Chapter Solution 1

Chapter 1 Computer Networks and the Internet networks use VC. numbers to forward packets toward their1．The ( ) is a worldwide computer network, that is, a network that destination.interconnects millions of computing devices throughout the world. D datagram networks use VC. numbers and virtual-circuit networks ppt3 use destination addresses to forward packets toward their destination.A public Internet 9．In the following options, which one is not a guided media? ( )B Intranet A twisted-pair wireC switch net B fiber opticsD television net C coaxial cable2．Which kind of media is not a guided media? ( ) D satelliteA twisted-pair copper wire 10．Processing delay does not include the time to ( ).B a coaxial cable A examine the packet’s headerC fiber optics B wait to transmit the packet onto the linkD digital satellite channel C determine where to direct the packetD check bit-error in the packet3．Which kind of media is a guided media? ( )11．In the following four descriptions, which one is correct? ( )A geostationary satelliteB low-altitude satelliteC fiber opticsD wireless LAN A The traffic intensity must be greater than 1.B The fraction of lost packets increases as the traffic intensity decreases.C If the traffic intensity is close to zero, the average queuing delay 4．The units of data exchanged by a link-layer protocol are called ( ).will be close to zero. A FramesD If the traffic intensity is close to one, the average queuing delay B Segmentswill be close to one. C Datagrams12．The Internet’s network layer is responsible for moving network-layer D bit streamspackets known as ( ) from one host to another. 5．Which of the following option belongs to the circuit-switched networks?A frame ( )B datagram A FDMC segment B TDMD message C VC networks13．The protocols of various layers are called ( ). D both A and BA the protocol stack 6．( )makes sure that neither side of a connection overwhelms the otherB TCP/IPside by sending too many packets too fast.C ISPA Reliable data transferD network protocolB Flow control14．There are two classes of packet-switched networks: ( ) networks andC Congestion controlvirtual-circuit networks.D Handshaking procedureA datagram7．( ) means that the switch must receive the entire packet before it canB circuit-switchedbegin to transmit the first bit of the packet onto the outbound link.C television A Store-and-forward transmissionB FDMD telephoneC End-to-end connection 15．Access networks can be loosely classified into three categories:D TDM residential access, company access and ( ) access.8．Datagram networks and virtual-circuit networks differ in that ( ).A cabledA datagram networks are circuit-switched networks, andB wirelessvirtual-circuit networks are packet-switched networks.B datagram networks are packet-switched networks, andC campusD city areavirtual-circuit networks are circuit-switched networks.Question 16～17 C datagram networks use destination addresses and virtual-circuit1D distributed applicationsSuppose, a is the average rate at which packets arrive at the queue, R is24．The Internet provides two services to its distributed applications: a the transmission rate, and all packets consist of L bits, then the trafficintensity is ( 16 ), and it should no greater than ( 17 ). connectionless unreliable service and () service.A flow control16． A LR／aB connection-oriented reliableB La／RC congestion controlC Ra／LD TCP25．It defines the format and the order of messages exchanged between twoD LR／aor more communicating entities, as well as the actions taken on the 17．A 2B 1 transmission and/or receipt of a message or other event. The sentence describes ( ).C 0A InternetD -1B protocol 18．In the Internet, the equivalent concept to end systems is ( ).C intranet A hostsD network B servers26．In the following options, which does not define in protocol? ( )C clientsA the format of messages exchanged between two or more D routerscommunicating entities 19．In the Internet, end systems are connected together by ( ).B the order of messages exchanged between two or more A copper wirecommunicating entities B coaxial cableC the actions taken on the transmission of a message or other eventC communication linksD the transmission signals are digital signals or analog signals 模拟D fiber optics信号20．End systems access to the Internet through its ( ).27．In the following options, which is defined in protocol? ( ) A modemsA the actions taken on the transmission and/or receipt of a message orB protocolsother eventC ISPB the objects exchanged between communicating entities D socketsC the content in the exchanged messages21．End systems, packet switches, and other pieces of the Internet, run ( )D the location of the hosts that control the sending and receiving of information within the28．In the following options, which does not belong to the network edge?Internet.( )A programsA end systemsB processesB routersC applicationsC clientsD protocolsD servers22．There are many private networks, such as many corporate and29．In the following options, which belongs to the network core? ( ) government networks, whose hosts cannot exchange messages withA end systemshosts outside of the private network. These private networks are oftenB routersreferred to as ( ).C clientsA internetsD serversB LAN30．In the following options, which is not the bundled with the Internet ’s C intranetsconnection-oriented service? ( ) D WANA reliable data transfer23．The internet allows ( ) running on its end systems to exchange dataB guarantee of the transmission timewith each other.C flow control***A clients applicationsD congestion-controlB server applications31．An application can rely on the connection to deliver all of its data C P2P applicationswithout error and in the proper order. The sentence describes ( ).2***A flow control C data switchingB congestion-control D message switchingC reliable data transfer 40．In ( ) networks, the resources needed along a path to provide forD connection-oriented service communication between the end system are reserved for the duration 持续of the communication session. 32．It makes sure that neither side of a connection overwhelms 淹没压倒the other side by sending too many packets too fast. The sentence A packet-switcheddescribes ( ). B data-switchedA flow control C circuit-switchedB congestion-control D message-switchedC connection-oriented service 41．In ( ) networks, the resources are not reserved; a session’s messagesD reliable data transfer use the resources on demand, and as a consequence, may have to wait 33．It helps prevent the Internet from entering a state of gridlock. When a for access to communication link.packet switch becomes congested, its buffers can overflow and packet A packet-switchedloss can occur. The sentence describes ( ). B data-switchedA flow control C circuit-switchedB congestion-control D message-switchedC connection-oriented service 42．In a circuit-switched network, if each link has n circuits, for each linkD reliable data transfer used by the end-to-end connection, the connection gets ( ) of the 34．The Internet’s connection-oriented service has a name, it is ( ). link ’s bandwidth for the duration of the connection.A TCP A a fraction 1/nB UDP B allC TCP/IP C 1/2D IP D n times35．In the following options, which service does not be provided to an 43．For ( ), the transmission rate of a circuit is equal to the frame rate application by TCP?( ) multiplied by the number of bits in a slot.A reliable transport A CDMAB flow control B packet-switched networkC video conferencing C TDMD congestion control D FDM36．The Internet’s connectionless service is called ( ). 44．( ) means that the switch must receive the entire packet before it canA TCP begin to transmit the first bit of the packet onto the outbound link.B UDP A Queuing delayC TCP/IP B Store-and-forward transmissionD IP C Packet loss37．In the following options, which does not use TCP?( ) D PropagationA SMTP 45．The network that forwards packets according to host destinationB internet telephone addresses is called ( ) network.C FTP A circuit-switchedD HTTP B packet-switched38．In the following options, which does not use UDP?( ) C virtual-circuitA Internet phone D datagramB video conferencing 46．The network that forwards packets according to virtual-circuit numbersC streaming multimedia is called ( ) network.D telnet A circuit-switched39．There are two fundamental approaches to building a network core, ( ) B packet-switchedand packet switching. C virtual-circuitA electrical current switching D datagramB circuit switching3。

