2 language learning? What are the implications for foreign language teaching?3.What is the Input Hypothesis and what is the implications for language teaching?4.What is the Output Hypothesis? What is the implications for language teaching?5.How do cognitive styles affect ourL2 learning? What are your suggestions to language learners?6.How do personality traits affect our L2 learning? What are your suggestions to language learners?7.What are learning strategies? Which one do you think is the most important for students and why? What are your suggestions to language learners?8.It is said that a foreign language is learnt, not taught. What do you think? Please illustrate your points using some knowledge you learned from this course.9.Introduce a linguist’s /language educator’s major ideas/contributions and make some comment on them.10.Generally speaking, there are three prevalent approaches on first language acquisition, namely, the behaviorist approach, the innatenessapproach and the interationist approach. Which one is more plausible to you and why?。

☐Introducing Language☐Symbol☐V ocal☐Arbitrary☐System☐Human communication☐Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.☐II. Design Features of Language☐Arbitrariness☐Duality☐Creativity☐Displacement☐Arbitrariness☐There is no logical connection or innate relationship between forms of linguistic signs and their meaning.☐Duality☐Language has two levels of structures: sound and meaning.☐☐The sounds can combine with one another to form units that have meanings.☐Creativity☐The creativity of Language comes from duality and recursiveness.☐Displacement☐language can refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.☐Displacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication.☐III. Functions of Language☐Jakobson：6 functionsAddresser—— emotiveAddressee—— conativeContext ——— referentialMessage ——poeticCode ———— metalingualContact————phatic☐Halliday: 3 metafunctions☐Ideational functionLanguage is used to organize, understand, and express our experience of the world and of our own consciousness. ☐The ideations function can be divided into two subfunctions: the experiential function and the logical function.☐The experiential functions is largely concerned with the content and ideas.☐The logical function is largely concerned with the relationship between ideas.☐We can say that ideational function can be used to construct a model of experience and logical relations.☐Interpersonal functionLanguage enables us to participate in communicative acts with other people, to express and understand feelings, attitudes and judgements.☐Textual functionLanguage is used to relate what is said (or written) to the real world and to other linguistic events.☐This involves the use of language to organize the text itself or to create relevance to context.☐Functions of language in the textbook☐Informative function☐Interpersonal function☐Performative function☐Emotive function☐Phatic function☐recreational function☐metalingual function☐Lecture 2 Linguistics☐The definition of Linguistics☐Main branches of linguistics☐Macrolinguistics☐Some important distinctions in linguistics☐I. Definition of Linguistics☐Linguistics can be defined as the scientific study of language.☐The Principles for evaluating the study of language☐Exhaustiveness☐The linguists should gather all the materials relevant to his investigation and give them an adequate explanation.☐Consistency☐There should be no contradiction between different parts of the total statement.☐Economy☐Other things being equal, a short statement or analysis is preferred to a longer or more complex one.☐Objectivity☐ A linguist should be as objective as possible in his description and analysis of data and cannot allow prejudice to influence his conclusion.☐II. Main branches of linguistics☐Phonetics☐Phonology☐Morphology☐Syntax☐Semantics☐Pragmatics☐III. Macrolinguistics☐Psycholinguistics☐Sociolinguistics☐Anthropological linguistics☐Computational linguistics☐IV. Some important distinctions in linguistics☐Descriptive/Prescriptive☐ A linguistic study is descriptive if it describes and analyses the facts observed.☐It is prescriptive if it tries to lay down rule s for ―correct‖ use of language.☐In other words, if a linguist talks about ―what is in language‖ or ―what people actually say‖, he is descriptive.☐If he tells people ―what should be in language‖ or ―what people should say‖, he is prescriptive.☐Synchronic/DiachronicThe description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study.The description of a language as it changes through the time is a diachronic study.☐The distinction between synchronic and diachronic studies is only theoretically clear.☐In reality, it is not easy to draw a sharp line between these two aspects of language studies.The reasons are as follows:☐First, languages are in a constant state of changing.☐Secondly, the language of any speech community is never uniform.☐Thirdly, when a language changes, one set of features are not suddenly replaced by another set of features.☐Langue/paroleThis distinction is first made by the Swiss linguist, F. de Saussure early in this century.