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CHAPTER 1 GLOBALIZATION AND THE MULTINATIONAL FIRMSUGGESTED ANSWERS TO END-OF-CHAPTER QUESTIONSQUESTIONS1. Why is it important to study international financial management?Answer: We are now living in a world where all the major economic functions, i.e., consumption, production, and investment, are highly globalized. It is thus essential for financial managers to fully understand vital international dimensions of financial management. This global shift is in marked contrast to a situation that existed when the authors of this book were learning finance some twenty years ago. At that time, most professors customarily (and safely, to some extent) ignored international aspects of finance. This mode of operation has become untenable since then.2. How is international financial management different from domestic financial management?Answer: There are three major dimensions that set apart international finance from domestic finance. They are:1. foreign exchange and political risks,2. market imperfections, and3. expanded opportunity set.3. Discuss the three major trends that have prevailed in international business during the last two decades.Answer: The 1980s brought a rapid integration of international capital and financial markets. Impetus for globalized financial markets initially came from the governments of major countries that had begun to deregulate their foreign exchange and capital markets. The economic integration and globalization that began in the eighties is picking up speed in the 1990s via privatization. Privatization is the process by which a country divests itself of the ownership and operation of a business venture by turning it over to the free market system. Lastly, trade liberalization and economic integration continued to proceed at both the regional and global levels.4. How is a country’s economic well-being enhanced through free international trade in goods and services?Answer: According to David Ricardo, with free international trade, it is mutually beneficial for two countries to each specialize in the production of the goods that it can produce relatively most efficiently and then trade those goods. By doing so, the two countries can increase their combined production, which allows both countries to consume more of both goods. This argument remains valid even if a country can produce both goods more efficiently than the other country. International trade is not a ‘zero-sum’ game in which one country benefits at the expense of another country. Rather, international trade could be an ‘increasing-sum’ game at which all players become winners.5. What considerations might limit the extent to which the theory of comparative advantage is realistic?Answer: The theory of comparative advantage was originally advanced by the nineteenth century economist David Ricardo as an explanation for why nations trade with one another. The theory claims that economic well-being is enhanced if each country’s citizens produce what they have a comparative advantage in producing relative to the citizens of other countries, and then trade products. Underlying the theory are the assumptions of free trade between nations and that the factors of production (land, buildings, labor, technology, and capital) are relatively immobile. To the extent that these assumptions do not hold, the theory of comparative advantage will not realistically describe international trade.6. What are multinational corporations (MNCs) and what economic roles do they play?Answer: A multinational corporation (MNC) can be defined as a business firm incorporated in one country that has production and sales operations in several other countries. Indeed, some MNCs have operations in dozens of different countries. MNCs obtain financing from major money centers around the world in many different currencies to finance their operations. Global operations force the treasurer’s office to establish international banking relationships, to place short-term funds in several currency denominations, and to effectively manage foreign exchange risk.7. Mr. Ross Perot, a former Presidential candidate of the Reform Party, which is a third political party in the United States, had strongly objected to the creation of the North American Trade Agreement (NAFTA), which nonetheless was inaugurated in 1994, for the fear of losing American jobs to Mexico where it is much cheaper to hire workers. What are the merits and demerits of Mr. Perot’s position on NAFTA? Considering the recent economic developments in North America, how would you assess Mr. Perot’s position on NAFTA?Answer: Since the inception of NAFTA, many American companies indeed have invested heavily in Mexico, sometimes relocating production from the United States to Mexico. Although this might have temporarily caused unemployment of some American workers, they were eventually rehired by other industries often for higher wages. Currently, the unemployment rate in the U.S. is quite low by historical standard. At the same time, Mexico has been experiencing a major economic boom. It seems clear that both Mexico and the U.S. have benefited from NAFTA. Mr. Perot’s concern appears to have been ill founded.8. In 1995, a working group of French chief executive officers was set up by the Confederation of French Industry (CNPF) and the French Association of Private Companies (AFEP) to study the French corporate governance structure. The group reported the following, among other things “The board of directors should not simply aim at maximizing share values as in the U.K. and the U.S. Rather, its goal should be to serve the company, whose interests should be clearly distinguished from those of its shareholders, employees, creditors, suppliers and clients but still equated with their general common interest, which is to safeguard the prosperity and continuity of the company”. Evaluate the above recommendation of the working group.Answer: The recommendations of the French working group clearly show that shareholder wealth maximization is not a universally accepted goal of corporate management, especially outside the United States and possibly a few other Anglo-Saxon countries including the United Kingdom and Canada. To some extent, this may reflect the fact that share ownership is not wide spread in most other countries. In France, about 15% of households own shares.9. Emphasizing the importance of voluntary compliance, as opposed to enforcement, in the aftermath of corporate scandals, e.g., Enron and WorldCom, U.S. President George W. Bush stated that while tougher laws might help, “ultimately, the ethics of American business depends on the conscience of America’s business leaders.” Describe your view on this statement.Answer: There can be different answers to this question. If business leaders always behave with a high ethical standard, many of the corporate scandals we have seen lately might not have happened. Since we cannot fully depend on the ethical behavior on the part of business leaders, the society should protect itself by adopting the rules/regulations and governance structure that would induce business leaders to behave in the interest of the society at large.10. Suppose you are interested in investing in shares of Nokia Corporation of Finland, which is a world leader in wireless communication. But before you make investment decision, you would like to learn about the company. Visit the website of Yahoo () and collect information about Nokia, including the recent stock price history and analysts’ views of the company. Discuss what you learn about the company. Also discuss how the instantaneous access to information via internet would affect the nature and workings of financial markets.Answer: As students might have learned from visiting the website, information is readily available even for foreign companies like Nokia. Ready access to international information helps integrate financial markets, dismantling barriers to international investment and financing. Integration, however, may help a financial shock in one market to be transmitted to other markets.MINI CASE: NIKE AND SWEATSHOP LABORNike, a company headquartered in Beaverton, Oregon, is a major force in the sports footwear and fashion industry, with annual sales exceeding $ 12 billion, more than half of which now come from outside the United States. The company was co-founded in 1964 by Phil Knight, a CPA at Price Waterhouse, and Bill Bowerman, college track coach, each investing $ 500 to start. The company, initially called Blue Ribbon Sports, changed its name to Nike in 1971 and adopted the “Swoosh” logo—recognizable around the world—originally designed by a college student for $35. Nike became highly successful in designing and marketing mass-appealing products such as the Air Jordan, the best selling athletic shoe of all time.Nike has no production facilities in the United States. Rather, the company manufactures athletic shoes and garments in such Asian countries as China, Indonesia, and Vietnam using subcontractors, and sells the products in the U.S. and international markets. In each of those Asian countries where Nike has production facilities, the rates of unemployment and under-employment are quite high. The wage rate is very low in those countries by U.S. standards—the hourly wage rate in the manufacturing sector is less than $ 1 in each of those countries, compared with about $ 20 in the United States. In addition, workers in those countries often operate in poor and unhealthy environments and their rights are not particularly well protected. Understandably, host countries are eager to attract foreign investments like Nike’s to develop their economies and raise the living standards of their citizens. Recently, however, Nike came under worldwide criticism for its practice of hiring workers for such a low rate of pay—“next to nothing” in the words of critics—and condoning poor working conditions in host countries.Initially, Nike denied the sweatshop charges and lashed out at critics. But later, the company began monitoring the labor practice at its overseas factories and grading the factories in order to improve labor standards. Nike also agreed to random factory inspections by disinterested parties.Discussion points1.Do you think the criticism of Nike is fair, considering that the host countries are in dire needsof creating jobs?2.What do you think Nike’s executives might have done differently to prevent the sensitivecharges of sweatshop labor in overseas factories?3.Do firms need to consider the so-called corporate social responsibilities in making investmentdecisions?Suggested Solution to Nike and Sweatshop LaborObviously, Nike’s investments in such Asian countries as China, Indonesia, and Vietnam were motivated to take advantage of low labor costs in those countries. While Nike was criticized for the poor working conditions for its workers, the company has recognized the problem and has substantially improved the working environments recently. Although Nike’s workers get paid very low wages by the Western standard, they probably are making substantially more than their local compatriots who are either under- or unemployed. While Nike’s detractors may have valid points, one should not ignore the fact that the company is making contributions to the economic welfare of those Asian countries by creating job opportunities.CHAPTER 1A THEORY OF COMPARATIVE ADVANTAGESUGGESTED SOLUTIONS TO APPENDIX PROBLEMSPROBLEMS1. Country C can produce seven pounds of food or four yards of textiles per unit of input. Compute the opportunity cost of producing food instead of textiles. Similarly, compute the opportunity cost of producing textiles instead of food.Solution: The opportunity cost of producing food instead of textiles is one yard of textiles per 7/4 = 1.75 pounds of food. A pound of food has an opportunity cost of 4/7 = .57 yards of textiles.2. Consider the no-trade input/output situation presented in the following table for Countries X and Y. Assuming that free trade is allowed, develop a scenario that will benefit the citizens of both countries.INPUT/OUTPUT WITHOUT TRADE_______________________________________________________________________CountryX Y Total________________________________________________________________________ I. Units of Input(000,000)_______________________ ______________________________70 60FoodTextiles 40 30________________________________________________________________________ II. Output per Unit of Input(lbs or yards)______________________ ______________________________17 5FoodTextiles 5 2________________________________________________________________________ III. Total Output(lbs or yards)(000,000)______________________ ______________________________Food 1,190 300 1,490260Textiles 200 60________________________________________________________________________ IV. Consumption(lbs or yards)(000,000)_____________________ ______________________________Food 1,190 300 1,490260Textiles 200 60________________________________________________________________________Solution:Examination of the no-trade input/output table indicates that Country X has an absolute advantage in the production of food and textiles. Country X can “trade off” one unit of production needed to produce 17 pounds of food for five yards of textiles. Thus, a yard of textiles has an opportunity cost of 17/5 = 3.40 pounds of food, or a pound of food has an opportunity cost of 5/17 = .29 yards of textiles. Analogously, Country Y has an opportunity cost of 5/2 = 2.50 pounds of food per yard of textiles, or 2/5 = .40 yards of textiles per pound of food. In terms of opportunity cost, it is clear that Country X is relatively more efficient in producing food and Country Y is relatively more efficient in producing textiles. Thus, Country X (Y) has a comparative advantage in producing food (textile) is comparison to Country Y (X).When there are no restrictions or impediments to free trade the economic-well being of the citizens of both countries is enhanced through trade. Suppose that Country X shifts 20,000,000 units from the production of textiles to the production of food where it has a comparative advantage and that Country Y shifts 60,000,000 units from the production of food to the production of textiles where it has a comparative advantage. Total output will now be (90,000,000 x 17 =) 1,530,000,000 pounds of food and [(20,000,000 