☐Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.☐Parole refers to the actualized language, or realization of langue.☐The distinction between Langue and Parole☐langue is abstract; Parole is specific to the situation in which it occurs.☐Secondly, Langue is not actually spoken by anyone; Parole is always a naturally occurring event.☐Thirdly, Langue is relatively stable and systematic; Parole is subject to personal and situational constraints.☐Competence/Performance☐The distinction is made by American linguist Noam Chomsky in 1965 in his Aspects of the Theory of Syntax (句法理论诸方面/句法理论面面观).☐Competence is the ideal language user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.☐Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in utterances.☐Lecture 3 PhoneticsI. Three branches of phoneticsII. Speech organsIII. Classification of consonantsIV. Classification of vowels☐I. Three branches of phonetics☐Articulatory phonetics studies the production of speech sounds.☐Acoustic phonetics studies the physical properties of speech sounds.☐Auditory or perceptual phonetics studies the perception of speech sounds or how speech sounds are received or perceived by listeners.☐II. Speech organs☐Three CavitiesOral cavityNasal cavityPharyngeal cavity☐IPA☐Otto Jespersen☐International Phonetic Alphabet was published in August 1888.☐In the IPA chart, the sound segments are grouped into consonants and vowels.☐III. Classification of consonants☐Manners of articulation☐Stop/plosive☐Nasal☐Fricative☐Affricate☐Approximant☐Lateral☐Places of articulation☐Bilabial☐Labio-dental☐Dental☐Alveolar☐Post-alveolar☐Palatal☐Velar☐glottal☐Classification of vowelsCriteria☐The height of tongue raising.☐The part of tongue that is raised: front, center or back☐The length or tenseness of the vowel☐lips rounding (rounded vs. unrounded)☐Lecture 4 Phonology☐The definition of phonology☐Phonetics and phonology☐Basic unit of phonology: Phoneme☐Some important terms:minimal pairsfree variantsdistinctive featuressyllablestress☐Phonological process☐Phonological rules☐I. The definition of phonology☐Phonology is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages.☐Its primary aim is to discover the principles that govern how sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur.☐II. The distinction between phonetics and phonology☐Phonetics studies how speech sounds are made, transmitted and received.☐Phonology studies the sound patterns and sound system of languages.☐Phonetics is the study of all possible speech sounds.☐Phonology studies how speakers of a language systematically use a selection of these sounds in order to express meaning.☐III. The basic unit of phonology: phoneme☐ A sound which is capable of distinguishing one word from another in a given language is a PHONEME.☐Allophone (音位变体)The non-distinctive sounds of the same phoneme are called allophones.☐Conditions for allophones☐Phonetic similarity:The allophones of a phoneme must bear some phonetic resemblance.☐Complementary distribution:When two sounds never occur in the same environment, they are said to be in complementary distribution.☐IV. Some important terms☐Minimal Pairs (最小对立体)Word forms which differ from each other only by one sound.Free variants (自由变体）☐If two sounds occurring in the same environment do not contrast, that is, the substitution of one for the other does not produce a different word form,but merely a different pronunciation of the same word, then the two sounds are in free variation.☐Distinctive feature☐It is first proposed by Roman Jakobson (1896-1982)☐ A particular characteristic which distinguishes one distinctive sound unit of a language from another or one group of sounds from another group.☐Syllable☐The syllabic structure☐English syllabic structure (ccc)v(cccc)☐Chinese syllabic structure (c)v(c)☐Open syllable☐Closed syllable☐Maximal onset principle☐When there is a choice as to where to place a consonant, it is put into the onset rather than the coda.☐telling☐Stress☐Stress refers to the degree of force used in producing a syllable.☐Stress is a relative notion.☐Word stress: words with two syllables.☐Sentence stress: in principle, a stress may fall on any word or syllable.☐V. Phonological ProcessThree aspects of a phonological process☐ a set of sounds that will undergo the process;☐ a set of sounds produced by the process;☐ a set of situations in which the process applies.☐Typical phonological processes☐Nasalization☐Dentalization☐Velarization☐Phonological rules[-nasal]→[+nasal]/_ [+nasal][-dental]→[+dental]/_[+dental][-velar]→[+velar]/_ [+velar]☐Devoicing（清音化）A process by which voiced sounds become voiceless.☐Assimilation☐Assimilation: a process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound.☐Assimilation is often used interchangeably with coarticulation.☐Progressive assimilation（顺同化）☐Regressive assimilation（逆同化）☐Progressive assimilation☐If a preceding sound influences a following sound, this phenomenon is termed progressive assimilation.