x 5 =100,000,000) + (90,000,000 x 2 =180,000,000) =] 280,000,000 yards of textiles. Further suppose that Country X and Country Y agree on a price of 3.00 pounds of food for one yard of textiles, and that Country X sells Country Y 330,000,000 pounds of food for 110,000,000 yards of textiles. Under free trade, the following table shows that the citizens of Country X (Y) have increased their consumption of food by 10,000,000 (30,000,000) pounds and textiles by 10,000,000 (10,000,000) yards.INPUT/OUTPUT WITH FREE TRADE__________________________________________________________________________CountryX Y Total__________________________________________________________________________ I. Units of Input(000,000)_______________________ ________________________________90 0FoodTextiles 20 90__________________________________________________________________________ II. Output per Unit of Input(lbs or yards)______________________ ________________________________17 5FoodTextiles 5 2__________________________________________________________________________ III. Total Output(lbs or yards)(000,000)_____________________ ________________________________Food 1,530 0 1,530180280Textiles 100__________________________________________________________________________ IV. Consumption(lbs or yards)(000,000)_____________________ ________________________________Food 1,200 330 1,530280Textiles 210 70__________________________________________________________________________。

TABLE OF CONTENTSChapter 1.SOLUTION OVERVIEW (1)1.1NVIDIA RTX Server Overview (1)Chapter 2.SOLUTION DETAILS (2)2.1Solution Configuration (3)Designed and tested through multi-vendor cooperation between NVIDIA and its system and ISV partners, NVIDIA RTX™ Server provides a trusted environment for artists and designers to create professional, photorealistic images for the Media & Entertainment; Architecture, Engineering & Construction; and Manufacturing & Design industries.1.1NVIDIA RTX SERVER OVERVIEWIntroduction:Content production is undergoing a massive surge as render complexity and quality increases. Designers and artists across industries continually strive to produce more visually rich content faster than ever before, yet find their creativity and productivity bound by inefficient CPU-based render solutions. NVIDIA RTX™ Server is a validated solution that brings GPU-accelerated power and performance to deliver the most efficient end-to-end rendering solution, from interactive sessions in the desktop to final batch rendering in the data center. Audience:The audience for this document include, but not limited to: Sales Engineers, Field Consultants, Professional Services, Partner Engineers, IT Managers and Customers who wish to take advantage of an appliance that is built and optimized to deliver on batch rendering workflows.NVIDIA RTX™ Server for Bare Metal Rendering with Autodesk Arnold 5.3.0.0 on InspurNF5468M5 Server is a reference design comprised of (a) NVIDIA Quadro RTX 8000 graphics cards; (b) Autodesk Arnold 5.3.0.0 rendering software; on a (c) Inspur NF5468M5 Server system. Combined, this validated solution provides unprecedented rendering and compute performance at a fraction of the cost, space, and power consumption of traditional CPU-based render nodes.NVIDIA Quadro RTX 8000, powered by the NVIDIA Turing™ architecture and the NVIDIA RTX platform, brings the most significant advancement in computer graphics in over a decade to professional workflows. Designers and artists can now wield the power of hardware-accelerated ray tracing, deep learning, and advanced shading to dramatically boost productivity and create amazing content faster than ever before.Autodesk Arnold software is an advanced Monte Carlo raytracing renderer. It’s designed for artists and for the demands of modern animation and visual effects (VFX) production. Originally co-developed with Sony Pictures Imageworks and now their main renderer, Arnold is used at over 300 studios worldwide including ILM, Framestore, MPC, The Mill and Digic Pictures. Arnold was the primary renderer on dozens of films from Monster House and Cloudy with a Chance of Meatballs to Pacific Rim and Gravity. It is available as a standalone renderer on Linux, Windows and Mac OS X, with supported plug-ins for Maya, 3dsMax, Houdini, Cinema 4D, and Katana. It is the built-in interactive renderer for Maya and 3dsMax.Inspur NF5468M5 is designed for large-scale deployment in data center and optimization of edge computing. Equipped with the advanced Intel Xeon Skylake processor, it supports 8x NVDIA 8000 GPUs in a compact 4U chassis, making it an ideal choice for Al Cloud, security, finance, communication, healthcare and other scenarios.2.1SOLUTION CONFIGURATIONTable 1 outlines the system configuration utilized to complete the rigorous NVIDIA NVQual verification as well as the NVIDIA RTX Server validation process.Table 1: Solution componentsNoticeALL NVIDIA DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS, REFERENCE BOARDS, FILES, DRAWINGS, DIAGNOSTICS, LISTS, AND OTHER DOCUMENTS (TOGETHER AND SEPARATELY, “MATERIALS”) ARE BEING PROVIDED “AS IS.” NVIDIA MAKES NO WARRANTIES, EXPRESSED, IMPLIED, STATUTORY, OR OTHERWISE WITH RESPECT TO THE MATERIALS, AND EXPRESSLY DISCLAIMS ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF NONINFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE.Information furnished is believed to be accurate and reliable. However, NVIDIA Corporation assumes no responsibility for the consequences of use of such information or for any infringement of patents or other rights of third parties that may result from its use. No license is granted by implication of otherwise under any patent rights of NVIDIA Corporation. Specifications mentioned in this publication are subject to change without notice. This publication supersedes and replaces all other information previously supplied. NVIDIA Corporation products are not authorized as critical components in life support devices or systems without express written approval of NVIDIA Corporation.TrademarksNVIDIA, the NVIDIA logo, and DGX are trademarks or registered trademarks of NVIDIA Corporation in the U.S. and other countries. Other company and product names may be trademarks of the respective companies with which they are associated.Copyright© 2019 NVIDIA Corporation. All rights reserved.。

CorporateFinance10ESolutionManual课后习题解答Chap001Chapter 01 - Introduction to Corporate FinanceSolutions ManualCorporate FinanceRoss, Westerfield, and Jaffe10th editionXX/XX/2013Prepared by:Joe SmoliraBelmont UniversityCHAPTER 1INTRODUCTION TO CORPORATE FINANCEAnswers to Concept Questions1. In the corporate form of ownership, the shareholders are the owners of the firm. The shareholderselect the directors of the corporation, who in turn appoint the firm’s management. This separation of ownership from control in the corporate form of organization is what causes agency problems to exist. Management may act in its own or someone else’s best interests, rather than those of the shareholders. If such events occur, they may contradict the goal of maximizing the share price of the equity of the firm.2.Such organizations frequently pursue social or political missions, so many different goals areconceivable. One goal that is often cited is revenue minimization; i.e., provide whatever goods and services are offered at the lowest possible cost to society. A better approach might be to observe that even a not-for-profit business hasequity. Thus, one answer is that the appropriate goal is to maximize the value of the equity.3.Presumably, the current stock value reflects the risk, timing, and magnitude of all future cash flows,both short-term and long-term. If this is correct, then the statement is false.4.An argument can be made either way. At the one extreme, we could argue that in a market economy,all of these things are priced. There is thus an optimal level of, for example, ethical and/or illegal behavior, and the framework of stock valuation explicitly includes these. At the other extreme, we could argue that these are non-economic phenomena and are best handled through the political process.A classic (and highly relevant) thought question that illustrates this debate goes something like this: “A firm has estimated that the cost of improving the safety of one of its products is $30 million. However, the firm believes that improving the safety of the product will only save $20 million in product liability claims. What should the firm do?”5.The goal will be the same, but the best course of action toward that goal may be different because ofdiffering social, political, and economic institutions.6.The goal of management should be to maximize the share price for the current shareholders. Ifmanagement believes that it can improve the profitability of the firm so that the share price will exceed $35, then they should fight the offer from the outside company. If management believes that this bidder or other unidentified bidders will actually pay more than $35 per share to acquire the company, then they should still fight the offer. However, if the currentmanagement cannot increase the value of the firm beyond the bid price, and no other higher bids come in, then management is not acting in the interests of the shareholders by fighting the offer. Since current managers often lose their jobs when the corporation is acquired, poorly monitored managers have an incentive to fight corporate takeovers in situations such as this.7.We would expect agency problems to be less severe in other countries, primarily due to the relativelysmall percentage of individual ownership. Fewer individual owners should reduce the number of diverse opinions concerning corporate goals. The high percentage of institutional ownership might lead to a higher degree of agreement between owners and managers on decisions concerning risky projects. In addition, institutions may be better able to implement effective monitoring mechanisms on managers than can individual owners, based on the institutions’ deeper resources and experiences with their own management.8.The increase in institutional ownership of stock in the United States and the growing activism ofthese large shareholder groups may lead to a reduction in agency problems for U.S. corporations anda more efficient market for corporate control. However, this may not always be the case. If themanagers of the mutual fund or pension plan are not concerned with the interests of the investors, the agency problem could potentially remain the same, or even increase since there is the possibility of agency problems between the fund and its investors.9. How much is too much? Who is worth more, Larry Ellsion or Tiger Woods? The simplest answer isthat there is a market for executives just as there is for all types of labor. Executive compensation is the price that clears the market. The same is true for athletes and performers. Having said that, one aspect of executive compensation deserves comment.A primary reason executive compensation has grown so dramatically is that companies have increasingly moved to stock-based compensation.Such movement is obviously consistent with the attempt to better align stockholder and management interests. In recent years, stock prices have soared, so management has cleaned up. It is sometimes argued that much of this reward is simply due to rising stock prices in general, not managerial performance. Perhaps in the future, executive compensation will be designed to reward only differential performance, i.e., stock price increases in excess of general market increases.10. Maximizing the current share price is the same as maximizing the future share price at any futureperiod. The value of a share of stock depends on all of the future cash flows of company. Another way to look at this is that, barring large cash payments to shareholders, the expected price of the stock must be higher in the future than it is today. Who would buy a stock for $100 today when the share price in one year is expected to be $80?。

ChemistrySummer Holidays Homework for Future Freshmen of High schoolClass: __________________________Chinese Name:______________________English Name:______________________Beijing80 High School International DepartmentIntroduction to Chemistry 化学入门Definition: Chemistry is the study of the composition; structure; and properties of matter; the processes that matter undergoes; and the energy changes that accompany there processes.化学的定义：化学是研究物质的组成;结构;性质;物质发生的变化;以及变化过程中涉及的能量变化..Branches of Chemistry: Organic Chemistry；Inorganic Chemistry；Physical Chemistry; Analytical Chemistry;Biochemistry; Theoretical chemistry化学的分支：有机化学；无机化学；物理化学；分析化学；生物化学；理论化学Day 1Task Please put the Chinese name into the suitable chapter.Vocabulary about chapter name. 章节名称词汇----What may we study about chemistry in the first year 高一可能涉及哪些化学知识物质和变化；原子：构建物质的基本单元；酸和碱；氧化还原反应；气体；化学键；原子中的电子排布；称量和计算；有机化学；反应能量；元素周期律；化学方程式和化学反应；化学平衡；化学反应动力学；化学计量学；化学式和化学物质；物质的状态；生物化学；电化学；滴定与pH值；水溶液中离子和稀溶液的依数性；溶液；Chapter 1 Matter and ChangeChapter 2 Measurement and CalculationChapter 3 Atom-Building Block of MatterChapter 4 Arrangement of Electrons in AtomsChapter 5 The periodic LawChapter 6 Chemical BondingChapter 7 Chemical Formulas and Chemical Compounds Chapter 8 Chemical Equations and ReactionsChapter 9 StoichiometryChapter 10 States of MatterChapter 11 GasChapter 12 SolutionChapter 13 ions in Aqueous Solution and colligative Properties Chapter 14 Acid and BaseChapter 15 Acid-Base Titration and pHChapter 16 Reaction EnergyChapter 17 Reaction KineticsChapter 18 Chemical EquilibriumChapter 19 Oxidation-Reduction ReactionsChapter 20 ElectrochemistryChapter 22 Organic ChemistryChapter 23 Biology ChemistryDay2 Task Identify the vocabularies and master as possible as you can.Matter and its properties物质及其特点Mass 质量Definition of Matter物质的定义States of Matter物质的状态solid 固体liquid液体gas气体plasma等离子Composition of Matter 物质的构成Chemical and Physical Properties化学性质和物理性质Chemical and Physical Changes 化学变化和物理变化Conservation of Mass 质量守恒atom 原子molecular 分子ion离子cation 阳离子anion阴离子element 元素/单质compound 化合物pure substance 纯物质mixture混合物reactant 反应物group 族元素周期表的纵行family 族元素周期表的纵行period 周期元素周期表的横行metal 金属nonmetal 非金属metalloid 准金属Noble Gas 稀有气体Day3Task Identify the vocabularies and master as possible as you can. Scientific Method科学方法system 系统hypothesis 假设model 模型theory 理论weight 重量derived Unit 衍生单位Energy能量Definition of Energy能量的定义Forms of Energy能量的形式Types of Reactions反应类型Exothermic Versus Endothermic 放热对吸热Measurements and Calculations测量和计算Temperature Measurements温度测量Scientific Notation 科学记数法Method of Conversion 转换方法Precision; Accuracy; and Uncertainty精密度;准确度;不确定度Significant Figures有效数字Calculations with Significant Figures 有效数字的计算directly proportional 正比例inversely proportional 反比例Chemical Formulas 化学分子式Equation 化学方程式Writing and Balancing Simple Equations 写作和配平简单方程式Ionic Equations 书写离子方程式mass number 质量数average atomic mass 平均分子量mole摩尔Avogadro’s number 阿伏伽德罗常数molar mass 摩尔质量Day4Task Identify the vocabularies and master as possible as you can. Law of conservation of mass 质量守恒定律nuclear forces 原子核力atomic nuclei原子核proton 质子neutron 中子electron 电子charge电荷positive charge 正电荷negative charge 负电荷atomic number 原子序数isotope 同位素nuclide 核素particle 粒子Oxidation Number and Valence氧化数和化合价Reactivity反应Period Table of the Elements元素周期表Periodic Law周期律Properties Related to the Periodic Table元素周期表的性质Radii of Atoms原子半径Electro negativity电负性Electron Affinity电子亲和能Ionization Energy电离能Bonding 化学键Types of Bonds 化学键类型Ionic Bonds离子键 Covalent Bonds共价键Metallic Bonds金属键Intermolecular Forces of Attraction 分子间的吸引力Hydrogen Bonds氢键Double and Triple Bonds双键和三键Resonance Structures共振结构Day 5TaskLearn the apparatus vocabulary and match the vocabulary with the picture given. If necessary; google the vocabularies on the baidu /google image and try your best to finish it.