☐map /mæp/☐Perseverative coarticulation (后滞协同发音)☐Regressive assimilation☐If a following sound influences a preceding sound, this phenomenon is called regressive assimilation. cap-can[kæn] since-sink[siŋk]☐Anticipatory coarticulation(先期协同发音)☐The rule orderingElsewhere Condition☐The more specific rule applies first.☐Lecture 5 Morphology (I)☐What is morphology?☐What is morpheme, allomorph?☐How can morphemes be classified?☐What is morphophonemics?☐Definition of morphology☐Morphology is a branch of linguistics, which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.☐Morpheme☐Morpheme: The minimal (smallest) meaningful unit is known as morpheme. (语素/词素)☐Decontextualization☐morphological☐Allomorph☐Morph: the concrete form of a morpheme.☐Allomorph: concretely realized variant of a morpheme.（语素变体）☐Morpheme ―plural‖Dog+plural → dog+sBus+plural → bus+esSheep+plural →sheepGoose+plural → geese☐The morpheme ―plural‖ takes different forms in actual realization, called morphs.☐They are all allomorphs of the one morpheme.☐The classification of morphs as allomorphs is based on(i) Similarity of meaning(ii) Complementary distribution☐Classification of morphemes☐Free morphemes☐Bound morphemes☐Free morphemeThose morphemes which can occur independent of other morphemes, that is, those which constitute words by themselves.☐Morpheme☐Linguist☐Syntax☐Bound morpheme☐Those which must appear with at least another morpheme.☐ E.g. -s linguists morpemes-ly friendly☐Derivational morphemes☐inflectional morphemes☐Derivational morphemesA derivational morphemes is one that is used to derive a new word.e.g. rich→enrich operate→operation deep→deepen friend→ friendlyInflectional morpheme☐Inflectional morphemes indicate the syntactic relationships between words and thus function as grammatical markers.☐Inflectional morphemes in English☐Regular plural suffix –s (-es);☐-s (-es) indicating simple present for the third person singular;☐The possessive case of nouns;☐–er/-est attached to simple adjective or adverbs to show comparative or superlative degrees;☐The past tense marker-ed or progressive marker –ing added to verbs.☐True or false?☐Both derivational morphemes and inflectional morphemes are bound morphemes.☐Root, stem and affix☐Root is the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed without the total loss of identity.☐That is to say, the root is the part of the word left when all the affixes are removed.☐Stem is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.That is to say, stem is the part of the word left when inflectional affixes are removed.friendships☐Root: friend☐Stem: friendship☐Affix(词缀): the collective term for the types of morphemes that can be used only when added to another morpheme.☐Affix is bound.☐Affixes can be divided into inflectional affix and derivational affix.☐According to their positions in words:Affixes can also be divided into prefix, infix and suffix.☐Morphophonemics 形态音位学☐Morphophonology 形态音系学☐Morphophonemics☐The analysis and classification of the phonological factors affecting the appearance of morphemes.☐It studies the interrelationships between phonology and morphology.☐Phonological conditioning☐The form or shape of morphemes may be conditioned by phonological factors.e.g. The negative morpheme may be realized by in-, im- or ir-.inefficient improper irregular illogical (assimilation)☐Dissimilation （异化）☐grammar (O.E.)→ glamor (M.E.)☐Arbor (Latin) → arbol (Spanish)☐Dissimilation refers to the influence exercised by one sound segment upon the articulation of another, so that the sounds become less alike, or different.☐Morphological conditioning☐Morphemes can be determined by morphological factors.a）All the allomorphs should have common meaning.b）All the allomorphs should be in complementary distribution.c）Allomorphs that share the common meaning should occur in parallel formation.。

语言学第一讲Lecture One Brief Introduction to Ling and Lang1. Linguistics1.1 Definition of linguistics Page 1-2“scientific study of language”.ling is a discipline which describes lang in all its respects (e.g. its system, its internal structure, its social functions, its use and its historical development) and formulates theories as to how it works.1.2linguistics versus traditional grammarTraditional grammar, as a pre-20th century language description andpre-linguistic product of research, was based upon earlier grammars of Latin or Greek, and laid emphasis on correctness, literary excellence, the use of Latin models, and the priority of written language----A gram which states rules for what is considered the best or most correct usage. The three sources from which the rules of prescriptive gram come:1)Latin and Greek----unchanging form of these langs----high prestige in European education----brilliance of classical literature.e.g “It is I” and not “It is me”2) the written langespecially the works of great writers. People are told to speak as they would write.e.g Whom did you speak to?3) LogicGram should be judged insofar as it follows the principles of logic.e.g You shouldn’t say“I haven’t done nothing”I don’t know nothing about the matter. (一无所知)Nobody hardly took notice of him. (几乎没有一个人注意他)Features of Modern linguistics----priority is given to spoken language;----focus is on synchronic study of