学习仪器词汇并完成后面的图片匹配题..如果需要;可以通过百度图片或谷歌图片网站搜索相关仪器..试管 test tube 试管夹 test tube holder 烧瓶 flask 烧杯beaker 漏斗 funnel 分液漏斗separatory funnel 锥形瓶conical flask/ Erlenmeyer flask天平 balance/scale 分析天平 analytical balance 台秤 platform balance 游码 crossbeams and sliding weights量筒 graduated flask/measuring cylinder酒精灯alcohol burner 酒精喷灯blast alcohol burner塞子stopper 洗瓶plastic wash bottle 滴定管 burette 酸氏滴定管Geiser burette碱氏滴定管Mohr burette for use with pinchcock 冷凝器 condenser试剂瓶reagent bottles 蒸发皿evaporating dish 玻璃活塞stopcock搅拌装置 stirring device 磁力搅拌器magnetic stirrer电动搅拌器power basic stirrer容量瓶 volumetric flask/measuring flask 洗耳球 rubber suction bulb 玻璃棒 glass rod stirring rod 移液管 one-mark pipette刻度移液管graduated pipettes蒸馏烧瓶 distilling flask 坩埚 crucible表面皿 watch glass 称量瓶weighing bottle广口瓶wide-mouth bottle研磨钵 mortar 研磨棒 pestle 玛瑙研钵agate mortar 滴管 dropper 蒸馏装置distilling apparatus蒸发器 evaporator升降台lab jack 铁架台iron support 万能夹extension clamp蝴蝶夹double-buret clamp双顶丝clamp regular holder 沸石boiling stone 橡胶管rubber tubing药匙lab spoon镊子forceps坩埚钳crucible tong 剪刀scissorpH试纸 universal ph indicator paper 滤纸 filter paper 称量纸weighing paper秒表stopwatch量杯glass graduates with scale 玻璃棒温度计thermometer 水银温度计mercury-filled thermometer ph计ph meter真空泵vacuum pump 冷、热浴bath 离心机centrifuge口罩respirator防毒面具respirator、gasmask护目镜；防护眼镜goggles1 2Chinese：______________________ Chinese：______________________English:________________________English:________________________3 4Chinese：______________________ Chinese：______________________English:________________________English:________________________5 6Chinese：______________________ Chinese：______________________English:________________________English:________________________7 8Chinese：______________________ Chinese：______________________English:________________________English:________________________9 10Chinese：______________________ Chinese：______________________English:________________________English:________________________11 12Chinese：______________________ Chinese：______________________English:________________________English:________________________extra points1. Main function of 2 apparatus：______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________2. Main function of 5 apparatus：______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________Day 6-7Task Reading the following rules and name the compounds below.H2___________ ; O2_____________; C___________ ; N2___________ ;H2O___________/__________________ ; MgO__________________________ ;CO__________________________ ; CO2__________________________ ;HCl__________________________ ;HNO3_____________________________;H2SO4__________________________ ; H2SO3__________________________ ;HClO4__________________________ ; HClO__________________________ ;NaOH __________________________ ; FeOH2__________________________ ;CuOH2__________________________ ; Al2S3__________________________ ;CaCl2____________________________; FeBr3__________________________ ;KMnO4____________________________; NaHSO4__________________________ ;File Nomenclative rules of the common inorganic chemistry 常见无机物的命名规则一元素element命名和符号H hydrogen haidr d n He helium 'hi:lim Li lithium 'liθi m Be beryllium be'rili m B boron 'b :r n C carbon kɑ:b n N nitrogen naitr d n O oxygen ksid n F fluorine 'flu ri:n Ne neon ni: n ni: nNa sodium 's udi m Mg magnesium m g ni:zi m Al aluminum lju minim; l mini mSi silicon silik n P phosphorus 'f sf r s S sulfur 's lf Cl chlorine 'kl :ri:n Ar argon 'ɑ:g nK potassium p 't si m Ca calcium k lsi mRb rubidium ru:'bidi m Ba barium 'b ri mBr bromine 'br umi:n I iodine ai di:n其他常有元素Fe : iron 'ai n Mn : manganese m g 'ni:zCu: copper k p 拉丁语：Cuprum cop 警察;条子Zn: zinc zi kHg: mercury m :kjuri来源于古希腊人对它的称呼hydor argyros 水银Ag: silver silv 拉丁名Argentum 即来自希腊文argyros 明亮 ;元素符号Ag ;与英文名silver 毫不相干;Pt: platinum 'pl tin mAu: gold g uld金的拉丁名Aurum 来自希腊文aurora 灿烂 ;元素符号Au ;与英文名gold 也无关系..二简单离子的命名1、简单阴离子的命名 Nomenclature of monatomic anions ' na nn 'me kl t ;m n 't m k简单阴离子以“ide” 结尾..例如： H- hydride hydrogen 'haidraidN3 nitride nitrogen 'na tra dO2 oxide oxygen ' ksaidF fluoride fluorine 'flu raidP3 phosphide phosphorus 'f sfidS2 sulfide sulfur 's lfaidCl chloride chlorine 'kl :raidBr bromide bromine 'br umaidI iodide iodine 'ai daid'k ta n2、固定价位阳离子的命名 Nomenclature of monatomic cations of fixed Charges.第一主族;第二主族和铝的离子具有固定的化合价; 这些元素的离子命名在元素后加“ ion”..'ai n例如： Na+ sodium ion、H+ hydrogen ionLi+ lithium ionK+ potassium ionRb+ rubidium ionBe2+ beryllium ionMg2+ magnesium ionCa2+ calcium ionBa2+ barium ionAl3+ aluminum ion3、多价位阳离子命名 cations of variable 've r b l charges.有些阳离子有多种化合价;stock name . 元素后化合价罗马数字+ ion表示common name: 高价态的一“ic” 结尾;低价态的以：“ous”结尾..后来为了表示较大的数;罗马人用符号C表示一百..C是拉丁字“century”的头一个字母;century就是一百的意思..用符号M表示一千..M是拉丁字“mille”的头一个字母;mille就是一千的意思..取字母C的一半;成为符号L;表示五十..用字母D表示五百..若在数的上面画一横线;这个数就扩大一千倍..这样;罗马数字就有下面七个基本符号：Ⅰ1、Ⅴ5、Ⅹ10、L50、C100、D500、M1000..Iron Fe2+：ironⅡion; ferrous ion Fe3+: ironⅢ ion. Ferric ion Sn4+: TinⅣ ion Sn2+: Tin Ⅱ ionCu+; copper Ⅰ ion cuprous ion Cu2+: copperⅡ ion cupric ion 三二元化合物的命名binary compound1 简单二元化合物常见的二元化合物有卤化物;氧化物;硫化物;氮化物;磷化物;碳化物;金属氢化物等;命名时需要使用后缀-ide.如：fluoride; chloride; bromide; iodide; oxide ;sulfide ;nitride; phosphide; carbide;hydride; OH -的名称也是用后缀-ide：hydroxide;二元化合物写法正离子+负离子化合物正电荷部分的读法直呼其名;即读其元素名称..如CO: carbon monoxide Al2O3: aluminium oxideN2O4：di nitrogen tetroxide CaCl2calcium chlorideMg3PO42：magnesium phosphate 'f sfeidtetra-;mono-后缀中的a;o在后一o之前省去对于有变价的金属元素;除了可用前缀来表示以外;更多采用罗马数字来表示金属的氧化态;或用后缀-ous表示低价;-ic表示高价..如 FeO: ironII oxide 或ferrous oxideFe2O3: iron III oxide 或ferric oxideCu2O: copperI oxide 或cuprous oxideCuO: copperII oxide或cupric oxide化合物负电荷部分的读法：化合物的命名顺序都是根据化学式从左往右读;这与中文读法顺序是相反的..表示原子个数时使用前缀：mono- 一、单 monologue 独白di –二 dialogue 对话tri- 三 tricycle 三轮车tetra –四 'tetr tetrahedron 四面体penta- 五 'pent the Pentagon 五角大楼hexa- 六 heksi sex six sextuplicate 六倍的 hexane 己烷hepta- 七 heptane 庚烷octa-;八 octopus 章鱼保罗八爪鱼Tips：octo;义为“八”. 古罗马分一年为十月;三月是第一个月;October原为“八月”;后因历法修改而变成十月nona-; 九 nonanol 壬醇deca-; 十 decade 十年注：有机化学中;含有1-10个碳的化合物用甲;乙;丙;丁;戊;己;庚;辛;壬;癸表示但是在不会引起歧义时;这些前缀都尽可能被省去..CO： carbon monoxide ; CO2： Carbon dioxide;N2O4: dinitrogen tetroxide ; CCl4: carbon tetrachlorideCS2: carbon disulfide非金属氢化物不用此后缀;而是将其看成其它二元化合物；非最低价的二元化合物还要加前缀;如O22-: peroxide O2- : superoxide举例：NaF: sodium fluoride AlCl3: aluminium chlorideMg2N3: magnesium nitride Ag2S： silver sulfideCaC2: calcium carbide FeOH2： ironII hydroxide有些物质常用俗称;如 NO nitric oxide N2O nitrous oxide2 非金属氢化物除了水和氨气使用俗称water;ammonia以外;其它的非金属氢化物都用系统名称;命名规则根据化学式的写法不同而有所不同..对于卤族和氧族氢化物;Ｈ在化学式中写在前面;因此将其看成另一元素的二元化合物..举例： HF hydrogen fluoride HCl hydrogen chlorideHBr hydrogen bromide HI hydrogen iodideH2S hydrogen sulfide H2Se hydrogen selenideH2Te hydrogen telluride3 二元无氧酸的命名 acidFor binary compounds with hydrogen as the positive ion; place the term HYDRO at the front of the stem of the negative ion; the letters IC at the end of the stem; and add the word acid.以H作为阳离子;在成酸元素前加 Hydro; 成酸元素之后改“ –ic”;再加acid..HBr is hydrobromic acid 'haidr u'br umikH2S is hydrosulfuric acid s l'fju:rikHF is hydrofluoric acid flu:' rikHCN is hydrocyanic acid sai enikHCl is Hydrochloric acid对于其它族的非金属氢化物;Ｈ在化学式中写在后面;可加后缀—ane;氮族还可加-ine举例： PH3: phosphine或phosphane AsH3: arsine或arsaneSbH3: stibine或stibane BiH3: bismuthaneCH4: methane SiH4: silane B2H6: diborane四含氧酸与含氧酸根阴离子的命名化学专业英语用前后缀的不同组合显示不同价态的含氧酸和含氧酸根阴离子;价态相同的含氧酸及含氧酸根阴离子具有相同的前缀;不同的后缀..