contemporary language than in the study of the evolution of languages;----modern linguistics is descriptive rather than prescriptive in nature;----it is theoretically rather than pedagogically oriented.1.3. Use of studying linguistics Page 3-41.4 The scope of linguistics Page 4-8Linguistics can be classified from different angles1) general linguistics, particular linguistics,2) synchronic linguistics and diachronic linguistics3) comparative-historical linguistics and contrastive linguistics4) theoretical linguistics, applied linguistics (the structure/system)5) prescriptive ling, descriptive ling6) microlinguistics and macrolinguisticsMicrolinguistics:Phonetics ----Phonology---Morphology--Syntax---Semantics---PragmaticsMacrolinguistics:Sociolinguistics—Psycholinguistics—Neurolinguistics—Anthropological linguistics---Applied linguistics---Corpus linguistics----Discourse Analysis----Cognitive linguistics----Computational linguistics----. ExerciseComment on the differences between human language and animal communication, and provide examples if you can.第二讲differences between human language and animal communication：1) language has the ability to refer to things far removed in time and space. Human frequently say things such as “My uncle went to Shanghai last week.”. In contrast, it may be impossible for an animal to convey similar information.2) humans have the ability to produce and understand an indefinite number of novel utterances, but no animal can communicate creatively with another animal.3) learning/acquiring is much more important as a factor in human language than in animal communication.4) Human language structure and language use are vastly more complex than any known animal communication system.5) animal communication systems are closed, whereas human languages are open-ended.6) humans can perform acts with language.2. Language2.1 Definition of language (Page 8)Tool for human communicationMeans by which we express our feeling…..Comprehensive definitionIt is really just as difficult to define language as it is to define man.人：是一切社会关系的总和；是唯一能把动物养成宠物和煮成食物的动物；是一种会笑的动物；"Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication"Wardhaugh in his "Introduction to Linguistics" (1972).（语言是用于人类交际的、任意的、有声的符号系统）Short as it is, this definition has captured the main features of language.First of all, language is a system.Second, language is arbitrary.Third, language is vocal.Fourth, language is symbolic.Fifth, language is used for human communication and language ishuman-specific.2.2 Origine of language (page3-4)In general, there are two contrasting viewpoints: the divinist and evolutionist The divinists---- ----language was God’s gift to mankindAccording to Christian beliefs, God gave Adam the power to name all things. Whatever Adam called everything God created. Language is the creation of God. Evolutionists----language is the product of human evolution. It was originated in the process of labor.According to the evolution theory proposed by Darwin, language is a product of evolutionary development of the human species. It is a human invention.The earliest human being is believed to live in Africa around 200,000 years ago, and modern language emerged perhaps around 100,000 years ago (Aitchison, 1996). In the beginning there was one language developed by Afican men. As these ancient ancestors walked out of Afica and spread around the world about 35, 000 to 12, 000 years ago, more and more languages were developed.2.3 Design Features of Language1) Arbitrariness---There is no logical (intrinsic or direct) connection between the sound/sign and meaning, between the word and its object, between the grammar and the meaning it carries;or the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.A building we live in with our family is called house in English, maison in French, dom in Russion, casa in Spanish, fangzi in ChineseHowever, language is not entirely arbitrary; there are cases where there seems to be some association between sounds and meaning, e.g.Onomatopoetic words: P10Motivated wordsSome compound words: tractor driver shoe-makerThe other side of the coin of arbitrariness is conventionality. The link between linguistic sign and its meaning is a matter of convention.A pair of trousers----一条裤子 A pair of shirts---两件衬衣Go shopping *go buying go hunting冬瓜(white gourd) （夏天吃的）北戴河is not a river 中南海is not a sea.食堂餐厅*餐堂*食厅英国的语言----英语英文中国的语言----中文（*中语）汉语昨天昨晚*昨早*昨月*昨年去年*去天*去晚*去月明天明年*明月*明周今天今年*今月两百二十元----*二百两十元二百五----傻里傻气的人生前好友（死前好友）已婚夫妇未婚妻（未婚怎么能称妻）三长两短、七上八下三下五除二2) DualityTwo levels:Lower level---- a limited set of sounds, meaninglessHigher level----units of meaning coming from the combination of the units of lower level Phoneme—morpheme—words—phrase—clause—sentence3) Productivity/creativity--The users of a language can utilize limited linguistic rules to produce or understand infinite meaningful linguistic forms, including those they have never heard before.This is the cat that killed the rat that ate the malt that lay in the house that Jack built.The man that the girl that my wife taught married published many poems.(和我妻子教的那个女孩结婚的那个男人发表了许多诗)他一边脱衣服，一边穿裤子。