高某酸 per-ic 正酸–ic 亚酸 -ous 次酸 hypo-ous过酸 peroxy高某酸根 per-ate 正酸根–ate 亚酸根 -ite 次酸根hypo-ite其它的前缀还有 ortho-正 meta- 偏 thio-硫代举例：HClO 4 perchloric acid ClO 4-perchlorate ion HClO 3 chloric acid ClO 3- chlorate ion HClO 2 chlorous acid 亚氯酸 ClO 2- chlorite ion HClO hypochlorous acid 次氯酸 ClO - hypochlorite ion H 2SO 4 sulfuric acid H 2SO 3 sulfurous acid HNO 3 nitric acid HNO 2 nitrous acidHPO 3 metaphosphoric acid S 2O 32- thiosulfate ion H 2CO 3 carbonic acid CO 32- carbonate H 2SO 5 peoxy sulfuric acid. 过硫酸 五 碱的命名 base将金属名称后缀上“hydroxide” 即可注意变价金属;例如： NaOH sodium hydroxide 氢氧化钠 CaOH 2 calcium hydroxide 氢氧化钙 FeOH 3 ferric hydroxide 氢氧化铁 FeOH 2 ferrous hydroxide 氢氧化亚铁 六 盐的命名salt正盐：根据化学式从左往右分别读出阳离子和阴离子的名称.. 如FeSO 4 ironII sulfate KMnO 4 potassium permanganate酸式盐：同正盐的读法;酸根中的Ｈ读做hydrogen;氢原子的个数用前缀表示.. 如NaHCO 3: sodium hydrogen carbonate 或 sodium bicarbonate NaH 2PO 4: sodium dihydrogen phosphateNaHSO3sodium hydrogen sulfite 亚硫酸氢钠碱式盐 basic salt可看做是含有 OH- 的二重盐;命名时先列出正离子名称;再将所有的负离子按字母顺序排列于后..例如: MgClOH magnesium chloride hydroxide 氢氧化氯化镁；BiClO bismuth chloride oxide 氧化氯化铋CuCl2·3 CuOH2dicupper chloride trihydroxide 氯化三氢氧化二铜。

Distributed Systems: Concepts and DesignEdition 5By George Coulouris, Jean Dollimore and Tim Kindberg and Gordon BlairAddison-Wesley ©Pearson Education 2012Chapter1Exercise Solutions1.1We define a distributed system as one in which hardware or software components located atnetworked computers communicate and coordinate their actions only by passing messages. Whatare the consequences of defining a distributed system in this manner?1.1 Ans.a.Concurrencyb.No global clockc.Independent failures.1.2How might the clocks in two computers that are linked by a local network be synchronized withoutreference to an external time source? What factors limit the accuracy of the procedure you havedescribed? How could the clocks in a large number of computers connected by the Internet besynchronized? Discuss the accuracy of that procedure.1.2 Ans.Several time synchronization protocols are described in Section 10.3. One of these is Cristian’s protocol.Briefly, the round trip time t to send a message and a reply between computer A and computer B is measured by repeated tests; then computer A sends its clock setting T to computer B. B sets its clock to T+t/2. The setting can be refined by repetition. The procedure is subject to inaccuracy because of contention for the use of the local network from other computers and delays in the processing the messages in the operating systems of A and B. For a local network, the accuracy is probably within 1 ms.For a large number of computers, one computer should be nominated to act as the time server and it should carry out Cristian’s protocol with all of them. The protocol can be initiated by each in turn. Additional inaccuracies arise in the Internet because messages are delayed as they pass through switches in wider area networks. For a wide area network the accuracy is probably within 5-10 ms. These answers do not take into account the need for fault-tolerance. See Chapter 10 for further details.1.3Consider the implementation strategies for massively multiplayer online games as discussed inSection 1.2.2. In particular, what advantages do you see in adopting a single server approach forrepresenting the state of the multiplayer game? What problems can you identify and how mightthey be resolved?1.3 Ans.The advantages of having a single server maintain a representation of the game are that: (1) there is a single copy and hence no need to maintain consistency of multiple copies; and (2) clients have a single place to go to discover this state. There may also be advantages to having a global view of the entire systems state.The potential problems are that this single server may fail and may also become a bottleneck affecting the performance and scalability of the approach. To handle failure, it would be necessary to introduce replication, which in turn would require a solution to maintaining consistency across replicas. There are a number of solutions to improving performance and scalability including running the server on a cluster architecture as described in Section 1.2.2, or again using replication and load balancing within the distributed environment. Alternatively, a peer-to-peer solution can be adopted. These techniques are covered throughout the book.1.4 A user arrives at a railway station that she has never visited before, carrying a PDA that is capableof wireless networking. Suggest how the user could be provided with information about the localservices and amenities at that station, without entering the station’s name or attributes. Whattechnical challenges must be overcome?1.4 Ans.The user must be able to acquire the address of locally relevant information as automatically as possible. One method is for the local wireless network to provide the URL of web pages about the locality over a local wireless network.For this to work: (1) the user must run a program on her device that listens for these URLs, and which gives the user sufficient control that she is not swamped by unwanted URLs of the places she passes through; and(2) the means of propagating the URL (e.g. infrared or an 802.11 wireless LAN) should have a reach thatcorresponds to the physical spread of the place itself.1.5Distributed systems are going through a period of significant change, which can be traced back toa number of influential trends. Can you identify what these might be?1.5 Ans.a.The emergence of pervasive networking technology.b.The emergence of ubiquitous computing coupled with the desire to support user mobility indistributed systems.c.The increasing demand for multimedia services.d.The view of distributed systems as a utility.1.6Due to the increasing maturity of distributed systems infrastructure, organizations are movingtowards viewing distributed systems as a utility. I n this model, resources are provided byappropriate service suppliers and effectively rented rather than owned by the end user. Explain thismodel with respect to physical resources and software services. Can you give examples of somecompanies that support such software services?1.6 Ans.a.Physical resources such as storage and processing can be made available to networkedcomputers removing the need to own such resources on their own.b.Software services can also be made available across the global Internet using this approach.Example of companies supporting such software services are ,.1.7 A server program written in one language (for example C++) provides the implementation of aBLOB object that is intended to be accessed by clients that may be written in a different language(for example Java). The client and server computers may have different hardware, but all of themare attached to an internet. Describe the problems due to each of the five aspects of heterogeneitythat need to be solved to make it possible for a client object to invoke a method on the serverobject.1.7 Ans.As the computers are attached to an internet, we can assume that Internet protocols deal with differences in networks.But the computers may have different hardware - therefore we have to deal with differences of representation of data items in request and reply messages from clients to objects. A common standard will be defined for each type of data item that must be transmitted between the object and its clients.The computers may run different operating systems, therefore we need to deal with different operations to send and receive messages or to express invocations. Thus at the Java/C++ level a common operation would be used which will be translated to the particular operation according to the operating system it runs on.We have two different programming languages C++ and Java, they use different representations for data structures such as strings, arrays, records. A common standard will be defined for each type of data structure that must be transmitted between the object and its clients and a way of translating between that data structure and each of the languages.We may have different implementors, e.g. one for C++ and the other for Java. They will need to agree on the common standards mentioned above and to document them.1.8What is client-server computing? Which of these roles is an active role, and which is a passiveone? Explain remote invocation in this context.1.8 Ans.Client server computing refers to a running program (a process) on a networked computer that accepts requests from programs running on other computers to perform a service and responds appropriately.Clients are active (making requests) and servers are passive.The interaction between a client and a server, from the point when the client sends its request to when it receives the server’s response, is called remote invocation.1.9Suppose that the operations of the BLOB object are separated into two categories – publicoperations that are available to all users and protected operations that are available only to certainnamed users. State all of the problems involved in ensuring that only the named users can use aprotected operation. Supposing that access to a protected operation provides information thatshould not be revealed to all users, what further problems arise?1.9 Ans.Each request to access a protected operation must include the identity of the user making the request. The problems are:•defining the identities of the users. Using these identities in the list of users who are allowed to access the protected operations at the implementation of the BLOB object. And in the request messages.•ensuring that the identity supplied comes from the user it purports to be and not some other user pretending to be that user.•preventing other users from replaying or tampering with the request messages of legitimate users.Further problems.•the information returned as the result of a protected operation must be hidden from unauthorised users.This means that the messages containing the information must be encrypted in case they are interceptedby unauthorised users.1.10The INFO service manages a potentially very large set of resources, each of which can be accessedby users throughout the Internet by means of a key (a string name). Discuss an approach to thedesign of the names of the resources that achieves the minimum loss of performance as the numberof resources in the service increases. Suggest how the INFO service can be implemented so as toavoid performance bottlenecks when the number of users becomes very large.1.10 Ans.Algorithms that use hierarchic structures scale better than those that use linear structures. Therefore the solution should suggest a hierarchic naming scheme. e.g. that each resource has an name of the form ’A.B.C’etc. where the time taken is O(log n) where there are n resources in the system.To allow for large numbers of users, the resources are partitioned amongst several servers, e.g. names starting with A at server 1, with B at server 2 and so forth. There could be more than one level of partitioning as in DNS. To avoid performance bottlenecks the algorithm for looking up a name must be decentralised. That is, the same server must not be involved in looking up every name. (A centralised solution would use a single root server that holds a location database that maps parts of the information onto particular servers). Some replication is required to avoid such centralisation. For example: i) the location database might be replicated at multiple root servers or ii) the location database might be replicated in every server. In both cases, different clients must access different servers (e.g. local ones or randomly).1.11 A distributed system is described as scalable when it remains effective when there is a significantincrease in the number of resources and the number of users. However, these systems sometimesface performance bottlenecks. How can these be avoided?1.11 Ans.Caching and replication may be used to improve the performance of the resources that are very heavily used in a distributed system.1.12 A server process maintains a shared information object such as the BLOB object of Exercise 1.7.Give arguments for and against allowing the client requests to be executed concurrently by theserver. In the case that they are executed concurrently, give an example of possible ‘interference’that can occur between the operations of different clients. Suggest how such interference may beprevented.1.12 Ans.For concurrent executions - more throughput in the server (particularly if the server has to access a disk or another service)Against - problems of interference between concurrent operationsExample:Client A’s thread reads value of variable XClient B’s thread reads value of variable XClient A’s thread adds 1 to its value and stores the result in XClient B’s thread subtracts 1 from its value and stores the result in XResult: X := X-1; imagine that X is the balance of a bank account, and clients A and B are implementing credit and debit transactions, and you can see immediately that the result is incorrect.To overcome interference use some form of concurrency control. For example, for a Java server use synchronized operations such as credit and debit.1.13The ANSA Reference Manual [ANSA 1989] identified eight forms of transparency in a distributedsystem. Which are the two most important transparencies among these?1.13 Ans.The two most important transparencies are access and location transparency; their presence or absence most strongly affects the utilization of distributed resources. They are sometimes referred to together as network transparency.1.14One of the main standard technological components of web is the HyperText Transfer Protocol(HTTP), which defines the ways in which browsers and other types of clients interact with webservers. What are the different features of the HTTP?1.14 Ans.The main features of HTTP are:a.Request-reply interactionsb.Content typesc.One resource per requestd.Simple access control1.15What are the two main functions of an HTTP URL? Explain its general form. Identify the serverDNS name, path name, query, and fragment for the URL /search?q=sabretooth.1.15 Ans.An HTTP URL has two main jobs to do: to identify which web server maintains the resource, and to identify which of the resources at that server is required.In general, HTTP URLs are of the following form:http:// servername [:port] [/pathName] [?query][ #fragment]where items in square brackets are optional. A full HTTP URL always begins with the string ‘http://’followed by a server name, expressed as a Domain Name System (DNS) name. The server’s DNS name is optionally followed by the number of the ‘port’ on which the server listens for requests.Then comes an optional path name of the server’s resource. If this is absent then the server’s default web page is required. Finally, the URL optionally ends in a query component – for example, when a user submits the entries in a form such as a search engine’s query page – and/or a fragment identifier, which identifies a component of the resource.In the URL /search?q=sabretoothThe Server DNS name is The Path name is searchThe Query is q= sabretoothThere is no Fragment.。